2. Motivation
– Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction,
intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior.
– Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort, for a
certain time, toward a particular goal.
– Motivation is one of the four main drivers of individual behavior and
performance. (MARS)
3. Employee Engagement
– Employee engagement is the individual’s emotional and
cognitive motivation particularly focused, intense, persistent,
and purposive effort toward work-related goals.
– It is an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and
satisfaction with the work. It also includes a high level of
absorption in the work – the experience of focusing intensely
on the task with limited awareness of the events beyond that
work.
– It can also be described in self-efficacy terms – the belief that
you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job
done.
4. Employee Engagement
– The challenge facing organizational leaders is that most employees aren’t very
engaged.
– How to make employees more engaged?
5. Employee Drives and Needs
– To have more engaged and motivated employees, we must first understand the motivational forces or
prime movers of employee behavior.
– Drives (Primary Needs) are defined as hardwired characteristics of the brain that attempt to keep us in
balance by correcting deficiencies. Drives accomplish this task by producing emotions to energize us to
act on our environment.
– These drives and emotions produce, generate human needs.
– Needs are goal-directed forces that people experience.
6. Drives and Needs
– For instance,
– You arrive at your date, and you saw someone sitting right next to your partner.
Seeing this, it produced an emotion/s (worry/curiosity) which motivated you to act.
These emotions were generated from your drives – drive to defend and your drive to
know. When strong enough, they motivate you to do something, such as finding out
who that person is, and possibly seeking reassurance from your partner that you are
not being cheated upon. In this case, you need to know what is going on, to feel
secure, and possibly to correct as sense of personal violation.
8. Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
Theory
– Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory arranges needs
in a hierarchy, where people are motivated to fulfill
a higher need as a lower need becomes gratified.
– Physiological – food, water, air, shelter, etc.
– Safety – security and stability
– Belongingness/Love – interaction with others and
affection from others
– Esteem – self-esteem and social esteem/status
– Self-actualization – fulfillment, realization of one’s
potential
9. Learned Needs Theory
– By David McClelland, suggests that need strength can be
altered through social influences. That a person’s needs can
be strengthened through reinforcement, learning, and social
conditions.
– McClelland examined three “learned” needs: achievement,
power, and affiliation.
10. Learned Needs Theory
– Need for Achievement (nAch) is a learned need in which people want to
accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambigious feedback and
recognition for their success.
– People with high nAch prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose
task with a moderate degree of risk. Money is a weak motivator, except when it
provides feedback and recognition.
– People with low nAch perform better when money is used as incentive.
11. Learned Needs Theory
– Need for Affiliation (nAff) is a learned need in which people seek approval from
others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and
confrontation.
– People with strong nAff try to project a favorable image of themselves.
– They tend to support others and try to smooth out work conflicts.
– They generally work well in coordinating roles to mediate conflicts and in sales positions
where the main task is cultivating long-term relations.
– However, they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making decisions
that potentially generate conflict.
– People in decision making positions must have a relatively low nAff so their choices and
actions are not biased.
12. Learned Needs Theory
– Need for Power (nPow) is a learned need in which people want to control the
environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either
themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power).
– People with high nPow want to exercise control over others and are concerned about
maintaining their leadership position. They tend to rely on persuasive
communication, make more suggestions in meetings, and tend to publicly evaluate
situations more frequently.
– There are two type of nPow:
– Individuals who enjoy power for their own sake, use it to advance their own interest, and
wear their power as a status symbol (personalized power)
– Individuals who desire power as a means to help others (socialized power).
13. Four-Drive Theory
– By Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria
– A motivation theory based on the innate drives to acquire, bond, learn, and
defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality.
– The four needs are innate and universal, which means they are hardwired in our
brains and are found in all human beings
– Three of the four (acquire, bond and learn) are proactive meaning we
constantly seek them and the need to defend is reactive meaning it is triggered
only when there is threat
14. Four-Drive Theory
– Drive to acquire
– the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal
experiences.
– The drive to acquire extends beyond basic food and water; it
includes gaining relative status and recognition in society.
– It is the foundation of competition and the basis of our need for
esteem.
– Drive to acquire is insatiable because the purpose of human
motivation is to achieve a higher position than others, not just
one’s physiological needs.
15. Four-Drive Theory
– Drive to bond
– The drive to form social relationships and develop
mutual caring commitments with others
– It explains why people form social identities by aligning
their self-concept with various social groups
– The drive to bond motivates people to cooperate and,
consequently, is a fundamental ingredient in the success
of organizations and development of societies.
16. Four-Drive Theory
– Drive to comprehend
– drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves
and the environment around us
– This drive explains why we are motivated to seek information
when unfamiliar with our surroundings or where familiar
surroundings have changed
– The drive to comprehend is related to the higher-order needs of
growth and self-actualization
17. Four-Drive Theory
– Drive to defend
– Drive to protect ourselves physically and socially
– The first drive we developed – the fight or flight response in the
face of personal danger
– It extends not only to defending our physical self, but also our
relationships, acquisitions, and belief systems
18. How the Four Drives Influence
Employee Motivation
19. Practical Implications of the
Four-Drive Theory
– Four-drive theory recommends that organizations should ensure that jobs and
workplaces should provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill our four drives.
20. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
by Victor Vroom
– Expectancy Theory – a motivation theory based on the
idea that work is directed toward behaviors people
believe will lead to desired outcomes.
– We are motivated to achieve goals with the highest
expected value, so work is directed towards behaviors
people believe will lead to the best outcomes.
– An individual’s effort level depends on three factors:
effort-to-performance (E-to-P), performance-to-outcome
(P-to-O), and outcome valences.
– All three components influence employee motivation.
– If any component weakens, motivation weakens.
21. Expectancy Theory
– E-to-P expectancy – is the individual’s perception that his or her effort will result in a particular level of
performance.
– Employees may believe they can unquestionably accomplish a task (probability of 1.0), in other situations, they expect
than even their highest level of effort will not result in the desired performance level (probability of 0.0)
– P-to-O expectancy – is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to a
particular outcome.
– Employees may believe accomplishing a task will definitely result in a particular outcome (probability of 1.0) or they
may believe successful performance will have no effect on this outcome (probability of 0.0)
– Outcome valences – a valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction an individual feels toward an
outcome.
– It ranges from negative to positive, outcomes have positive valence when they are consistent with our values and
satisfy our needs, they are negative when they oppose our values and inhibit need fulfillment
22. Expectancy Theory
– This explanation of motivation might sound complicated, but it really isn’t.
– It can be summed up in the questions:
– How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance, and can I
actually achieve that level?
– What reward will performing at that level get me?
– How attractive is the reward to me, and does it help me achieve my own personal
goals?
– Whether you are motivated to put forth effort (that is, to work hard) at any given
time depends on your goals and your perception of whether a certain level of
performance is necessary to attain those goals.
23. Applying the Expectancy Theory
– Increasing E-to-P Expectancies
– They are influenced by the individual’s belief that he or she can successfully complete
the task.
– Assuring employees they have competencies
– Person-job matching
– Provide role clarification and sufficient resources
– Behavioral modeling
– Positive reinforcement (supportive feedback)
24. Applying the Expectancy Theory
– Increasing P-to-O Expectancies
– Measure performance accurately
– More rewards for good performance
– Explain how rewards are linked to performance
– Use anecdotes, public ceremonies to illustrate when behavior has been rewarded
25. Applying the Expectancy Theory
– Increasing Outcome Valences
– One size does not fit all in the business of motivating and rewarding people.
– Ensure that rewards are valued
– Individualize rewards
– Minimize countervalent outcomes
26. Organizational Behavior
Modification
– OB Mod is a theory that explains employee
behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and
consequences of that behavior.
– Behavior changes by managing the antecedents and
consequences.
– Antecedents are environmental events preceding
the behavior.
– Consequences are environmental events following a
particular behavior.
27. Organizational Behavior
Modification
– Four Types of Consequences:
– Positive Reinforcement – occurs when the introduction of a consequence
increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior
(boss praises your work)
– Punishment – occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future
probability of a behavior (being bullied by a coworker)
– Negative reinforcement – increases or maintains the frequency of future
probability of behavior (boss stops scolding you for being late)
– Extinction – occurs when target behavior decreases because no consequence
follows (you stop coming on time because your boss stops thanking you for
coming on time)
28. Social Cognitive Theory
– Social Cognitive Theory explains how learning and motivation occur by
observing and modeling (imitating) others as well as by anticipating the
consequences of our behavior.
– Learning Behavior Outcomes – people learn the consequences of behavior by
observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly
experiencing it.
– Behavioral Modeling – people learn not only by observing others but also by
imitating and practicing those behaviors
– Self-Regulation – human beings set goals and engage in other forms of intentional,
purposive action. People may regulate themselves by self-reinforcement, rewarding
or punishing themselves for exceeding or falling short of their set standards.
29. Organizational Justice
– Most organizational leaders know that treating employees fairly is both morally
correct and good for employee motivation, loyalty, and well-being. Yet, feelings
of injustice and inequity are regular occurrences in the workplace.
– Two forms of organizational justice:
– Distributive Justice – perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared
to our contributions and the outcomes and contribution of others.
– Procedural Justice – refers to fairness of the procedures used to decide the
distribution of resources.
30. Equity Theory
– Equity Theory explains how people develop perceptions
of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.
– What is fair varies with each person and situation.
– Equality principle – everyone in the group should receive
the same outcomes
– Need principle – those with the greatest need should
receive more outcomes than others with less need
– Equity principle – people should be paid in proportion to
their contribution
31. Inequity and Motivation
– When people believe they are under- or overrewarded, they experience negative emotions
(called inequity tensions).
– People are motivated to reduce the emotional tension by:
– Reduce inputs (Work slowly, Fewer suggestions, Engaging less in organizational citizenship)
– Or increasing outcomes (ask for a raise, unauthorized use of company resources)
– increase comparison of other’s inputs (ask a better paid coworker to do a larger share of work)
– Reduce the comparison other’s outcomes (coworker gets less desirable jobs)
– Change beliefs about the situation
– Change comparison other
– Leave the field
32. Goal Setting and Feedback
– Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying
their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.
– It improves employee performance by:
– Amplifying intensity and persistence of effort
– Giving employees a clearer role perceptions
– Goal setting should be SMARTER
– Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, within a time frame, exciting
and reviewed during and after the goal has been accompished
33. Effective Feedback
– Feedback is information that let us know whether we have
achieved the goal or are properly directing our effort toward
it.
– Characteristics of effective feedback:
– Specific and relevant
– Credible
– Sufficiently frequent
34. Feedback thru Strengths Based
Coaching
– Strengths-based coaching (appreciative coaching) – Maximizing the person’s
potential by focusing on their strengths rather than weaknesses
– Motivational because:
– people inherently seek feedback about their strengths, not their flaws
– person’s interests, preferences, and competencies stabilize over time
35. Sources of Feedback
– Multisource feedback or 360 Degree Feedback - feedback
is received from a full circle of people around the employee:
subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers
– Provides more complete and accurate information
– Several challenges – expensive, time-consuming,
conflicting, stronger emotional reaction
37. Job Design
– Job Design – the process of assigning task to a job, including the
interdependency of those tasks with other jobs.
– A Job is a set of tasks performed by one person.
– The challenge for organizations is to design jobs in which work is performed
efficiently but employees are motivated and engaged.
38. Job Specialization
– Job specialization occurs when the work required to make a product or service
is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people.
– Benefits: increases efficiency, fewer physical and mental skills to accomplish
task, shorter work cycles, specific aptitudes can be matched more precisely to
persons suited for the job
39. Scientific Management
– Frederick Winslow Taylor
– The practice of systematically partitioning work into its smallest
elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency
– Problems:
– it undermines employee motivation, some jobs have become
tedious, trivial, and socially isolating.
– Increased absenteeism, employee turnover
– Decreases work quality because employees only see a small part of
the process
40. Motivator-hygiene Theory
(Two Factor Theory)
– Proposes that employee experience job satisfaction when they fulfill growth
and esteem needs (called motivators), and they experience dissatisfaction when
they have poor working conditions, job security, and other factors categorized
as lower-order needs (hygienes).
42. Job Characteristics Model
– Identifies five core job dimensions that produce three psychological states.
– Employees who experience these psychological states tend to have higher levels of internal work motivation,
job satisfaction, and work effectiveness.
– Five Core Dimensions:
– Skill variety – refers to use of different skills and talents to complete a variety of work activities
– Task identity – the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work
– Task significance – degree to which the job affects the organization and/or larger society
– Autonomy – provides freedom and independence, discretion in scheduling work and determining procedures to
complete job
– Job feedback – degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing on the basis of direct sensory information
from the job itself
43. Job Characteristics Model
– Three Critical Psychological States:
– Meaningfulness – the belief that one’s work is worthwhile and important
– Responsibility – control of their work environment to feel responsible for their
successes and failures
– Knowledge of results – employees want information about the consequences of
their work effort
– *Job design doesn’t increase work motivation for everyone in every situation,
employees must have the required skills and knowledge and must have high work
context and low growth need strength.
44. Job Design Practices that
Motivate
– Job Rotation – practice of moving employees from one job to another
– Job Enlargement – practice of adding more tasks to an existing job
– Job Enrichment – practice of giving employees more responsibility for
scheduling, coordinating, and planning their own work.
