The PPT is about qualitative research and a few data collection methods of it.

1. 
 Discussing the qualitative research approach can be
confusing because there is no commonly accepted
definition of the term qualitative.
 Post-Positivism, Interpretive paradigm, Critical
Paradigms
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Qualitative Research

2. 
 Role of the researcher. The positivist researcher
strives for objectivity and is separated from the data.
The interpretive researcher is an integral part of the
data; in fact, without the active participation of the
researcher, no data exist.
 Design. For a positivist, the design of a study is
determined before it begins. In interpretive research,
the design evolves during the research and can be
adjusted or changed as the research progresses.
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3. 
 Setting. The positivist researcher tries to limit
contaminating and confounding variables by conducting
investigations in controlled settings. The interpretive
researcher conducts studies in the field, in natural
surroundings, trying to capture the normal flow of events
without controlling extraneous variables.
 Measurement instruments. In positivist research,
measurement instruments exist apart from the researcher;
another party could use the instruments to collect data in
the researcher’s absence. In interpretive research, the
researcher is the instrument; no other individual can
substitute.
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4. 
 Theory building. Where the positivist researcher
uses research to test, support, or reject theory, the
interpretive researcher develops theories as part of
the research process—theory is “data driven” and
emerges as part of the research process, evolving
from the data as they are collected.
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5. 
 As defined by Creswell (2003), a mixed methods
approach is one in which the researcher collects,
analyzes, and integrates both quantitative and
qualitative data in a single study or multiple studies
in a sustained program of inquiry.
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Mixed Method Research

6. 
 Qualitative researchers must pay attention to several
different concerns that may call the credibility of
their research into question. First, there is the matter
of the completeness of the data. If qualitative
researchers do a sloppy job taking notes or otherwise
recording what was observed, there is the possibility
that incorrect interpretations may be drawn from the
data.
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Reliability and
Validity in Qualitative Data

7. 
 A second problem concerns selective perception.
Qualitative researchers cannot simply dismiss data that
do not fit a favored interpretation of the data. They must
analyze these cases and offer explanations as to why the
data don’t seem to fit. Finally, qualitative research often
raises the question of reactivity—when the act of
observing some situation changes the situation itself.
Would the same things have occurred if researchers were
not there? Reactivity is a difficult problem to overcome,
but researchers must try to minimize it whenever
possible. Taken together, these three factors suggest that
qualitative researchers, much like quantitative
researchers, must pay attention to the reliability and
validity of their data.
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8. 
 However, the concepts of reliability and validity
have different connotations for qualitative
data.Quantitative methods use distinct and precise
ways to calculate indexes of reliability and several
articulated techniques that help establish validity.
Yet these concepts do not translate well into the
interpretive paradigm. As Lindlof (2002) points out,
interpretive research recognizes the changing nature
of behavior and perception over time. Nonetheless,
though envisioned differently, reliability and
validity are no less important in qualitative research.
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9. 
 They help readers determine how much confidence
can be placed in the results of the study and whether
they can believe the researcher’s conclusions. Or, as
Lindlof (1995) says, “Basically, we want to inspire
confidence in readers (and ourselves) that we have
achieved right interpretations” (p. 238). Or, as
Hammersly (1992) expressed it, validity is achieved
when the description of the observed phenomenon
accurately depicts what was observed.
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10. 
 Rather than emphasizing reliability and validity,
Maykut and Morehouse (1994) address the
trustworthiness of a qualitative research project.
They summarize four factors that help build
credibility:
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11. 
 This factor is similar to the notion of triangulation.
The use of interviews along with field observations
and analysis of existing documents suggests that the
topic was examined from several different
perspectives, which helps build confidence in the
findings.
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Multiple methods of data collection

12. 
 This factor is essentially a permanent record of the
original data used for analysis and the researcher’s
comments and analysis methods. The audit trail
allows others to examine the thought processes
involved in the researcher’s work and allows them to
assess the accuracy of the conclusions.
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Audit trail

13. 
 In this technique, research participants are asked to
read a researcher’s notes and conclusions and tell
whether the researcher has accurately described
what they were told.
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Member checks

14. 
 This method assumes that team members keep each
other honest and on target when describing and
interpreting data. When appropriate, an outside
person is asked to observe the process and raise
questions of possible bias or misinterpretation.
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Research team

15. 
 Creswell (2007) suggests another method to aid
verification—debriefing. This consists of having an
individual outside the project question the meanings,
methods, and interpretations of the researcher.
 Barusch, Gringeri, and George (2011) provide evidence of
the relative use of the above verification techniques. They
studied 100 articles that used qualitative methods and
found that 60% used multiple methods of data collection,
31% used member checks, the same percentage used the
research team method, while 9% used an audit trail.
Debriefing was the least common at 7%.
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16. 
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17. 
 It is useful for collecting data and for generating
hypotheses and theories. Like all qualitative
techniques, it is concerned more with description
and explanation than with measurement and
quantification.
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FIELD OBSERVATION

18. 
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19. 
 Quadrant 1 in Figure represents overt observation. In this
situation, the researcher is identified when the study begins,
and those under observation are aware that they are being
studied. Furthermore, the researcher’s role is only to observe,
refraining from participation in the process under observation.
Quadrant 2 represents overt participation. In this arrangement,
those being observed also know the researcher, but unlike the
situation represented in Quadrant 1, the researcher goes
beyond the observer role and becomes a participant in the
situation. Quadrant 3 represents the situation where the
researcher’s role is limited to that of observer but those under
observation are not aware they are being studied. Quadrant 4
represents a study in which the researcher participates in the
process under investigation but is not identified as a researcher.
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20. 
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 Bielby, Harrington, and Bielby (1999) observed
meetings of soap opera fan clubs in their study of the
way fans relate to soap opera characters. Smith and
Krugman (2010) did in-home observations of how
people used their digital video recorders, and
Christie (2009) observed how people used new
communication technologies in bookstore-cafes.

21. 
 The focus group, or group interviewing, is a research strategy
for understanding people’s attitudes and behavior. Between 6
and 12 people are interviewed simultaneously, with a
moderator leading the respondents in a relatively unstructured
discussion about the topic under investigation.
 The focus group technique has four defining characteristics
(based on Krueger & Casey, 2000):
 • Focus groups involve people (participants).
 • The people possess certain characteristics and are recruited to
share a quality or characteristic of interest to the researcher. For
example, all may be beer drinkers, or Lexus owners, or females
18–34 who listen to certain types of music on the radio.
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FOCUS GROUPS

22. 
 • Focus groups usually provide qualitative data. Data from
focus groups are used to enhance understanding and to reveal a
wide range of opinions, some of which the researcher might not
expect. In most cases, they are not used to test hypotheses or to
generalize to a population. This is accomplished only when
several focus groups are conducted to achieve a satisfactory
sample size.
 • As the name implies, focus groups have a focused discussion.
Most of the questions to be asked are predetermined, the
sequence of questions is established, and the questions are
structured to further the goal of the research. However, the
moderator is free to depart from the structure if the participants
present relevant information.
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23. 
 The term ethnographic research is sometimes used as a synonym
for qualitative research (Lindlof, 1991). Ethnography, however, is
in fact a special kind of qualitative research. As first practiced by
anthropologists and sociologists, ethnography was the process in
which researchers spent long periods of time living with and
observing other cultures in a natural setting. This immersion in the
other culture helped the researcher understand another way of life
as seen from the native perspective. Recently, however, the notion
of ethnography has been adapted to other areas: political science,
education, social work, and communication. These disciplines have
been less interested in describing the way of life of an entire culture
and more concerned with analyzing smaller units: subgroups,
organizations, institutions, professions, audiences, and so on. To
reduce confusion, Berg (2004) suggests referring to the traditional
study of entire cultures as macro-ethnography and to the study of
smaller units of analysis as micro-ethnography. The latter
approach is the one most often used by mass communication
researchers.
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ETHNOGRAPHY

24. 
 In addition, Sarantakos (1998) suggests that ethnography can be
grouped into two categories: descriptive and critical.
Descriptive ethnography is the more conventional approach. In
contrast, critical ethnography makes use of the critical
paradigm. It examines such factors as power and hegemony
and attempts to uncover hidden agendas and unquestioned
assumptions. The goal of critical ethnography is often political
and might involve giving a voice to groups who are
disempowered in society. For example, a critical ethnographic
study of the role of Spanish language radio in the Hispanic
community might reveal that the Hispanic minority does not
control much of the media content that plays a role in their
culture and provide information that would allow Hispanics to
change the existing situation.
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25. 
 Regardless of its focus or approach, ethnography is
characterized by four qualities:
 • It puts the researcher in the middle of the topic under
study; the researcher goes to the data rather than the
other way around.
 • It emphasizes studying an issue or topic from the
participants’ frame of reference.
 • It involves spending a considerable amount of time in
the field.
 • It uses a variety of research techniques, including
observation, interviewing, diary keeping, analysis of
existing documents, photography, video recording, and
so on.
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26. 
 The last item seems to distinguish ethnographic
research from other forms of qualitative research;
indeed, ethnographic research relies upon an
assortment of data collection techniques. Although
other qualitative research projects can be conducted
adequately using only one method, ethnographic
research generally uses several of the four common
qualitative techniques discussed in this chapter: field
observations, intensive interviewing, focus groups,
and case studies.
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