Which of the following most accurately defines the Regressive hypothes.docx

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Which of the following most accurately defines the Regressive hypothesis of the origin of viruses? States that viruses are devolved forms of parasitic bacteria States that viruses appeared early in time before the three domains of life were diverged. States that viruses resulted from replication errors in bacteria States viruses are derived from bits of nucleic acids that escaped from cellular organisms. Which of the following is NOT true of horizontal transmission? An example include inhalation of viral particles after the person sitting next to you in class sneezes It can occur through either direct or indirect contact with an infected person. It is the movement of a virus from one individual to another through bodily secretions. It includes the movement of a virus from parent to offspring .

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2.) Explain the origin/evolution of viruses by these hypotheses: reductive, additive, horizontal gene transfer, and common ancestor. Why are there so many different ideas? Is there any one right answer? Why? Solution Origin of virus has been hypothesized by three main views: 1. Reductive hypothesis: This states that viruses were initially small parasites of large cell. Just like parasites, they used to take nutrition from the host; and left the host when host\'s body became diseased and useless for the virus. This hypothesis is also known as degeneracy hypothesis. This hypothesis is not accepted much, especially in case of large viruses like pox virus. Moreover, no parasites on earth resemble viruses at all. 2. Additive hypothesis: Complex protein and nucleic acids combined together to form the infectious agents, i.e. viruses. This hypothesis is also known as virus-first hypothesis. In this hypothesis, the actual definition of virus is totally changed. Why couldn\'t the genetic material of replication machinery combine together during the course of evolution; even after being more fit than the rest of the genetic material? 3. Horizontal gene transfer: Small bits of RNA or DNA escaped from large organisms and then underwent homologous recombination; to form infectious agents known as virus. The process was random. This is also known as escape hypothesis. This hypothesis was not accepted much because it could not explain the formation of capsid around the genetic material. So many different answers are there, because the genetic material of virus is of different types like ssRNA (+ and -), dsRNA (+ and -), ssDNA, dsDNA etc. This is not the case with cellular organisms like prokaryotes and eukaryotes. All of them have dsDNA as genetic material. Now, because of different genetic material, it is very difficult to trace the common ancestor of all viruses. Therefore, different researchers have proposed different hypothesis from time to time. None of these hypotheses has been accepted. One right answer is Common ancestor hypothesis. This states that there must be some common ancestor from which all viruses originated..

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The difference between vertical and horizontal transmission of plant viruses is that vertical transmission is transmission of a virus from a parent plant to its progeny, and horizontal transmission is one plant spreading the virus to another plant the spread of viruses from trees and tall plants to bushes and other smaller plants, and horizontal transmission is the spread of viruses among plants of similar size the spread of viruses from upper leaves to lower leaves of the plant, and horizontal transmission is the spread of a virus among leaves at the same general level the transfer of DNA from a plant of one species to a plant of a different species, and horizontal transmission is the spread of viruses among plants of the same species What is the main structural difference between enveloped and nonenveloped viruses? Enveloped viruses have their genetic material enclosed by a layer made only of protein. Both types of viruses have a capsid and phospholipid membrane; but in the nonenveloped virus the genetic material is between these two membranes, while in the enveloped virus the genetic material is inside both membranes. Enveloped viruses have a phospholipid membrane outside their capsid, whereas nonenveloped viruses do not have a phospholipid membrane. Nonenveloped viruses have only a phospholipid membrane, while enveloped viruses have two membranes, the other one being a protein capsid. If all prokaryotes on Earth suddenly vanished, which of the following would be the most likely and most direct result? There would be no more pathogens on Earth. Human populations would thrive in the absence of disease. The recycling of nutrients would be greatly reduced, at least initially. Bacteriophage numbers would dramatically increase. Viruses are referred to as obligate parasites because they cannot reproduce outside of a host cell viral DNA always inserts itself into host DNA. they invariably kill any cell they infect. they can iocorporate nucleic acids from other viruses they must use enzymes encoded by the virus itself Bacteriophage DNA that have become integrated into the host cell chromosome are called intemperate bacteriophages. traosposons. prophages. T-even phages. plasmids. Virulent pahges undergo a(n) life cycles, whereas temperate phages are capable of undergoing a(n) cycle. infective; retroviral lysogenic; lytic lytic; lysogenic retroviral; infective Infective; benign Solution 36.Answer a. In Horizontal transmission spread of virus takes place from one plant to other while vertical transmission involves transfer of virus from plant to offspring 37.Answer c. Phospholipid enclosed virus they are enveloped virus while other lack phospholipid membrane 38.Answer c.microbes help in recycling of material. 39.Answer a. Reproduction takes place inside host 40. Answer d. Known as phage 41.Answer c : Lyric and lysogenic phage.

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Multicellular organisms have never evolved alone. Coevolution has been accomplished by means of horizontal information transition. A wide row of hierarchized interspecies interactions simultaneously transmitting biological information had evolved in the past. In the present review, we summarize the current hypothesis about possible horizontal exchange of biological information and genesis of adaptive immune system

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