Islamic Medicine

Islamic Medicine
History of Islamic Medicine Before the beginning of Islam there existed three forms of religious
philosophies associated with religious medical practices. The three main ones were, Greek, Chinese
and Ayurvedic healing systems. From these systems arose numerous variations on these three
systems. Commonalities developed among them, however, there exists many differences existed
between them as well. These differences arise from the different belief systems, and worldviews
associated with them. In addition there is a strong spiritual influence, often infused with superstition
and magic. This concept provides a firm basis for understanding and interpreting the specific
etiology and different diseases. The pathological processes underlying these diseases, and their
application come from the respective disciplines within a holistic worldview. Even with these
significant similarities among the three healing systems, there are many differences. According to
their respective models, "the Chinese and the Ayurvedic systems believe that everything in the
universe – including man – is created from five elements or primary matter, versus Greek medicine
only four primary elements are identified" (Brienski 24). This concept of creation is the ... Show
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Many systems in medicine rely on numerous practices that have commonalties among their
diagnoses and treatments. The systems area all similar in regards to the way they diagnosis their
diseases. However, the difference relies on the theoretical and philosophical interpretations of the
signs and symptoms. The criteria that defines Islamic medicine finds it roots in the contravene
Sharia Law. Furthermore, the clear definition for Islamic medicine comes from the differentiation
between the theoretical and philosophical principles and theory found in the Qur'an and Sunnah.
Moreover, the medical practices must not contradict the Shira
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Critical Thinking
Introduction
In our lives, there must be a time where we may face problems. Problems will occur if we do not
have the right strategy or solution. So, how are we going to solve it? Well, there are no specific
solutions that I can explain here but there are some ways that can help us to create the correct and
fast solution to solve our problems. One of the ways is to think critically.
Thinking is a good process but thinking alone will not help us to develop our minds. That is when
critical thinking may take place. Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It
includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. Using critical thinking one
makes a decision or solves the problem of judging what to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Not only that, he has used his thinking for the research of Aristotle's theory. The factor which al–
Kindi relied upon to determine which of these theories was most correct was how adequately each
one explained the experience of seeing. For example, Aristotle's theory was unable to account for
why the angle at which an individual sees an object affects his perception of it. This proves that Al–
Kindi's views and philosophies are very comprehensive and analytical in every research he had
done.
Not only a philosopher or a logician, he is also known as an Islamic psychologist.He was an expert
in experimental psychology. He was the first one to use the method of experiment in psychology, the
earliest one to realize the therapeutic value of music and attempted to cure a quadriplegic boy using
music therapy. He also stated that "sorrow is not within us, we are the one who bring it upon
ourselves". It shows that he knows the ways to cure a person's mind and help to improve the way of
thinking of others. He developed cognitive methods to combat depression and discussed the
intellectual operations of human beings.
2. Ibn Sina ( Avicenna)
Abu Ali Sina was born near Bukhara, also known as Ibn Sina and Avicenna ( in English). Ibn Sina
wrote about 450 treatises but almost half of them survived. His most famous works re The Book of
Healing, The Canon of Medicine.Ibn Sina considered as one of the foremost philosophers in the
Medieval

history of philosophy
History of philosophy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see History of Philosophy (disambiguation).
This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling.You can assist
by editing it. (April 2013)
Philosophy
Philosophers
Aestheticians
Epistemologists
Ethicists
Logicians
Metaphysicians
Social and political philosophers
Traditions
Analytic
Continental
Eastern
Islamic
Platonic
Scholastic
Periods
Ancient
Medieval
Modern
Contemporary
Literature
Aesthetics
Epistemology
Ethics
Logic
Metaphysics
Political philosophy

Branches
Aesthetics
Epistemology
Ethics
Logic
Metaphysics
Political philosophy
Social philosophy
Lists
Index
Outline
Years
Problems ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone
in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no
man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts
that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom,
temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates' awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover
his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear
precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of
prominent Athenian citizens (including Plato), which led to his trial and executionin 399 B.C. on the
charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, piety, and moral fiber of the
city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his
principles, and drink the poison hemlock.
Socrates' most important student was Plato, who founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a
number of dialogues, which applied theSocratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical
problems. Some central ideas of Plato's dialogues are the Theory of Forms, i.e., that the mind is
imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order
preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the things

In Praise Of The Clash Of Cultures Summary
Argument Analysis Essay "In Praise of the Clash of Cultures," written by Carlos Fraenkel first
originally appeared as a contribution to the New York Times's Opinionator blog on September 2,
2012. Author Carlos Fraenkel grew up in Germany and Brazil and studied in Berlin and Jerusalem.
He holds joint appointments in the Department of Philosophy and Jewish Studies at McGill
University in Montreal, Canada. In the essay, Fraenkel argues about the issues of how diversity and
disagreement on their own are not enough to bring about a culture of debate. Instead they often
generate frustration and resentment or violence. Fraenkel's central claim is that a culture of debate
allow us to engage our differences in a way that is serious, yet respectful

The Soul: The Beholder Of Soul And Knowledge
Knowledge is defined as the facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience
or education . It is the state of being aware of something. The soul, based on the Tripartite of the
Human Person by Plato, is referred to as the beholder of reason or knowledge, and the seat of
wisdom. It is the immaterial and immortal essence, which controls our body and spirit. What is the
relationship between our soul and knowledge? A philosopher named Plato stated that the Soul is the
beholder of perfection and knowledge. Soul came from the world of perfection. Perfection is
forgotten when the Soul merges with the Body. The perfection is then recalled through education. A
philosopher named Aristotle rejected this philosophy. He stated that there is no innate knowledge.
Our Soul can be compared to a Tabula Rasa or a blank slate. The Tabula Rasa acts as a room for
storing knowledge. The information gathered by our senses is processed by our brain, and is stored
in our soul How do we acquire knowledge? Locke ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This suggests that forever is not synonymous with infinite, because forever is something that is
continually and something that will exist for a very long time, while an infinite being is something
that has always existed, and will always exist. The phrase "Change is impossible!" by Parmenides is
impossible. If change is impossible, then humans and animals could have not existed. Humans and
animals are formed from two gametes that are combined together to form a zygote. As the zygote
develops, there is a change in the number of cells that it contains. If we were to remove the concept
of "change," then, zygotes would have remained as zygotes because mitosis would not take place.
Zygotes might also have not been formed because meiosis would not take

##sianism : The Tenets Of ParacelsusMysticism
Paracelsus received little attention in Germany and France during his life. Posthumously, however,
the manuscripts abandoned in small towns from his wanderings reached publishers and his ideas
were printed and disseminated to mixed reviews. While some were quick to defend Paracelsianism–
Peter Severinus, for instance–by remarking on the failures of Galenic medicine to treat new
European diseases, others–such as Erastus–were unwilling to abandon the well–established
philosophy and the humoral medicine of antiquity. Johannes Guinter van Andernach and Severinus,
although espousing Paracelsianism to different degrees, reconciled Paracelsus' principles with the
accepted Aristotelian causes by approaching Paracelsian theories as both physical and philosophical
theories. Upon consideration of the purported alchemical cures, van Andernach was willing to make
these concessions in reconciling the two worldviews, but he wholly denounced Paracelsus'
mysticism.
Robert Fludd (1574–1637), however, was less of an apologetic for Paracelsianism. Fludd subscribed
to and surpassed Paracelsianism in his acceptance of alchemical theory and his emphasis on
Hermeticism. The tenet of Hermetic thought most applicable to Paracelsianism was the
interconnectedness of the universe and its constituent parts via the microcosm and the macrocosm
analogy. Paracelsians–and to a greater extent Robert Fludd–applied this analogy to man. Man
dwelled within the universe, but man contained within him a

Aristotle Was a Greek Philosopher and Polymath
ARISTOTLE
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the
Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music,
logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato
and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western
philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western
philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their
influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In 322 BC Aristotle was forced to flee Athens with his family when the political leadership reacted
against the Macedonians again and his previously published works supporting Macedonian rule left
him a target. He passed on his Lyceum to Theophrastus and died later that year in Chalcis, near his
hometown.
It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed
many of his works. Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works
that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread
publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important
treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and
Poetics.
Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant
contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy,
embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on
aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology.
He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a
virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last
person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.
Near the end

A Book Review of "Lost History" by Michael Hamilton Morgan
UICI 2022– F1 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY & MANKIND
DR. ABDUL AZEEZ YUSUF
BOOK REVIEW:
Book Review of "Lost History" by Michael Hamilton Morgan
(30th NOVEMBER 2012)
BY
MEHRAN QADRI (A11CS2005)
AHMAD AL RAZI (A11KP2008) MUHAMMAD SAYID SABIQ (AC102001)
1. Introduction
The book that we have chosen to review is titled "Lost History, the Enduring Legacy of Muslim
Scientists, Thinkers and Artists". The author of the book is Michael Hamilton Morgan. The book
was published in the year 2007 and also holds the same copyright date. The book is a non–fiction.
The main subject matter of the book is the history of the Islamic civilization from the birth of the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These facts certainly challenge the modern western civilization which claims that the above
mentioned advancements in science as mathematics were made by Greek philosophers.
The author also delightfully reminds the reader that it was in Baghdad that Scheherazade told the
famous tales of the One Thousand and One Nights.
The author also states the qualities of Muslim leadership using examples from Caliph Abū Bakr,
Caliph `Alī and others who championed an ethos of social fairness and justice, advanced public
health and tolerance of diversity in faith, nationality, and ethnicity.
He also mentions the character and work style of Hārūn al–Rashīd and focuses on the manner in
which the Christian Crusaders treated the population in Jerusalem after conquering the city in 1099.
They spared neither men nor women nor children, in sharp contrast to the manner in which Saladin
treated the population of Jerusalem when he conquered it again in 1187.
These facts are a rebuttal to the modern western civilizations who call the system of the Islamic
Caliphate a dictatorship.
The author has also used the method of narration in his book where he provides the reader with a
timeline of events starting from the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)

The Intellectual Rise of Islam
The Intellectual Rise of Islam
The Islamic Golden age provided the Abbasid Caliphate with an immense amount of political power
and influence. The empire controlled lands from West Africa to parts of current day Iran and the
new capital, Baghdad, quickly developed to into a large and advanced city . With control over
previous Greek, Egyptian, and Persian lands, the locality of the empire set base for the academic,
philosophical and medicinal advancement that define the Islamic Golden Age. Several schools of
thought began setting up in Baghdad, such as Gundishapur which brought Greek medicine, science,
and philosophy to the Islamic culture. Schools like these helped Islamic scholars to learn from these
texts in order to build their own thoughts and treatises. The pursuit for academic advancement in
fields of philosophy, technology, and medicine defines the Golden Age of Islam at it allowed a
proliferation of scholars from different regions to study under one empire and one language. The
size and stability of the Caliphate of the time proves their political and economic power, however
the success of the society would not have amounted to its potential if it were not for the academic
advances that flourished throughout this time period. The translation of Hellenic philosophers
provided the stepping stone for Islamic philosophy. For example, Islamic Neoplatonism began
flourishing under the first systematic philosopher of Islam, Abu Nasr al–Farabi. His texts, which
mirrored

Cultural Aspects Of The European Renaissance And Humanism
Cultural aspects of the European Renaissance and Humanism
Name :Ece Yeşim Kebabcı
Student ID:25097
Section No:B3
Word Count:1130
Renaissance , a French word which means rebirth in English, is the period in European civilization
immediately appears after the Middle Ages and reaches up to the 17th century.It is regarded as the
beggining of cultural movement in Italy which was continued by radical changes in lots of branches
such as literature,art,science etc. and later spreaded to the rest of Europe. There is a common
arguement which emphasizes that the origins of the ideas characterizing the Renaissance was
particular in Dante Alighieri's and Petrachs's writings as well as in the paintings of Giotto di
Bondone. A significant part of the Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement called
Humanism.It was a human based philosophy which emphasized human potential that all people
should endeavour to be educated and learned in the classical arts, literature, and science.This
modernization made an unusual culture to be born. My Thesis Statement is based on the process of
the differentation between European and Eastern countries that happened as a result of changes in
Renaissance and Humanism.Not only in scientific or artistic but also in cultural aspects,there has
been a great development in Europe which made the situation opposite of the Medieval Period.By
Renaissance Europe has not only reached the developement level of eastern countries but also take

Compare And Contrast Islam And Christianity
The religions of Islam and Christianity have been widespread influencers throughout history. Both
religions share common teachings, as well as having contrasts. Their similarities include
worshipping only one god, revering the same early prophets such as Jesus, following a set of
commandments, believing in a day of judgement, and having a concept of heaven and hell. Their
differences include having different founders, the concept of sin, and the resurrection of Jesus. Islam
has also given many contributions to Western Civilization, such as science, math, medicine, and
philosophy. One of Islam and Christianity's similarities is worshipping only one god. Both faiths are
monotheistic However, their beliefs in the way in which god is expressed is different. In
Christianity, god is represented through the trinity. According to the BBC, "The Bible taught that
Christians were to worship Father and Son and Holy Spirit. It also taught that Christians should only
worship God. Finally, it taught that there was only one God." In Islam, there is no concept of a
trinity, and they believe in the oneness of god, "The most fundamental teaching of Islam is to
believe in the Oneness of God, in the sense of His being the only Creator, Preserver, Nourisher, etc"
(Why Islam 1). In both Christianity and Islam, they revere the same early prophets. Some of these
prophets include Abraham, Moses, and John the Baptist. Both religions consider Jesus as a prophet
as well, but Jesus' role in the

The Golden Age of Islam
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics,
glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was
an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster–painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters
during the Renaissance. Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected
art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written
Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration. This paper will examine the Islamic
literature, music and philosophers.
The most well known work of fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and
One Nights (Arabian ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al–Nafis (1213–1288), is an early
example of proto–science fiction. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous
generation, futurology, and the end of the world and doomsday. Rather than giving supernatural or
mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al–Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements
using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time.
His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in
terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.
A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared
by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as
well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write
Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English (James Thurber, pg.64). Philosophus
Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The
Aspiring Naturalist (James Thurber, pg.64). The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On
Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle
Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother
wolf. Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy,

The Importance Of Sufism In Islam
Introduction
Sufism is one of the most amazing, thought–provoking but equally controversial aspects of the
Islamic religion. It is a part of Islam; whose beliefs vary from that of traditional Muslims but is
derived from a more philosophical and social standpoint with a focus on closeness to God and
attaining the truth of divine love and knowledge. The term "Sufism" represents a school of thought
rooted in the Islamic mystical philosophy and theology, whose beliefs and principles exerted
significant influences across various aspects of Islamic politics and culture across the world. Their
practices of complete/literal absorption in other to have a physical feeling of closeness to God along
with their other beliefs leaves them with the famed title of Islamic mysticism (Miller).
Sufi Mysticism has always been criticized by Muslim scholars mainly because they share many
things in common with mystics of other religions such as Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism
among others. Although its origins are not completely from Islam nor does it agree with all of
Islam's doctrines, Sufism has still been widely accepted by the Muslim community (Smith, 2005).
The depth of the Sufis beliefs and principles begs to question the different theologies that shaped the
formation of this fascinating religion and how it went on to influence the Islamic world and its
cultural/artistic derivatives.
Descriptions of Sufism
The beliefs, principles, and rituals of the Sufi movement holds a great

Personal Statement On Personal Identity
Abstract
John Locke talks about personal identity. In additionally, he also speaks of the survival of conscious
after the demise of an individual. Locke also examines the criterion of personal identity though
time. The norm specifies insofar. Locke maintains that personal identity is a matter of psychological
continuity. Locker vividly considered personal self to be founded under consciousness, instead of
substance of the soul or the body.
Introduction
The matter of personal identity as well as its determents has become a matter of concern among
philosophers. Numerous questions have been raised as to what it does to be the person someone is
throughout the lifetime. For this reason, personal identity is a philosophical encounter with the
ultimate questions in regards to own existence. The questions include, who we are? Is there
existence after demise? Personal identity gives a set of sufficient conditions for personal identity
over time. As far as modern philosophy is concerned, the concept of personal identity is sometimes
called diachronic problem of personal character. The synchronic problems that are grounded in the
question of traits are used to characterize a certain problem over time. There are several theories that
describes identity problem. Throughout this paper, I will seek to discuss the views of John Locke
with respect to his theory of personal identity.
Essentially, Locke speaks of the existence of loosely connected questions that go hand in hand with

Western Europe
During the Early modern period, we see Western Europe emerge as the dominant power in the
geopolitical sphere while eastern cultures, such as China and the Islamic Middle East began to fall
far behind in cultural progression. For some, this separation suggests the beginning of a "Great
Divergence" in civilizational development. The scientific revolution presents an example of the
establishment of Western European hegemony in the global system, Europe had the necessary
economic and political conditions to allow for science to become institutionalized within European
society. Asymmetrically, Islamic science failed to become an institution within society due to
economic power shifting away from the East and the increasing influence of the church within
society. However while it is fair to view the Scientific Revolution as an extension of the overall rise
in European ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, past the 14th century, Islamic science development declines rapidly. The rapid decline of
scientific development is occurring at the same time as an economic decline in the Islamic
caliphates suggesting the decline in science in the middle east is part of a larger, overall decline in
Islamic power during the early modern period. Simply put, "The Middle East fell behind the West
because it was late in adopting key institutions of the modern economy" this concept echoed within
the realm of science in the Islamic east. One of the main factors that contributed to the scientific
revolution in Europe was the ability of the European society to institutionalize science, which the
Islamic world failed to do. In the medieval period, both Islamic and Christian scholars adopted the
ideas of "natural philosophy"– the science of Aristotle. The theology of the Christian church proved
to be highly compatible with the Aristotelian schema and therefore was more widely adopted,
eventually developing into the ideas of the scientific revolution in the

The Islamic Civilization And Islam
One cannot have an adequate and well–versed discussion about Islamic civilization without first
defining two key terms: Civilization and Islam. Associate Professor at Washington University in St.
Louis, Ahmet Karamustafa, defines civilizations as, "nothing more than a particular, even unique
combination of ideas and practice that groups of human actors – who are the real agents of human
history – affirm as their own and use to define and develop their own sense of presence and agency
in the world" (Karamustafa 103). Thus, guided by this definition, we have an understanding of
Islamic Civilization as a religious movement guided by the mandates of God. Of course, anywhere
where there is human organization and interaction, there will be politics involved. Although there
were some political aspects in the community of the Believers under the leadership of the prophet,
at the core of this movement was the belief in his prophetic authority. I will argue that Islam, despite
all the political implications it has had throughout history, is ultimately rooted in religious belief,
submission to God, and living a pious life in accordance with God's commands for achieving eternal
salvation. Furthermore, In the course of this paper, I will give a brief introduction of Islamic
civilization broken up into four parts that are integral to understanding Islamic civilization: Politics
and religion in the early community of the believers, governance after the death of the prophet,

Augustine Research Paper
Many great classical thinkers had a profound influence on later great thinkers. Plato and Aristotle
are just two examples that come to mind out of many. It would be interesting to ponder the
possibility as to whether or not the thought of later times would have the same ground that it has if it
were not for these great thinkers that came before.
In the early period of Christianity, the influence of Plato's philosophical criticisms of art can be seen
in effect in Augustine's view of the imagination as profane. One can question as to whether
Augustine's view of original sin would have been so negative if he had not imbibed the Platonic
conception of the Fall of the soul. The combination of Biblical and Hellenic elements made
Christian philosophy, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alfarabi is probably the least important of these, he is primarily significant because he was a
pioneer in the invocation of Aristotle as a philosophical authority (essentially paving the way for the
Golden Age of Muslim Aristotelianism). He is said to have believed in the unity of the thought of
Plato and Aristotle. Also, his work shows a confluence of their theories. An example of this is his
claim that God is simultaneously identical with the 'neo–Platonic One' and with Aristotle's 'Self–
Thinking Thought'. When we look at Avicenna however, we find the development of a Muslim
philosophy more independent of theological constraints as well as an Aristotelianism less apologetic
to supposed Platonic doctrine (philosopheruk). With this being said, Avicenna rejects the conception
of a divine creation of the world in time and follows Aristotle in considering the primary aim of
philosophy to be the study of being qua being. Algazali demonstrated a critical backlash against the
Aristotelianism of Avicenna, within the Islamic tradition. In his work 'The Incoherence of the
Philosophers', he attacks the inconsistency of the philosophical positions of Alfarabi and Avicenna
with orthodox Koranic interpretation (philosopheruk). This work is significant philosophically
because it does not rule out the possibility of philosophy de jure, but rather points to the misuse of
philosophy by both of his predecessors. In other words, he was concerned with the philosophical
ideas of the eternity of the world and the rejection of bodily resurrection, ideas which he regarded
not simply as theologically 'heterodox' but as the result of a misapplication of Aristotelian logical

The Islamic Of The Middle East And How It Affects The...
Majid Khadduri is an Iraqi born author who was known for his prolific work in regards to the
history of the Middle East and how it affects the current geopolitical climate. Born on September
27th, 1909 in Mosul, Khadduri received his education at the American University of Beirut for his
BA and PhD; for 12 years, from 1937 to 1949, he served as a law professor for the Iraqi ministry of
education and as a member of the first Iraqi delegation to the UN. The Islamic Conception of Justice
takes a very comprehensive approach to the question of justice found in Islam and reflected in the
Islamic community, and is among the last of Khadduri's published works (Killgore, 1996). Khadduri
has written books and works in regards to individual states, its history, relation to other states, as
well as taking broader, more holistic approach when he writes about general concepts and ideas and
how they are understood by different groups of people in space in time. Khadduri served as a
lecturer in the University of Indiana and then Chicago before finally settling at Johns Hopkins
University. During his tenure Khadduri served as a visiting professor for at Columbia University,
Harvard University, the University of Virginia and Georgetown University. He died on January 25,
2007, in Potomac, Maryland, United States at the age of 97 (Klubes, 2007). The Islamic Conception
of Justice (Khadduri, 1984) is a book that goes into great length not only about the details of the
different terms

C&C of Cultural and Intellectual Tradition of The M.E....
Arisen from the influences of Christian and Jewish traditions, the nomadic peoples of the Arabian
Peninsula joined forces to form the Dar–ar–Islam. Used to unite the Middle Eastern Empire, Islam –
founded by the prophet Muhammad in 610 CE – created a stable civilization based on Islamic views
and teachings for its individuals. In the Middle East during the time of 600 CE to 1450 CE, the
religion of Islam stayed unchanged, while the influences of different cultures altered the traditions
of the society as well as the women's rights and status in the civilization.
As the Middle East developed over the years, the prominence and teachings of Islam sustained.
Numerous aspects in the Middle Eastern Empire altered, but a key element in the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
India offered knowledge mathematically in the branches of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry and
even on teachings relating to medicine and antidotes. Whereas Greece influenced the Middle East
with their alphabet and philosophy, mostly focusing on the works of the two famous Greek
philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Philosophy taken in from Greece even challenged Islamic
teachings as certain Islamic philosophers attempted to combine Greek philosophical works with the
teachings of the Qur'an, just resulting in many upset Muslims.
As centuries passed in the Middle East, certain cultural and intellectual traditions in the Middle East
changed through the influences of other civilizations yet managed to stay the same in the aspect of
Islam in the society. And as shown by the status of women in the Middle East, while certain beliefs
and traditions may stay unchanged, the way cultures have influenced them can affect how the
previously mentioned beliefs and traditions are taken into

Iqbal Song Analysis
Iqbal loved India so greatly and was so proud of his mother land that in a poem written as a national
song for Indian children; he sings: čišti: ne Ĵis zamĩ me pӕɣa:m–e–haq suna:ya: na:nk ne ɣis čaman
me wahdat ka ɣi:t ɣa:ya: ta:ta:riõ ne Ĵisko apna: watan bana:ya:
Ĵisne HeĴa:ziyõ se dašt–e–arab čuṛha:ya:
The land in which Chisti broadcast the divine message,
The land in which Nanak sung the song of monotheism,
The land which was made their own by the Tartars,
The land which made the Hajazis leaves the Arabian Desert.
This poem bears testimony to the act that Iqbal cherished feelings of love and reverence for his
motherland.
The creed element predominated Iqbal's poetry. His sojourn in Europe and his deeper insight into
the religion and philosophy of Islam convinced him of the universal spirit of Islam. His deep study
of Muslim thought and culture gave his poetry a Muslim flavor. He looked forward to Islamic
fraternity being more far–reaching, in the long run, serving as a workable basis of human unity.
Almost all his poetic thoughts and themes were colored by Islamic creed.
His poetry of this period is replete with symbols drawn from the Semitic lands. There are
innumerable references in his poetry to Islamic history or religion. The word Muslim occurs quite
frequently in his writings. For example the following sample: ya: rab! dil–e–muslim ko woh zinda:
tamanna: de,
Ĵo qalb ko ɣarma de, Ĵo ru:h ko taṛpa: de.
(Lord, fill the heart of the Muslim with such eager desire,

greek Essay
When people think of ancient cultures and civilizations, they don't think about the kind of influences
they might have had on our society. One of those cultures having the most influence being Ancient
Greece. The Ancient world of Greece is far from ancient in the arts, philosophies, ideas,
architectures, governments, religions, and everyday life of the people in the latter half of the
twentieth century. Come, discover and explore the civilization that forms the foundation of human
history. Come, step into the ancient past.
Those who have studied this ancient civilization under stand that what we are today is largely a
result of the blueprints left by this culture. Greek civilization was rich in culture and a society which
emphasized the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The fact that Greeks believed music and dance could strongly affect human behavior meant that it
played an important part in all aspects of their everyday life. Giving them a wider range of ways to
express their inner most beings.
Another great way to express themselves was in their writing. In poetry and history Greek writers
created masterpieces that have influenced and inspired readers to the present day. Like the
developments in the physical arts, the development of the lyric poem was a sign of the times. It
developed around the time that many Greek writers wanted to start expressing their own feelings,
emotions, and opinions. Just as the sculptors and painters sought to understand their own bodies, the
ancient writers wanted to reveal to us the workings of their heart. Other forms of literature were the
first written records of human history. The development of their alphabet gave us a way to look back
into history, find out the mistakes of ancient cultures, and find ways not to make them again.
The other love this culture had was the love of wisdom. While the artist where exploring their
bodies and the writers their hearts, the philosophers started to explore their minds and the universe.
The notion of where people came from and how the universe was created plagued their minds every
minute of their life. The early Greek philosophers studied everything from mathematics to the nature
of the

Speech And Speech: The Golden Age Of Islam
Purpose
At the end of my speech, the audience will have a clear view of the most important achievements of
the "Islamic golden age".
Introduction
At the beginning of the 8th to the 13th century, a new era has emerged and placed a stamp in the
Islamic history that is called "the golden age of Islam", throughout which the Islamic history was
ruled by various important caliphates where many scientific, economical, and cultural developments
took place. The Abbasid caliph Harun Al–Rashid was the ruler during that time (786 to 809) with
the existence of House of wisdom in Baghdad, all the researchers from around the world with
different backgrounds and knowledge gathered to translate the traditional information into Arabic
language.
The main ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Muslim engineers also created crankshafts and water turbines which worked for the better
techniques of extracting natural resources like water and fossil fuels, they also established the use of
dams as sources of water power. These advances replaced the manual tasks that were previously
made by labor with machinery in Islamic world. An uprising industrial growth also emerged to
Europe after these technologies were transferred to

Islam's Influence On Medieval Medicine
In order to understand the impact of Islam on medieval medicine, one must first examine the
religious and cultural environment in which medical advancements developed. Several key features
of Islamic philosophy provided science with an environment in which to develop. The first
influential aspect of Islam is the emphasis of learning. The Prophet Muhammad emphasized
learning to such a degree that he stated "One hour of teaching is better than a night of praying" (qtd.
in Al–Ghazal). Interpretations of the Qur'an also associate the gaining of knowledge with
comprehension of religion (Rosenthal 29). "Islamic philosophy was ... concerned with the basic
issue of the harmony between human reasoning and the revelations provided to the Muslims in the
holy Qur'an" (Al–Ghazal). This emphasis coupled with a lack of scientific censorship by Islam,
provided an impetus for the study of many branches of science, including medicine (Al–Ghazal).
Another aspect of Islam that contributed to medical development was the stress placed on protecting
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
to 1500 A.D.), the pre–existing medical traditions must be examined. The origins of Islamic
medicine lay in Greek texts that were translated into Arabic, which occurred to a significant extent
in the late eighth and early ninth centuries (Pormann and Savage–Smith 24–25). During this time,
many works were translated, including those of established Greek medical authority, Galen. His
texts were utilized as part of the official teachings at the school of Alexandria, which was the
determining factor for the eventual translation of many Greek works. (Pormann and Savage–Smith
27–28; O'Leary 34). While the vocabulary of Arabia prior to the introduction of Islam lacked
significant medical terminology, the translation movement improved Arabic to the level of the
Greeks by the middle of the ninth century (Pormann and Savage–Smith

Al Andalus: The Jews In Islamic Spain
The Jews in Islamic Spain: Al Andalus
by S. Alfassa Marks
One of the characteristic features of the early history of Spain is the successive waves of different
people who spread across the Iberian Peninsula. Phoenicians, Greeks, Vandals, Visigoths, Muslims,
Jews, and Christians all occupied Spain at one point or another. History records communities of
Jews living on the Iberian Peninsula from as early as the destruction of the first temple in Jerusalem
(Diaz–Mas 1). But it was during the realm of the Moors in Al–Andalus (land of the vandals) which
the Jews thrived the greatest. Though this was a time of artistic, educational, and cultural
enlightenment, it was not completely serene or without persecution for the Jewish people.
As historians ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A translating program was established in Toledo, using Jews as interpreters. There they translated
the Arabic books into romance languages, as well as Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. This
included many major works of Greek science and philosophy. Jews studied and contributed to
mathematics, medicine, botany, geography, poetry, and philosophy. It was at this time that the study
of Medicine expanded to produce a large number of exceptional Jewish physicians. Islam had its
sway over Jewish cultural life too. In literature, and the arts, the Muslim influence on the Jews is
enormous. Though written in non–Islamic language and script, medieval Hebrew poetry, and much
of the prose literature, belong to the same cultural world as Arabic and other literatures of Islam
(Lewis 81). In the Caliphate of Cordoba [the geographical zenith of Islamic life in Al–Andalus], the
Jewish element became increasingly important, reaching its peak in the tenth century (Diaz–Mas 3).
Jews lived among themselves in a walled area known as the aljama (Jewish quarter). There they
lived among their own administration, and managed their own communal affairs (Epstein 1). There
the Jewish community had their own legal court known as the Beit Din. This court, with Rabbis as
Judges, would render both religious and civil legal opinions pertaining to

Essay John Locke
In this essay I argue that the late philosopher Locke has the most compelling theory of metaphysics.
First, I explain Locke's point that all humans are born as Tabula Rasa, in order to gain basic
understanding of where Locke begins his theory. Second, I discuss how Locke argues how we
obtain knowledge, empiricism and representationalism, and knowledge about the work varies
between strong and weak inferences. Third, I will provide counter examples to Locke's ideas, and
will explain why these counter examples work for Locke's theories provided. Finally, I address some
of the ways that Locke might respond to my objections. The following paragraph will be used to
define and understand the concepts of the following key terms that Locke uses: ... Show more
Locke furthers his own theory of this by stating that humans are not born with innate ideas
(Matheis). With what Locke states, we as humans can reason that we are born without any
knowledge and everything that we learn is put onto our blank slate. The Tabula Rasa is important
because it also gives us a basic understanding to Locke's later arguments and theories. Locke argues
that if we all had an innate idea we wouldn't need to use reason to discover them because they
would already be present in the human mind. Although, Locke's idea about blank slates is a very
logical idea, there are a few flaws within. Innate knowledge, which was produced as an idea from
Plato states that we already learned everything prior to being born, we are just simply experiencing
and recollecting knowledge from our soul that we had before our physical birth. Plato was not the
only philosopher that supported the idea of innate knowledge. Descartes also believed in innate
knowledge over the Tabula Rasa, he believed in the innate ideas of God. Kant also believed that we
had a sense of time, space, causality and comparison from innate knowledge (Al–Rodhan). Locke
then goes further into his theory by stating that all knowledge begins with sensory experiences.
Locke states that everything that is learned from our experience with objects. Since we are born as a
Tabula Rasa we know nothing, so knowledge is the most valuable key. Locke

Sufism Research Paper
In the Islamic world, Sufism is a word used to describe an aspect of the Islamic faith which is
largely focused on mysticism. Many non–Muslims consider Sufism to be a sort of Islamic sect,
however this is extremely inaccurate. Sufism is a very blanket term, and refers to a style of thinking
and philosophy that aims to find divine love and wisdom through direct personal experience with
God. Sufism is as old as the Islamic religion itself, dating back to the 7th century. Ultimately, all
Sufi orders trace their origins back to the prophet Muhammad himself. It is believed by many that
the prophet instructed his successor to in mystical teachings that are believed to be hidden within the
Qur'an. However, it is not known who exactly Muhammad's successor ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In establishing the order, Inayat Khan set forward ten principals that would serve as the foundation
of the brotherhood. A condensed version of the ten principals are as follows, "There is one God,
There is one Master, There is one Holy book, There is one Religion, There is one Law, There is one
Brotherhood, There is one Moral, There is one object of praise, there is One Truth, and There is one
Path." Since the death of Inayat Khan in 1927, Universal Sufism has obviously taken on new
leadership, and has developed its own modern objectives. Firstly, the International Sufi Movement
seeks to promote tolerance and love between all religions. The main mission of Universal Sufism is
to bring together the eastern and western worlds through dialogue and the exchange of thoughts and
Ideas. This Order of Sufi thought urges one to understand Sufism as an open door. If one looks to
the Greek and Arabic languages, one will find that the word Sufi means "Wisdom" and "Purity"
respectfully. It is through purity that one will experience wisdom. That means letting go of
preconceived ideas, and forgetting about doctrines and dogma. Sufism is not a religious sect or
school of theology. It is an attitude of reverence and respect towards all religions and beliefs that
promotes love and

A Book Review of "Lost History" by Michael Hamilton Morgan
UICI 2022– F1 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY & MANKIND DR. ABDUL AZEEZ YUSUF
BOOK REVIEW: Book Review of "Lost History" by Michael Hamilton Morgan (30th
NOVEMBER 2012) BY MEHRAN QADRI (A11CS2005) AHMAD AL RAZI (A11KP2008)
MUHAMMAD SAYID SABIQ (AC102001) 1. Introduction The book that we have chosen to
review is titled "Lost History, the Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers and Artists". The
author of the book is Michael Hamilton Morgan. The book was published in the year 2007 and also
holds the same copyright date. The book is a non–fiction. The main subject matter of the book is the
history of the Islamic civilization from the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in
570 A.D. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
5. Evaluation of the Book The author in his introduction sets out the goals of sharing the fascinating
Muslim history he has uncovered in his reading and research, a history full of invention, creativity,
great ideas, tolerance, and coexistence. This culture seeded the European Renaissance and enabled
many aspects of the modern western and global civilization. The impetus for the book came after the
September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center, as the author felt the need at the beginning
of the 21st Century to share this forgotten, ignored, misunderstand, suppressed, and even rewritten
history with the wider community. The result was the book Lost History, and what a great job the
author has done. It is one of the most informative, researched, and relevant books. The author states
that the rise of Europe and the decline of the Muslim lands are two sides of the same coin. The
author notes that, in the 21st century, for every crisis spot in the Muslim world there is a new and
promising centre of innovation in the Muslim community, particularly in Europe and America. The
book is well written and also provides maps and images that aid in understanding the message being
delivered. They help the reader in creating a mental image of the social conducts, the way of living
etc. The author also provides pictures of some early inventions of the Muslim scientists which
further aid the reader's understanding. The author

The Restoration Of Grecian Philosophical Documents
The Preservation of Grecian Philosophical Documents Was an Important Islamic Contribution to
Western Civilization
Islamic preservation and translation of the Greek philosophical works of Aristotle, and Plato
contributed to the flourishing of Western civilization. Under the direction of Islamic cultural
patrons, they translated these vital texts from Greek into other languages. Such actions were
significantly contributive to the revival and transmission of these pieces, bringing about their
subsequent spread throughout Europe. Centuries of Islamic scholarship like this were crucial to the
eventual emergence of the European Renaissance Period.
The anterior exposure of the Arab world to Greek philosophy follows paths reaching back to the
sixth century C.E. A common occurrence among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, were their
interactions with Greek philosophy, and their attempts to reconcile their religious dogmas with the
Greek philosophical known truths of reason; trying to marry faith with reason. Commonalities
between their interactions produced a naturally occurring process of sharing respective religious and
philosophical problems, and it is in the latter that Islamic philosophers deserve much credit from
Judaism and Christianity, for the Abbasid caliphate's deference to translation and preservation of key
Aristotelian (and other) works long lost to the West. The irony of this sharing between religions
remains that each was using the similar material to try and prove

Human Individuality In Porphyria's Lover
With a drastic contrast of conservative and liberal ideals, it seems almost natural for those in
positions of privilege and power to grasp onto and enforce whatever remains of their societal roles.
These rigid societal roles gave British society two options: be forced into a box that fits the ideal
sense of human identity or to break the system entirely. Victorian literature often focused on this
conflict of ideals, concentrating on how these pressures shaped an individual and their fate. Emily
Bronte and Robert Browning weave their pieces to grasp this idea of the individual. However, the
effect of the society on the individual varied between the authors, with Bronte's speaker dreaming of
an escape to come while Browning's character fell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Her loneliness is not one of melancholy, but one of self–discovery, that may only exist when her
soul leaves its clay mold. A body of clay houses the soul, with a breath of life from God giving a gift
to nothing to turn it into something as complicated as a human being. By escaping the clay, which
binds her to the earth and all the societal expectations that are put on her body, the speaker exists as
a breath from a higher being, making her as godly as the spirit which put her in the body.
Outside of her body, the speaker exists as an all–seeing eye, exploring "worlds of light" that exist
outside of the world she inhabits in her physical form. To escape her physical form, the speaker
isolates herself. By being completely alone, there is no society around to judge her soul. This gives
her the ability to wander in the light of the moon, allowing her to find the "infinite immensity." (8)
Using imagery like the moon, which, in classical mythology, is a representation of femininity, the
speaker is left in an environment without judgement in which she can find herself empowered as she
explores this immensity. In a plane of existence where everything is female, the importance of sex
disappears, and the speaker can exist in a world where she is "not and none beside." (5) Bronte gives
the speaker the opportunity to explore herself without gendered expectations around her. Without
these expectations put upon her, the

Death Is Not Death?
Throughout our lives we have instinctually feared what is considered the most horrible, yet
inevitable fate of all mankind; death. We spend our entire lives fearing death as well as theorizing
and developing ways to live longer and put off our own eventual demise. Death is universally
feared, even from a young age we are aware of the fact that death is the ultimately the worst thing
that could possibly happen to any mortal being. Death is defined as the "permanent ending of vital
processes in a cell or tissue". When thought of in these terms death does not seem like anything to
be so greatly feared, it simply sounds like a scientific fact of life, so why is it that the fear of death is
so prevalent? It appears that death is feared because we fear punishment from God for our previous
actions, as well as because of the fact that we are concerned about not accomplishing our goals
before we perish and of course because we have such a strong fear for the unknown. Epicurus
however did not have any fear of death, he believed that death was simply nothing to us and that
fearing being dead was senseless because we would not be present to actually experience it.
According to Epicurus we should not fear death because our soul dies along with our bodies,
because it is irrational to fear nonexistence as we have experienced it before and lastly because
fearing death can only take away from us enjoying the short time we have on earth.
Epicurus himself was a firm believer in the

Quantum Mechanics and Islam Essay
Introduction
Quantum mechanics or also known as quantum physics is a field of science which studies the
behaviour of particles at sub–atomic level. This theory tells us that short–lived pairs of particles and
their antiparticles are constantly being created and destroyed in an apparently empty space.
In quantum mechanics the weird behaviour of electrons are not accurately explained and until now
not a single theory is acceptable by the whole scientific community to postulate the phenomena. The
electrons become linked, or entangled, such that changing one invariably affects the other, no matter
how far apart they are; something Einstein called "spooky action at a distance". Quantum stuff can
also exist in several places at once, or spin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The inadequacy and weaknesses of modern science is thus manifested as a result of its ignorance on
other sources of scientific knowledge such as metaphysical and spiritual knowledge which is proven
successful by previous Muslim scientists during the period of medieval Islam.
In Islamic science, cosmology plays an important role as a link between pure metaphysics and the
particular sciences and acts as a source of conceptual framework for the unity of science and
spiritual knowledge. There are a number of cosmological principles in Islamic science which are
formulated based on the relevant Qur'anic verses, prophetic traditions and intuitive knowledge of
famous traditional Muslim scholars. In this study, the principles and ideas of quantum mechanics are
presented in a simplified manner for easy understanding of the subject matter, followed by the
application of the principles in Islamic science wherein the relevant issues are discussed
accordingly.
A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics
Quantum theory began to take shape in the early 20th century, when classical ideas failed to explain
some observations. Previous theories allowed atoms to vibrate at any frequency, leading to incorrect
predictions that they could radiate infinite amounts of energy; a problem known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe. Max Planck in 1900 solved this problem by assuming the vibrations of atoms at
specific or

Use Of Narrative Technique In Iqbal's Poems?
Use of Narrative Technique in Iqbal's Poems
One of the important points in Iqbal's poem is that he creates a dramatic environment in the poems.
Dramatically environment means not a kind of debate, but selection of those words that creates a
situation of life. These situations are not only an imagination or only using of words, but
combination of imagination and words. Combinations of both imagination and word in a structure
reach at the level where the poem gets converted into the drama.
For example: ye ka:ena:t abhi: na:–tama:m hӕ ša:yəd ke a: rahi: hӕ dama:dam sada:ẽ kun fayakun"
(The life perhaps is still raw and incomplete
Be and it becomes ever does a voice repeat.)
If we focus on Iqbal poetry, then we would be able to understand that ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This poem bears testimony to the act that Iqbal cherished feelings of love and reverence for his
motherland.
The creed element predominated Iqbal's poetry. His sojourn in Europe and his deeper insight into
the religion and philosophy of Islam convinced him of the universal spirit of Islam. His deep study
of Muslim thought and culture gave his poetry a Muslim flavor. He looked forward to Islamic
fraternity being more far–reaching, in the long run, serving as a workable basis of human unity.
Almost all his poetic thoughts and themes were colored by Islamic creed.
His poetry of this period is replete with symbols drawn from the Semitic lands. There are
innumerable references in his poetry to Islamic history or religion. The word Muslim occurs quite
frequently in his writings. For example the following sample: ya: rab! dil–e–muslim ko woh zinda:
tamanna: de, jo qalb ko garma de, jo rooh ko taṛpa: de.
(Lord, fill the Muslim's heart with a desire so fervent, that it will set his heart aflame and stir his

The Science And Achievements Of The Islamic Golden Age
The Abbasid Empire began in 750 AD, ruling over Baghdad until the Mongols conquered and took
over in 1258. Although the period was brief, the influence of the Arabs was not only through
religion, but in math, the arts, and science. Many scientific and mathematical discoveries, as well as
architectural designs made in the 9th to 14th century stimulated research that might not be known
today. By creating armies to conquer neighboring lands, Islam spread their knowledge to other
countries, but also gained knowledge from those neighboring lands. The Islamic Empires had a
strong and welcoming attitude towards knowledge, and made some incredible achievements in the
arts and sciences.
The Islamic Golden Age was a time in which many inteculatal accomplishments and advancements
were made, and the Islamic Empire was at its most successful state.
The Islamic Golden Age started in the 13 century with the Abbasid family in control. During this
time, rulers and other people of high positions had merchants go out and search for writings from
other lands to bring back and add to Islam's knowledge of the world. As more and more text from all
different parts of the world began to come back to Islam, they were translated into Arabic, and were
kept at a "place for studying and keeping safe foreign texts", called the House of Wisdom. There,
scholars could read up on topics of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, the arts and more.
Scholars studied and observed the new found

Distrust Of Religion In The Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, the relationship between science and religion was central to the ability of
intellectuals to pursue the natural sciences. Without approval from their religious leaders, the great
thinkers of the Middle Ages were unable to make any large strides in natural philosophy. However,
this does not mean that the pervasiveness of religion prevented science from thriving. Rather, the
nature of the relationship between science and religion was wholly dependent on the religion in
question. In some cases, such as in Christianity, science was given a comparably more sympathetic
environment in which to grow and develop. Due to the necessity of a class of men who were both
theologians and natural philosophers in Christian societies, ... Show more content on
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During this period, science was mostly founded on the principles of ancient Greek philosophy. In
orthodox Jewish and Muslim societies, these beliefs were unable to gain any religious backing,
instead harboring only suspicion. In many cases, these feelings of distrust resulted from a lack of
necessity to converse with new converts. While the spread of Christianity was heavily reliant on
missionary work, other religions such as Islam were simply instated through military force and did
not have to seek acceptance from new converts. Furthermore, for Islam, a lack of Arabic translations
of ancient Greek works of science and philosophy was also responsible for the religion's distrust of
science in the Middle Ages. During the early growth of Islam, in which the orthodox doctrine was
created, Muslim leaders were unable to read the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers. Once
translations were finally created, orthodox Muslims saw no need to incorporate the ideals of ancient
Greece into their religion, and these beliefs were shunned. Finally, this research will attempt to
provide an explanation as to why Christianity benefitted more from the use of Greek natural
philosophy than the other large religions. The motivations for the Christian acceptance of Greek
ideals will be shown to stem from fundamental religious differences between Christianity and other
religions, such as the concept of the Holy Trinity. It will also be illustrated that the demographics of
Christians in the Middle Ages allowed science to develop more easily. Converts to Christianity were
often individuals who had been previously exposed to pagan learning, which included Greek
philosophy and natural philosophy, and Christianity did not seek to remove this knowledge after

Al Farabi Contribution
Al Farabi's philosophical contribution
Abu Nasr Muhammad al– Farabi, one the earliest Islamic intellectuals who were instrumental in
transmitting the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle to the Muslim world, had a considerable influence
on the later Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna. He is widely regarded as the founder of
philosophy within the Islamic world. Al–Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for
several centuries, and was widely considered second only to Aristotle in knowledge (alluded to by
his title of "the Second Teacher") in his time. Al–Farabi was known to the Arabs as the 'Second
Master'. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician and music scholar.
The aim of this paper is to present the attitudes to education of Abu Nasr al–Farabi within the
framework of his philosophical system, an aspect of his work, and ... Show more content on
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It is difficult to find a philosopher both in Muslim and Christian world from Middle Ages onwards
who has not been influenced by his views. Ammar al–Talbi (2000) suggests that "Al–Farabi
represents a turning–point in the history of Islamic philosophical thought, since he was the true first
founder of epistemology which relies upon 'universal reason' and the demonstrations he gave".
Education is one of the most important social phenomena in al–Farabi's philosophical system. Al–
Farabi's concern was to reestablish unity to Islamic thought. He believed the first aim of knowledge
was knowledge of God and his attributes (F. Copleston, 1980). Philosophy and religion were for him
simply two expressions of a single truth, philosophy explains religion and provides proof of it; it is
neither in conflict nor in contradiction with it. According to al Farabi the perfect human being, is the
one who has obtained theoretical virtue, thus completing his intellectual knowledge and has
acquired practical moral virtues thus becoming perfect in his moral

Why Do We Use Quadratic Equations?
It might seem as if these contributions have no real world applications, however, that would be very
incorrect. Completing the square is very useful for quadratic equations, which we have mentioned
before. The question lies, where do we use quadratic equations? When projectiles are put into
motion they create a parabolic path, to calculate the speed and height at which they travel
completing the square would come in handy. Another example would be traveling by boat, or foot,
or any other method. You would go one way, then probably return to your original location. This
would also be similar to a parabolic path which can be solved by completing the square. Pictured
below is what a parabolic track would look like. Figure 5. Parabolic Graph Without the foundation
that al–Khwarizmi laid out for all mathematicians to come, there would not be the mathematical
field we know today. In every aspect of calculus, geometry and other forms of mathematics, the
methods of reduction, completion and balancing come into play. The combinations that those three
methods have created can be attributed to the many discoveries we have today. Just some examples
are the creation of the World Wide Web, in other words, the internet. Without the algebraic
foundation the strings of Booleans, cannot be translated to create the internet as we know it. Without
the very intricate mathematics we know today, man would have never made it into space. This one,
seemingly insignificant

Averroes Influence On Homer's Works
It has been approximately 2,400 years since the death of Aristotle. In that time civilizations have
been made and destroyed, technology has evolved, dark ages have come and gone and moments in
history have been made and recorded. How, then, is it possible for us to know anything about
Aristotle, Plato or even have Homer's epics, let alone still have fragments of some of their famous
works and complete copies of some? How is it possible that we know so much about these authors–
so much that we can put an actual date to when they were written or the plays performed? There are
many possible answers to those questions, including cross–referencing allusions to him in other
ancient works, but the one I am most interested in is what the texts were recorded on at the time and
the tradition of scholars, monks, and so forth, who spent years copying and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Before Averroes, many Arab philosophers had confused Aristotle with Plotinus, a Hellenized
Egyptian who many credit with the creation of the school of thought Neoplatonism and who in turn
had mixed Aristotle's ideas with Plato's. Averroes rediscovered the "true" Aristotle by translating key
texts reintroducing him to Arab Spain. One idea that was key to his arguments was that although
there was only one truth, that truth could be expressed in many ways, including both philosophy and
religion. The philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages such as Aquinas later called Averroes
"The Commentator," and Michael the Scot translated several of Averroes' works within fifty years of
the man's death. However, Averroes' reception in Western Europe contrasted with his ultimate
rejection by Arabs in Spain. Soon after Averroes, Greek ideas in the Arab world were largely
opposed by those who disliked anything not considered

The Sufi Approach To Opening The Heart Essay
Robert Frager in his book, "The Sufi Approach to Opening the Heart" writes that our heart is a
temple where God resides and it is placed by God himself in the body of his profound believers. He
supports his words by revealing God's saying that He can only be found in the heart of a sincere
believer and cannot fit in Earths and Heavens. If we compare our hearts to the holy shrines and the
temples created by us, we would realize that our hearts are more precious and valuable because they
are created by God himself. We are consumed by the worldly desires and we have destroyed
ourselves in this illusory world, and hence ignored the dwelling God in our hearts. Imam Al–
Ghazali in his book Mishkat–Al–Anwar says that light represents the presence ... Show more
He said that evil is basically non–existence and that being and existence represents the good and
non–existence and the lack of being is evil. Chittick then emphasized on the case of Rumi. When
Rumi said, "The madman's star has eclipsed, he has fled from commotion―I have mixed with
death, I have flown into non–existence". Now, when Rumi talks about his non–existence, that does
not mean that he is evil and non–existence is evil. The reason that Rumi talked about his non–
existence from our point of view is because we are thinking the opposite. We think God is non–
existent and that we are existent. But we are wrong. It is the complete opposite of that. We are non–
existent and God is existent. Chittick then recalled a passage from Shams, "You say that Allah is
dhat (essence). So what? What's it to you? He is eternal being. You are not." When we say non–
existence, that means, not existing in this world. Now, all sorts of evil intentions rise out from
within us. Before its arousal fromour body , it did not exist. So that clearly means, those good
thoughts have always existed in this world from before and that evil arises from within us. He then
shares a passage from section 47 of Mevlana Rumi's book Fihi ma Fihi, "God wills both good and
evil, but He only approves of the good. For God said, "I was a hidden treasure, so I wanted, I
desired, I loved to

The History of Islamic Fundamentalism
Explain the history of Islamic fundamentalism. Is it similar in nature to the fundamentalist
movements of the early twentieth century? The term "fundamentalism" today is used as a
descriptive term, referring to any reactionary religious group (Ethridge & Feagin, 1979). But at its
core, fundamentalism means attempting to return to "fundamentalist roots," by embracing dualistic
views of the world and carrying out a series of radical reforms to return to the imaginary "past."
Islamic fundamentalism is largely a reaction to modernity, its adherents viewing modern science,
philosophy, and secularism as Western concepts, intruding into the fabric of Muslim societies and
weakening traditional values (Hashemi, 2006). Muslim fundamentalists hold that they have
exclusive access to the only true knowledge, condemning all forms of non–Islamic beliefs and
values as characteristic of infidel behaviors and as satanic (Nagata, 2001). It is hard to delineate the
exact date of the beginning of Islamic fundamentalism, but most scholars agree that it is a
twentieth–century phenomenon. Religious revivals, often expressed in fundamentalist terms, take
place during profound political and economic transformations. When Europe was going through
reforms, embracing the principles of science and secularism through turbulences and wars for
hundreds of years most Muslim countries remained untouched by those developments. In late
nineteenth– and early twentieth–centuries, colonial powers brought

Islamic Medicine

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