The Fall of the Western Roman Empire: How Barbarian Invasions Contributed to Rome's Decline

The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3
f o r f e r o c i t y . L i v i n g u n d e r the specter o f s t a r v a
-
t i o n , they l usted after the great riches a n d easy
lifestyles they observed i n the u r b a n i z e d e m p i r e s
o f R o m e a n d Persia.
I n 3 7 6 , i n w h a t is n o w s o u t h R u s s i a , a n
a r m y o f H u n s d r o v e a g r o u p o f V i s i g o t h s f r o
m
t h e i r f a r m l a n d s . T h e V i s i g o t h refugees g a i n e d
p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r V a l e n s
t o
cross t h e D a n u b e a n d settle i n t h e B a l k a n s i n
r e t u r n f o r s u p p l y i n g t r o o p s t o t h e R o m a n
a r m y . I n t h e p a s t , R o m a n r u l e r s h a d f r e q u e n t
l y
m a d e t h i s s o r t o f a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e R o m a n
o f f i c i a l s i n c h a r g e o f t h i s r e s e t t l e m e n t , h o
w e v e r ,
e x p l o i t e d the refugees b y c h a r g i n g them, e x o r b i -
t a n t fees f o r f o o d a n d s u p p l i e s . I n 3 7 8 t h e
V i s i g o t h s r e v o l t e d . A t t h e B a t t l e o f A d r i a n
o p l e
i n T h r a c e t h e y k i l l e d Val ens a n d d e s t r o y e d a n
e n t i r e R o m a n a r m y .
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' successful rebeUion w o u n d e d
the e m p i r e , b u t n o t f a r a l l y . Rome's response t o the
disaster, h o w e v e r , s o w e d the seeds f o r a loss o f
i m p e r i a l p o w e r i n d i e west. Necessity f o r c e d the

n e w emperor, T h e o d o s i u s the G r e a t , t o p e r m i t
V i s i g o t h i c soldiers t o serve i n the R o m a n a r m y
u n d e r t h e i r o w n V i s i g o t h i c c o m m a n d e r s . B u
t
a l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y forces o f d u b i
o u s
l o y a l t y t o operate freely w i t h i n the e m p i r e was a
t e r r i b l e m i s t a k e . T h e consequences o f T h e o d o -
sius's d e c i s i o n became a l l t o o clear i n the m i d -
390s w h e n A l a r i c , the n e w V i s i g o t h i c k i n g ,
began
t o p l u n d e r R o m a n cities i n the Balkans a n d
Greece. A s discussed at the b e g i n n i n g o f this chap-
ter, i n 4 0 1 A l a r i c a n d his t r o o p s sacked R o m e f o r
rhree days. Senators a n d citizens c o u l d o n l y w a t c h
as the V i s i g o t h s r a m p a g e d t h r o u g h their streets.
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' sack o f R o m e n o t o n l y d e a l t
a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l o w t o the e m p i r e ' s i n h a b i -
t a n t s , i t also l e d i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e loss o f m a n y o
f
R o m e ' s w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . T o f i g h t A l a r i c ,
R o m e ' s a r m i e s w i t h d r e w f r o m the e m p i r e ' s
n o r t h w e s t e r n defenses, l e a v i n g t h e f r o n t i e r i n
B r i t a i n a n d a l o n g the R h i n e v u l n e r a b l e . I n
B r i t a i n , R o m e a b a n d o n e d its c o n t r o l e n t i r e l
y
a f t e r a n a m b i t i o u s g e n e r a l , s t y l i n g h i m s e l f
C o n -
s t a n t i n e I I I , l e d B r i t a i n ' s last l e g i o n s across
the
E n g l i s h C h a n n e l i n 4 0 7 i n a n u n s u c c e s s f u l
a t t e m p t t o g r a b the i m p e r i a l t h r o n e . T h i s l e f t
B r i t a i n defenseless, v u l n e r a b l e ro g r o u p s o f Ger-
m a n i c t r i b e s m e n k n o w n as t h e Saxons a l r e a d y

settled o n B r i t i s h s o i l .
Elsewhere the chaos s p r e a d . A l t h o u g h t h e
i n v a d i n g bands w e r e s m a l l , the i m p e r i a l g o v e r
n -
m e n t i n the West n o l o n g e r possessed the a d m i n -
i s t r a t i v e c a p a c i t y t o m a r s h a l its m i l i t a r y
resources a n d p u s h the i n v a d e r s o u t . I n D e c e m -
ber 4 0 6 , t h e R h i n e R i v e r f r o z e , e n a b l i n g m i g
r a t -
i n g G e r m a n i c t r i b e s t o enter the e m p i r e w i t h
l i t t l e o p p o s i t i o n . S m a l l bands o f these m a r a u d i
n g
tribes r o a m e d t h r o u g h G a u l , w h i l e t h e V a n d a l
s
a n d t h e i r allies r a i d e d t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h S p a i
n .
I n 4 2 9 the V a n d a l s crossed t o N o r t h A f r i c a ,
w h e r e t h e y s o o n established a n i n d e p e n d e n t
k i n g d o m . By 4 5 0 the V i s i g o t h s h a d f o r m e d a
k i n g d o m o f t h e i r o w n i n G a u l a n d S p a i n .
O v e r w h e l m i n g n u m b e r s o f savage t r i b e s m e n
d i d n o t i n v a d e the e m p i r e . I n fact, t h e i r n u m b e r
s
were p u n y . For e x a m p l e , o n l y 4 0 , 0 0 0 V a n d a l s
c o n t r o l l e d N o r t h A f r i c a , w l i i c h h a d a p o p u l
a t i o n
o f several m i l l i o n R o m a n s . A n d a l t h o u g h the
Ger-
mans p l u n d e r e d a n d p i l l a g e d , they c o u l d n o t h o
l d
o n t o i m p e r i a l lands a n d settle there w i t h o u t the
active c o o p e r a t i o n o f R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
w h o
t h o u g h t they c o u l d b a r g a i n w i t h the t r i b e s m e n

.
O n c e t h e y p u t d o w n r o o t s , however, the Ger-
m a n i c invaders c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n
d
estabhshed t h e i r r u l e . By t h e n , R o m a n a u t h o r i r i
e s
l a c k e d b o t h the o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the s t r e n g t h
t o
e x p e l t h e m .
E v e n t h o u g h m o s t o f the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s
h a d f a l l e n t o i n v a d e r s b y 4 5 0 , the R o m a n s h e l
d
o n t o I t a l y f o r a w h i l e longer. T h e c i t y o f R o m e
r e m a i n e d the h o m e o f the Senate, w h i l e the
e m p e r o r o f the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s resided i n
R a v e n n a , a t o w n o n I t a l y ' s n o r t h e a s t coast. W a
r -
l o r d s , h o w e v e r , h e l d the r e a l p o w e r i n I t a l y ,
a l t h o u g h they w e r e f o r m a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e t o t
h e
emperor. These soldiers w e r e u s u a l l y n o t R o m a n s
by b i r t h , b u t t h e y a d o p t e d R o m a n c u l t u r e a n d
f o u g h t f o r R o m e . I n 4 7 6 one o f these w a r l o r d s , a
G e r m a n i c general n a m e d O d o v a c a r , deposed the
last e m p e r o r i n the w e s t , a b o y n a m e d R o m u l u s
A u g u s t u l u s , a n d n a m e d h i m s e l f k i n g o f I t a l
y . F o r
m a n y h i s t o r i a n s the year 4 7 6 used t o s y m b o l i z e
the e n d o f the R o m a n E m p i r e i n the w e s t . I n f a c t ,
2 2 4 C H A P T E R 7 Late Antiquity: The Age of New
Boundaries, 2 5 0 - 6 0 0

M A P 7.2
E m p i r e o f the H u n s
During late antiquity, the
Huns established a powerful
empire based in the Hungar-
ian plain. These fierce horse-
m e n terrified the settled
peoples of the Roman world,
but their empire broke up
within a generation.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
5--British Angles Anglgjjj-
and Saxons - j ' "~W-''
Bretqns'
•>
VisigbtWe
-Kingdom
and Saxons
Franks^
WESTERUt.ROMANiEMPlRt:
EMPIRE OF THE HUNS
Empire of tlie Huns, ca. 450
Western Roman Empire
L Zl Eastern Roman Empire

Hunnic Empire
Seat ?
BERBERS
-̂ ---̂ , , l E A y E I ^ R O M A N E M P W E I
"kingdom !•, /
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
Mediterranean Sea
500 knn
h o w e v e r , 4 7 6 is a date o f l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e . T
h e
R o m a n s ' c o n t r o l o f t h e i r w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s
h a d
s l i p p e d a w a y decades earlier (see M a p 7.2).
C U L T U R A L EHCOUWTERS AFTER THE Zm OH R O M
A N
R U L E B y the m i d - f i f t h c e n t u r y , w h e n m o s t f i
g h t -
i n g b e t w e e n G e r m a n i c i n v a d e r s a n d R o m a n s
h a d
e n d e d , t h e t w o sides, as r u l e r s a n d r u l e d , began
a n era o f intense e n c o u n t e r s . I n B r i t a i n the Ger-
m a n i c invaders w e r e p o l y t h e i s t s w h o s n u f f e d o
u t
the C h r i s t i a n s . Yet legends h i n t a t a fierce resist-
ance agai n s t t h e i n v a d e r s . T h e stories a b o u t K i n g
A r t h u r t h a t have c a p t i v a t e d E n g l i s h - s p e a k i
n g

audiences since t h e M i d d l e Ages are based o n
m e m o r i e s o f v a h a n t resistance t o the S a x o n
i n v a d e r s i n the i n i d - f i f t h c e n t u r y .
I n G a u l , N o r t h A f r i c a , I t a l y , a n d Spain, the
n e w settlers f o l l o w e d A r i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e
R o m a n i n h a b i t a n t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , f o l l o
w e d
C h a l c e d o n i a n ( C a t h o l i c ) C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d
thus saw
the invaders as heretics. A l t h o u g h this religious
difference caused f r i c t i o n between the t w o peoples,
i t also w o r k e d t o their m u t u a l advantage. R o m a n
l a w f o r b a d e m a r r i a g e w i t h A r i a n C h r i s t i a n s
, so the
c o n q u e r o r s r e m a i n e d a d i s t i n c t i v e m i n o r i t
y i n t h e i r
n e w d o m a i n s . T h i s enabled t h e m t o m a i n t a i n a
separate A r i a n clergy a n d separate churches.
O f a l l the f o r m e r empire's w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ,
I t a l y pro spe re d the m o s t u n d e r G e r m a n i c r u l e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r the l o n g r e i g n o f T h e o d o r
i c the
O s t r o g o t h (r. 4 9 3 - 5 2 6 ) . T h e o d o r i c m u r d e r e
d
O d o v a c a r , the G e r m a n w a r r i o r w h o h a d deposed
the last R o m a n e m p e r o r i n the West, t o o b t a i n the
t h r o n e o f I t a l y . I n p o l i t i c s , T h e o d o r i c s o u g
h t t o
creare m u t u a l respect b e t w e e n O s t r o g o t h s a n d
R o m a n s by m a i n t a i n i n g t w o separate a d m i n i s t r
a -
t i o n s — o n e f o r his O s t r o g o t h s , the o t h e r f o r
the

R o m a n s — s o t h a t b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s c o u l d m
a n -
age t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s u n d e r his s u p e r v i s i o n . H
e
also i n c l u d e d a r i s t o c r a r i c R o m a n s a m o n g his
clos-
est advisers a n d m o s t t r u s t e d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
Even
i n his r e l i g i o u s pohcies T h e o d o r i c p u r s u e d m u t
u a l
to le ranc e . A s a n A r i a n C h r i s t i a n , he s u p p o r t e
d the
separate A r i a n clergy, b u t he also m a i n t a i n e d
excellent ties w i t h the p o p e , leader o f the R o m a n
C h r i s t i a n s . T h e o d o r i c u n i t e d V i s i g o t h i c k
i n g d o m s
i n G a u l w i t h his o w n i n I t a l y , u l t i m a t e l y w i e l
d i n g
great influence t h r o u g h o u t western E u r o p e . I t a l y
p r o s p e r e d u n d e r his r u l e , a n d the c o m m u n i t i e
s o f
O s t r o g o t h s a n d R o m a n s l i v e d together a m i c a b l
y .
i
2 3 5 - 2 8 4
2 8 4
2 9 3
3 1 2
3 2 4
3 7 8
4 0 6

4 1 0
4 1 8
4 2 9 - 4 3 9
4 7 6
4 9 3 - 5 2 6
A l t h o u g h
age t o the e m j
r u l e the weste
E m p i r e i n the
i n v a d e r s , i n c h
t i n n e d t h e i r t i
dience t o a Ic
t o erode l o y a l
C o n s t a n t i n o p
G e r m a n i c k i n
o f t h e i r n e w c
R o m a n c
last vestiges (
presence i n i
f o r m s i n the
ers. I n B r i t a i i
w o r s t a n d i i
T h e r e t h e (
invaders and
began deveic
I n G a u l , I t a l
q u i c k l y lean
based " R o m
languages gr
I t a l i a n , Cata
c o n t i n u e d as
tiers b o r r o

f o r m s . W r i t i
o f t h e i r t r i b
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 5
C H R O N O L O G Y : R O M A N E M P I R E , E A S T A N
D W E S
2 3 5 - 2 8 4 C r i s i s in R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t
2 8 4 D i o c l e t i a n b e g i n s imperial reforms
2 9 3 T e t r a r c h y e s t a b l i s h e d
3 1 2 C o n s t a n t i n e w i n s c o n t r o l of w e s t e r n e m
p i r e
3 2 4 C o n s t a n t i n o p l e f o u n d e d
3 7 8 Battle of A d r i a n o p l e ; V i s i g o t h s I n v a d e e m
p i r e
4 0 6 V a n d a l s a n d o t h e r tribes cross t h e Rhine
4 1 0 R o m a n s w i t h d r a w f r o m Britain; V i s i g o t h s
p l u n d e r R o m e
4 1 8 V i s i g o t h s settle in Caul
4 2 9 - 4 3 9 V a n d a l s take N o r t h Africa
4 7 6 R o m u l u s A u g u s t u l u s , last w e s t e r n e m p e r
o r , deposed
4 9 3 - 5 2 6 T h e o d o r i c the O s t r o g o t h rules Italy
A l t h o u g h T h e o d o r i c h a d p a i d f o r m a l h o m -
age t o t h e e m p e r o r i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , d u r i n g
his
r u l e the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ' l i n k s t o the R o m a
n
E m p i r e i n the East began t o w e a k e n . M o s t o f the
i n v a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g T h e o d o r i c ' s O s t r o g o t

h s , c o n -
t i n u e d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e o f p l e d g i n
g obe-
dience t o a l o c a l c h i e f t a i n . T h i s t r a d i t i o n began
t o erode l o y a l t y t o t h e f a r - o f f R o m a n e m p e r o r
i n
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . By p l e d g i n g themselves t o a
G e r m a n i c k i n g , m e n g a i n e d a place i n the " t r i b e
"
o f t h e i r n e w c h i e f t a i n .
R o m a n c u l t u r e d i d n o t a b r u p t l y end w i t h the
last vestiges o f R o m a n r u l e . I t r e m a i n e d a v i t a l
presence i n m o s t r e g i o n s , b u t i t t o o k d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s i n the lands n o w r u l e d b y G e r m a n i c l e a d -
ers. I n B r i t a i n , R o m a n c u l t u r e p e r h a p s f a r e d
the
w o r s t a n d l i t t l e o f i t s u r v i v e d i n t o l a t e r ages.
T h e r e the G e r m a n i c language o f the Saxon
invaders a n d t h e i r A n g l o allies t o o k h o l d a n d
began d e v e l o p i n g i n t o the E n g l i s h s p o k e n t o d a
y .
I n G a u l , I t a l y , a n d Spai n, the G e r m a n i c settlers
q u i c k l y learned L a t i n . O v e r t i m e these L a t i n -
based " R o m a n c e " (based o n t h e R o m a n speech)
languages g r e w i n t o t h e early versions o f F r e n c h ,
I t a h a n , C a t a l a n , Spanish, a n d Portuguese. L a t i n
c o n t i n u e d as the language o f literacy, a n d rhe set-
tlers b o r r o w e d h e a v i l y f r o m R o m a n l i t e r a r y
f o r m s . W r i t i n g i n L a t i n , t h e y p r o d u c e d
histories
o f t h e i r t r i b a l k i n g d o m s i n i m i t a t i o n o f R o m
a n
h i s t o r i a n s . T h e y also d e v e l o p e d l a w codes c o m
-

posed i n L a t i n i n f l u e n c e d b y R o m a n m o d e l s .
The Survival of Rome's Eastern
Provinces
D e s p i t e the p r o f o u n d a l t e r a t i o n s w r o u g h t b y
C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d Rome's loss o f t h e w e s t e r n
p r o v i n c e s , the R o m a n E m p i r e e n d u r e d i n the
eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n .
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the i m p e r i a l c i t y f o u n d e d b
y
C o n s t a n t i n e i n 3 2 4 , became t h e center o f a
r e m o d e l e d e m p i r e t h a t m e r g e d C h r i s t i a n a n
d
R o m a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H i s t o r i a n s c a l l the
r e m o d e l e d R o m a n E m p i r e i n t h e East the
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , a f t e r B y z a n t i u m , the o r i
g i n a l
G r e e k n a m e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
CHRiSTlANiT" AND I.AW UNDER lUSTlMlAN T h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t a m a l g a m a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n
a n d
R o m a n t r a d i t i o n s t o o k place d u r i n g the r e i g n o
f
the E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n (r. 5 2 7 - 5 6 5 ) . B o r n i n
the
B a l k a n s , J u s t i n i a n w a s t h e last e m p e r o r i n C o
n -
s t a n t i n o p l e t o speak L a t i n as his n a t i v e l a n g u a
g e .
H e c o m b i n e d a p o w e r f u l i n t e l l e c t , a n u n s h a
k a b l e
C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , a n d a d r i v i n g a m b i t i o n t o r e
f o r m
the e m p i r e . H e d e f i e d c o n v e n t i o n by m a r r y i n
g

T h e o d o r a , a s t r o n g - w i l l e d f o r m e r actress, a n d
2 2 6 C H A P T E R 7 Late Antiquity: The Age of New
Boundaries, 2 5 0 - 6 0 0
i n c l u d e d her i n i m p e r i a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g
once he
became e m p e r o r .
J u s t i n i a n i n a u g u r a t e d changes t h a t h i g h -
h g h t e d his r o l e as a C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r F i r s t ,
he
e m p h a s i z e d the p o s i t i o n o f the e m p e r o r at the
center o f society i n e x p h c i t l y C h r i s t i a n t e r m s . H
e
w a s t h e f i r s t e m p e r o r t o use the t i t l e " B e l o v e d
o f
C h r i s t , " a n d he a m p h f i e d the emperor' s r o l e i n
C h u r c h a f f a i r s . J u s t i n i a n c o n s i d e r e d i t his d
u t y as
e m p e r o r t o i m p o s e u n i f o r m r e l i g i o u s behef
t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e b y e n f o r c i n g the decrees
o f the C o u n c i l o f C h a l c e d o n as he i n t e r p r e t e d
t h e m . I n t h e East t h i s m e a n t s t a m p i n g o u t t h e
sur-
v i v a l s o f p o l y t h e i s t w o r s h i p a n d s t r u g g l i n
g t o f i n d
a c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h the a n t i - C h a l c e d o n i a
n s .
A f t e r J u s t i n i a n r e c o n q u e r e d some o f the w e s t
e r n
d o m a i n s o f the e m p i r e , he h a d t o deal w i t h the
A r i a n V a n d a l s a n d O s t r o g o t h s l i v i n g there. I n
the

East J u s t i n i a n suppressed p o l y t h e i s m , b u t he
never reached a n agreement w i t h the a n t i - C h a l -
c e d o n i a n c o m m u n i t i e s i n Syria a n d E g y p t . A f t
e r
the a r m i e s o f I s l a m c o n q u e r e d these regions i n the
f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y , the C h r i s t i a n churches there
f e l l o u t o f i m p e r i a l c o n t r o l (see C h a p t e r 8 ) . I
n the
W e s t t h e bishops o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d I t a l y
resented Justinian's a t t e m p t s t o d e t e r m i n e d o c -
t r i n e . As a r e s u l t , a b i t t e r d i v i s i o n arose b e t w
e e n
C h r i s t i a n churches i n the eastern a n d w e s t e r n
M e d i t e r r a n e a n over the r i g h t s o f bishops t o resist
i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y o n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s .
J u s t i n i a n a t t e m p t e d t o create a C h r i s t i a n
society b y u s i n g R o m a n l a w c o u p l e d w i t h m i l i -
t a r y f o r c e . U n l i k e rulers o f Rome's e a r l y e m p i r e
,
w h o p e r m i r t e d subject peoples t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r
o w n c u s t o m a r y l a w s , J u s t i n i a n suppressed l o c a
l
l a w s t h r o u g h o u t his r e a l m . H e e n v i s i o n e d a l l
o f
his subjects o b e y i n g o n l y R o m a n l a w — l a w t h a t
he d e f i n e d a n d t h a t G o d a p p r o v e d . ( J u s t i n i a
n
w a s sure t h a t i f G o d d i d n o t a p p r o v e o f his leg-
i s l a t i v e changes, G o d w o u l d n o t a l l o w h i m t o
c o n t i n u e as e m p e r o r . )
T h u s , i n h i s G o d - g i v e n m i s s i o n as e m p e r o r -
l e g i s l a t o r , J u s t i n i a n r e f o r m e d R o m a n l a w .
T o
s i m p l i f y the v a s t b o d y o f c i v i l l a w , he o r d e r e

d
h i s l a w y e r s r o s o r t t h r o u g h a l l t h e l a w s t h a t
h a d a c c u m u l a t e d o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s a n d d e t e
r -
m i n e w h i c h o f t h e m s h o u l d s t i l l be e n f o r c e d .
D I P T Y C H OF A C O N S U L
This ivory panel celebrates a Roman consul at C o n -
stantinople in the sixth century. In his right h a n d he
holds the mappa, a ceremonial cloth that symbolizes
his office. Behind him stand personifications of Rome
(on his left) and Constantinople (on his right). Such
panels were given as gifts w h e n consuls took office.
This one demonstrates Roman traditions continuing
in the new world of Byzantium.
J u s t i n i a n ' s c o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l a w , w h i c h w
a s
c o m p l e t e d i n 5 3 4 , a n d a s s o c i a t e d l e g a l t e x t
s
are n o w c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d t h e Corpus Juris
Civilis. T h e b o d y o f R o m a n l a w passed d o w n
t o l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h i s
c o m p i l a t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t
u r y .
s c h o l a r s i n
J u s t i n i a n ' s 1
i n t e r e s t i n
Corpus Juri
s p e a k i n g E u
R E C O N Q U E R I N
h a d r e o r g a n i
i a n t u r n e d h i

p r o v i n c e s . E
c o n t r o l o v e r
m a n i c k i n g s ,
f o r m e r g l o r y ,
v e r s i o n o f CI
V a n d a l s a n d
H e w o u l d als
sion o f R o m a
I n 5 3 3 , J
a n d 5 , 0 0 0 a
general Belisaj
N o r t h A f r i c a .
Belisarius cele
E n c o u r a g e d b
sights o n I t a l y
i l y w a s e m b r o
J u s t i n i a n unc
O s t r o g o t h s , V
R o m a n p o p u i
resistance t o B
f a i l e d t o supp'
a n d soldiers. 1
decades. Justij
I t a l y back unc
r r a c t c d r e c o n q
The years o f
-financial b u r d (
•See M a p 7 . 3 . )
O n e o f the
I t a l y t o o k dec^
p l a g u e t h a t s
m i g r a t e d s w i f i
G a u l . T h e f i r s t
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 peo]

C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
empire's i n h a b
i e v a s t a t e d . Jus
"ne s o l d i e r s i t i
T h e B r e a k u p o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 2 2 7
s c h o l a r s i n I t a l y d i s c o v e r e d m a n u s c r i p t s o
f
J u s t i n i a n ' s l e g a l w o r k s i n c h u r c h l i b r a r i e s
, a n d
i n t e r e s t i n R o m a n l a w r e v i v e d . T h u s , t h e
Corpus Juris Civilis b e c a m e a p i l l a r o f L a t i n -
s p e a k i n g E u r o p e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .
RiiCONQUESING PROVINCES IM THE WEST O n c e he
h a d r e o r g a n i z e d t h e empire's legal system, J u s t i n -
i a n t u r n e d his a t t e n t i o n t o Rome's f a l l e n w e s t e
r n
p r o v i n c e s . H e w a n t e d t o reestabhsh i m p e r i a l
c o n t r o l o v e r these t e r r i t o r i e s , n o w r u l e d b y
Ger-
m a n i c k i n g s . O n c e the e m p i r e w a s r e s t o r e d t o
its
f o r m e r g l o r y , J u s t i n i a n ' s p l a n w a s t o i m p o s
e his
v e r s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n o r t h o d o x y u p o n the A r i
a n
V a n d a l s a n d O s t r o g o t h s i n his w e s t e r n d o m a i
n s .
H e w o u l d also f o r c e t h e m t o l i v e u n d e r his ver-
s i o n o f R o m a n l a w a n d g o v e r n m e n t .
I n 5 3 3 , J u s t i n i a n sent a fleet o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 m e n

a n d 5 , 0 0 0 c a v a l r y u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f his
general Belisarius t o a t t a c k the V a n d a l k i n g d o m i n
N o r t h A f r i c a . I t f e l l q u i c k l y , a n d w i t h i n a
year
Belisarius celebrated a t r i u m p h i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
E n c o u r a g e d b y this easy v i c t o r y , J u s t i n i a n set
his
sights o n I t a l y , w h e r e the O s t r o g o t h i c r u l i n g f
a m -
i l y was e m b r o i l e d i n p o l i t i c a l i n f i g h t i n g . T h
i s t i m e
J u s t i n i a n u n d e r e s t i m a t e d his o p p o n e n t s . T h
e
O s t r o g o t h s , w h o h a d w o n the s u p p o r t o f the
R o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n I t a l y , m o u n t e d a fierce
resistance t o Belisarius's i n v a s i o n i n 5 3 7 . J u s t i n i a
n
f a i l e d t o s u p p o r t Belisarius w i t h adequate f u n d s
a n d soldiers. B i t t e r f i g h t i n g dragged o n f o r t w o
decades. Justinian's armies e v e n t u a l l y w r e s t l e d
I t a l y back u n d e r i m p e r i a l c o n t r o l , b u t the p r o -
t r a c t e d reconquest h a d disastrous consequences.
T h e years o f f i g h t i n g devastated I t a l y , a n d the
f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n d r a i n e d the empire's resources.
(See JMap 7.3.)
O n e o f t h e reasons J u s t i n i a n ' s r e c o n q u e s t o f
I t a l y t o o k decades w a s the v i s i t a t i o n o f a l e t h a l
p l a g u e t h a t s t r u c k the e m p i r e i n 5 4 2 a n d
m i g r a t e d s w i f t l y t o I t a l y , N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d
G a u l . T h e f i r s t o n s l a u g h t t o o k t h e lives o f a b o
u t
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e , h a l f the p o p u l a t i o n o f
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . A n e s t i m a t e d o n e - t h i r d o f
the
empire's i n h a b i t a n t s d i e d . W i t h the p o p u l a t i o n

d e v a s t a t e d , J u s t i n i a n ' s a r m y c o u l d n o t r e c r
u i t
the s o l d i e r s i t needed t o f i g h t o n several f r o n t s .
T h e p l a g u e also w e a k e n e d t h e e c o n o m y . I n
m a n y p r o v i n c e s , f a r m s lay deserted a n d c i t y
p o p u l a t i o n s s h r i v e l e d . C o m m e r c i a l ties b e t
w e e n
the eastern a n d w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n d e c l i n e
d .
I n t h e w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s , e c o n o m i e s became
m o r e " l o c a l " a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t .
T H E STRUGGLE W I T H PERSIA A l t h o u g h J u s t i n -
i a n ' s g r e a t e s t m i l i t a r y successes w e r e i n t h e
w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , h i s m o s t d a n g e r o u
s
e n e m y w a s t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e ( f o r m e r l y
P a r t h i a ) o n his e a s t e r n f l a n k . T h i s h u g e , m u l
t i -
e t h n i c e m p i r e , u n d e r t h e r u l e o f t h e S a s a n i a
n
d y n a s t y (ca. 2 2 0 - 6 3 3 ) , h a d been R o m e ' s m a i n
r i v a l t h r o u g h o u t late a n t i q u i t y . T h e t e n s i o n
s t e m m e d c h i e f l y f r o m c o m p e t i t i o n o v e r A r
m e -
n i a , w h i c h w a s a r i c h s o u r c e o f t r o o p s , a n d
S y r i a , w h i c h possessed e n o r m o u s w e a l t h .
T h o u g h w a r s b e t w e e n R o m a n s a n d Persians
w e r e f r e q u e n t , n e i t h e r side c o u l d w i n p e r m a -
n e n t s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e o t h e r .
J u s t i n i a n f o u g h t several b r u t a l w a r s w i t h
Persia. H e gave t o p p r i o r i t y t o t h i s s t r u g g l e by
s u p p l y i n g i t w i t h m o r e t h a n h a l f o f h i s t r o o p
s ,

led by his best generals. H e also p r o v i d e d m o r e
f i n a n c i a l resources t o t h e s t r u g g l e i n t h e East
t h a n t o t h e w a r s o f r e c o n q u e s t i n t h e W e s t .
C h o s r o e s I (r. 5 3 1 - 5 7 9 ) , the aggressive a n d
a m b i t i o u s G r e a t K i n g o f Persia, p r o v e d a w o r -
t h y a d v e r s a r y f o r J u s t i n i a n . C h o s r o e s r e p e
a t -
e d l y i n v a d e d t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , c a u s i n
g
g r e a t d a m a g e . I n 5 4 0 , f o r e x a m p l e , he s a c k e d
A n t i o c h , the w e a l t h i e s t c i t y i n S y r i a . Because
w a r w i t h Persia w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y e x p e n s i v
e ,
J u s t i n i a n b o u g h t peace b y p a y i n g t h o u s a n d s o
f
p o u n d s o f g o l d t o t h e P e r s i a n m o n a r c h . E v e n
t h i s cost less t h a n c o n t i n u i n g t o f i g h t e v e r y
year.
B y the t i m e o f J u s t i n i a n ' s d e a t h , t h e t w o
e m p i r e s h a d established an uneasy coexistence,
b u t the basic a n i m o s i t y b e t w e e n t h e m r e m a i n e
d
u n r e s o l v e d . F o r t h e n e x t h a l f c e n t u r y , J u s t i
n i a n ' s
successors engaged i n i n t e r m i t t e n t w a r f a r e
w i t h the Persians. By f i g h t i n g e x p e n s i v e w a r s o n
the w e s t e r n a n d eastern f l a n k s o f his e m p i r e ,
J u s t i n i a n hastened the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f R o m a n
i m p e r i a l r u l e o u t s i d e t h e eastern p r o v i n c e s .
T h e o v e r e x t e n s i o n o f resources e n s u r e d t h a t
2 3 0 C H A P T E R 7 Late A n t i q u i t y : T h e A g e o f N e
w B o u n d a r i e s , 2 5 0 - 6 0 0

ANGLO-SAXON / f t " " "
KINGDOMS: "' '
ATLANTIC
OCEAN KINGDOM OF
THE FRANKS
^VARS
KINGDOM OF
THE VISIGOTHS Corsica); "-.Rome..-,
8WGARS
Balearic Is.
Carthage*
' % t s
^Sardinia
Sjcil/
•̂•̂ - ^ > S , :
Cyprus ; s
Mediterranean Crete J'.
Sea ;iJ«n«piem
Alexandriay.-~"~- '•. ' ;
The Byzantine Empire at the Death of Justinian, 565
Roman Empire in 527 at Justinian's accession

Conquests under Justinian (ruled by Arians prior to reconquest)
Kingdom of the Franl<s, Chalcedonian (Catholic) after ca. 508
;, '' Kngdom of the Visigoths (ruled by Arians)
I I Chalcedonians
: Monophysites
0 SOOkm
I ^ - r - ^
500 mi
MAP 7,3
T h e Byzantine E m p i r e at the Death o f Justinian, 565
W h e n Justinian died in 5 6 5 , Italy, North Africa, and part of
Spain that had been lost in the fifth century had been
restored, temporarily to imperial rule. Under the dynamic
Sasanian dynasty, the Persian Empire fought many wars
with the Romans. Neither empire had an advantage because they
were roughly the same size and possessed
equivalent resources of wealth and manpower.
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e c o u l d n o t m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l
o f
t h e w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . W h e n n e w i n v a
d e r s
descended o n I t a l y a n d t h e B a l k a n s i n t h e late
s i x t h c e n t u r y , t h e e m p i r e d i d n o t have the
s t r e n g t h t o resist t h e m . I n t h e seventh c e n t u r y
the r e m a i n i n g R o m a n p r o v i n c e s i n N o r t h
A f r i c a , E g y p t , a n d Syria w e r e l o s t . N e v e r t h e l
e s s ,
i n w h a t r e m a i n e d o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , J u s t i
n -
i a n succeeded i n c r e a t i n g a C h r i s t i a n - R o m a n
society, u n i t e d u n d e r one G o d , one e m p e r o r , a n d

one l a w .
CONCLUSION
T h e A g e of N e w B o u n d a r i e s
D u r i n g l a t e a n t i q u i t y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
t h e
R o m a n w o r l d i n t o n e w p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n s w i t h n e w b o u n d a r i e s h e l p e d create a n e w
c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e W e s t . H e n c e f o r t h , t h e
W e s t w a s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e legacy o f
R o m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e lens
o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e m o s t l a s t i n g d e v e l o p m
e n t
o f t h e p e r i o d c a m e f r o m t h e e n c o u n t e r
b e t w e e n t h e
a n d C h r i s t i
c e n t u r y h a d
m i n o r i t y . A s
r e l i g i o n t h r o
I t s e l f t r a n s f c
a t t e m p t s t o r
c l a s s i c a l leai
l a t e d m u c h (
s u p p o r t of t l
became t h e
p r o c e s s o f a
a m o n g t h e m s
d i v i n i t y o f J<
m e n t s l e d t o
b e l i e f .
T h e R o m
s p l i t i n t o t w o
t i o n s f o r t w o •
A f t e r R o m a r

G e r m a n i c r u l i
t h e o l d R o n
k i n g d o m s spc
f r o m L a t i n , £
r e l i g i o u s w o r s
t h e w e s t e r n p
d u r i n g l a t e a n
t o p a r t s of .
E u r o p e t h a t hi
E m p i r e . I n t l
R o m a n E m p i :
E m p i r e (discus
becaine t h e h o
B y z a n t i u m , G
t o n g u e o f d a i l
w o r s h i p .
W h e n I s l a i
g i o u s a n d p o l i t
a n t i q u e p e r i o d .
C h a p t e r 8, ci
i n s t i t u t i o n s als^
Conclusion 231
b e t w e e n t h e c i v i h z a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r
e
a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i c h b e f o r e t h e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y h a d been t h e f a i t h o f a p e r s e c u t e d
m i n o r i t y . A s C h r i s t i a n i t y became t h e d o m i n a
n t
r e l i g i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , i t w
a s
i t s e l f t r a n s f o r m e d , n o t t h e least t h r o u g h t h e

a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n
w i t h
c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g . C h r i s t i a n t h i n k e r s a s s i
m i -
l a t e d m u c h o f c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e , a n d w i t h t h
e
s u p p o r t o f t h e R o m a n e m p e r o r s , C h r i s t i a n i t
y
became t h e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n . D u r i n g t h i s
process o f a s s i m i l a t i o n . C h r i s t i a n s d i s a g r e e
d
a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s o v e r h o w t h e y e x p l a i n e d t
h e
d i v i n i t y o f Jesus C h r i s t , a n d these d i s a g r e e -
m e n t s led t o d i s t i n c t i v e s t r a i n s o f C h r i s t i a n
b e l i e f .
T h e R o m a n E m p i r e i t s e l f w a s i r r e p a r a b l y
s p l i t i n t o t w o p a r t s , w h i c h became t h e f o u n d a -
t i o n s f o r t w o d i s t i n c t i v e C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a
t i o n s .
A f t e r R o m a n r u l e i n t h e W e s t c o l l a p s e d ,
G e r m a n i c r u l e r s e s t a b l i s h e d n e w k i n g d o m s
i n
t h e o l d R o m a n p r o v i n c e s . Some o f these
k i n g d o m s s p o k e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s d e r i v e
d
f r o m L a t i n , a n d a l l o f t h e m used L a t i n f o r
r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p , l e a r n i n g , a n d t h e l a w . F r
o m
t h e w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e
d u r i n g l a t e a n t i q u i t y , L a t i n c i v i l i z a t i o n s p
r e a d
t o p a r t s o f c e n t r a l , e a s t e r n , a n d n o r t h e r n
E u r o p e t h a t h a d n e v e r been p a r t o f t h e R o m a n
E m p i r e . I n t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e

R o m a n E m p i r e s u r v i v e d as t h e B y z a n t i n e
E m p i r e (discussed i n t h e n e x t C h a p t e r 8) a n d
b e c a m e t h e h o m e o f O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y .
I n
B y z a n t i u m , G r e e k r e m a i n e d t h e d o m i n a n t
t o n g u e o f d a i l y l i f e , l e a r n i n g , a n d C h r i s t i a
n
w o r s h i p .
W h e n I s l a m e m e r g e d as a p o w e r f u l r e U -
g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y at t h e e n d o f t h e . l a
t e
a n t i q u e p e r i o d , as w e w i l l discuss i n the n e x t
C h a p t e r 8, c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g a n d R o m a n
i n s t i t u t i o n s also i n f l u e n c e d i t s a d h e r e n t s . B
u t
t h e M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n e m p i r e s became ene-
m i e s , a t e n d e n c y t h a t c r e a t e d t h e m o s t l a s t i
n g
d i v i s i o n s a m o n g t h e p e o p l e s w h o h a d o n c e
been c i t i z e n s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e .
KEY TERMS
late a n t i q u i t y
t e t r a r c h y
G r e a t Persecution
p a p a c y
p a g a n
A r i a n s
C h a l c e d o n i a n s
V u l g a t e
L a t i n C h r i s t e n d o m
M o n o p h y s i t e s
asceticism

m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t
T a l m u d
p i l g r i m a g e s
relics
C h u r c h Fathers
N e o p l a t o n i s m
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e
Corpus Juris
Civilis
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. H o w did the R o m a n E m p i r e reorganize after the
instability of the t h i r d century? (page 2 0 3 )
2 . H o w d i d C h r i s t i a n i t y become the d o m i n a n t
reli-
gion in rlie R o m a n E m p i r e , and h o w d i d that
affect R o m a n society? (page 2 0 7 )
3. H o w did C h r i s t i a n i t y t r a n s f o r m c o m m u n i t
i e s ,
religious experience, a n d intellectual traditions
inside and outside the empire? (page 2 1 2 )
4. H o w and w h y did the R o m a n E m p i r e in the West
disintegrate? (page 2 2 2 )
TAKING IT FURTHER
1. Besides the Bible w h a t were the significant i n f l u -
ences on early C h r i s t i a n i t y ?
2. W h a t were the differences between R o m a n a n d
G e r m a n i c ideas of rulership in late antiquity?

3. W h y d i d the R o m a n E m p i r e survive in the E a s t
a n d not the West in late antiquity?
•(.^•-[practice on WiyHistoryLab
Medieval Empires
and Borderlands:
Byzantium and Islam
s B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p
i r e
H T h e N e w W o r l d o f I s l a m
In 8 6 0 FIERCE Rus TRIBESMEN ABOARD A FLEET OF
SLEEK SHIPS
WITH PROWS SHAPED LIKE DRACONS' HEADS RAIDED t
h e
B y z a n t i n e villages a l o n g t h e shores of the Black S e a
a n d t h e n a d v a n c e d to t h e gates of C o n s t a n t i n o p
l e ,
ready for pillage a n d r a p e . Panic g r i p p e d t h e i n h a b i
-
tants of t h e city. T h e Patriarch of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
c a l l e d o n t h e p e o p l e to r e p e n t of their sins to a v o i
d
G o d ' s w r a t h , a n d w h e n t h e Rus u n e x p e c t e d l y

d e p a r t e d , t h e p e o p l e of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
interpreted it
as an a c t of divine i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Strategically l o c a t e d w h e r e the Black Sea m e e t s
t h e Sea of M a r m a r a , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w a s the s h
i n i n g
capital of t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e — a n d t h e largest
a n d
richest city in t h e w o d d . Its C r e e k - s p e a k i n g i n h a
b i -
tants c o n s i d e r e d the Rus s a v a g e s , p r o n e to t h e w
o r s t
kinds of v i o l e n c e . Like so m a n y o t h e r b a r b a r i a n
p e o -
ples, t h e Rus w h o w e r e V i k i n g s living in w h a t is n o
w
U k r a i n e a n d Russia c o u l d n o t spe a k G r e e k , w e r
e not
C h r i s t i a n s , a n d d i d not r e c o g n i z e the authority of
the
B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r , w h i c h the C r e e k s b e l i e v
e d c a m e
directly f r o m G o d . T h e leaders of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e

tried to k e e p these b a r b a r i a n s u n d e r c o n t r o l by s
i g n -
i n g treaties, w h i c h s t i p u l a t e d that n o m o r e t h a n 5
0
Rus c o u l d e n t e r the city at o n e t i m e a n d they all h a d
to leave by a u t u m n . In e x c h a n g e for civilized b e h a v
-
ior, t h e Rus r e c e i v e d free ba ths, f o o d , provisions for a
m o n t h , a n d e q u i p m e n t for their return to their
h o m e l a n d . By the n i n t h c e n t u r y t h e Rus h a d
estab-
lished a regular p a t t e r n . E a c h s p r i n g after s p e n d i n
g
t h e w i n t e r s a l o n g t h e river valleys of t h e n o r t h c o
l -
lec ting tribute f r o m t h e Slavic tribes, t h e Rus set off in
their boats, risking d a n g e r o u s rapids a n d waterfalls
o n t h e D n i e p e r River a n d a m b u s h f r o m hostile
tribes,
to r e a c h the Black Sea a n d the s p l e n d i d e m p o r i u m
of
t h e w o d d , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , w h i c h they c a l l e d
s i m p l y

the " G r e a t C i t y . "
A c c u s t o m e d to w i n t e r treks, g r u b b y villages,
a n d c o n s t a n t d a n g e r , t h e y w e r e d a z z l e d by the
s i g h t
of the G r e a t City, w i t h its half million i n h a b i t a n t s a
n d
t w e l v e miles of fortifications. T h e g i l d e d c u p o l a s of
its
c h u r c h e s , t h e m a r b l e p a l a c e s of t h e aristocrats a
n d
e m p e r o r , a n d t h e c a v e r n o u s w h a r v e s a n d w a r
e -
h o u s e s of its m e r c h a n t s a m a z e d t h e s e t r i b e s m
e n . T h e
p e o p l e of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w e r e e q u a l l y a s t o
n i s h e d —
a n d f r i g h t e n e d — b y t h e s u n - w o r n , f u r - c l a d
Rus.
T h e Rus c a m e to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e to t r a d e . T h e
m e r c h a n t s of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t r a d e d B y z a n t
i n e a n d
C h i n e s e silks, Persian glass, A r a b i c silver c o i n s ( h i
g h l y

p r i z e d b y t h e R u s ) , a n d I n d i a n s p i c e s for h o n e
y , w a x ,
slaves, a n d m u s t y bales of furs f r o m S c a n d i n a v i a a
n d
w h a t is n o w n o r t h e r n Russia. D e s p i t e their s e n s e
of
superiority, t h e B y z a n t i n e s n e e d e d the b a r b a r i a
n s . In
T H E CATH
W I S D O M I
W h e n Justini
completed c
d o m (Haghi.
tinople in 52
" S o l o m o n , I
He meant th
bigger and r
lerusalem Te
cal King Sole
Haghia Sopf
building in E
church beca
Source: Dagli C
Collection
t h e m e r c h a
m a n y cuitu
s o m e t h i n g

m o r e unlike
refined By/
profit kept
e m b r a c e ,
diverse p e o
w i t h o n e ar
m e d i e v a l w
T h e te
b e t w e e n th
a b o u t t h e
culture rest
civilizations
2 3 2
t u r n t o t h e i r
u s h a d e s t a b -
i f t e r s p e n d i n g
: h e n o r t h c o l -
= R u s s e t o f f i n
a n d w a t e r f a l l s
h o s t i l e t r i b e s ,

e m p o r i u m o f
c a l l e d s i m p l y
J b b y v i l l a g e s ,
d b y t h e s i g h t
h a b i t a n t s a n d
c u p o l a s o f i t s
r i s t o c r a t s a n d
'S a n d w a r e -
i b e s m e n . T h e
a s t o n i s h e d —
l a d R u s .
t o t r a d e . T h e
y z a n t i n e a n d
c o i n s ( h i g h l y
r h o n e y , w a x ,
i n d i n a v i a a n d
i h e i r s e n s e o f
D a r b a r i a n s . I n
T H E C A T H E D R A L OF HOLY
W I S D O M (HAGHIA SOPHIA)
W h e n J u s t i n i a n e n t e r e d h i s n e w l y
c o m p l e t e d c a t h e d r a l o f H o l y W i s -
d o m ( H a g h i a S o p h i a ) i n C o n s t a n -
t i n o p l e i n 5 3 7 , h e b o a s t e d ,
" S o l o m o n , I h a v e o u t d o n e y o u ! "
H e m e a n t t h a t h i s c h u r c h w a s
b i g g e r a n d m o r e s p l e n d i d t h a n t h e
J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e b u i l t b y t h e b i b l i -
c a l K i n g S o l o m o n . F o r c e n t u r i e s ,

H a g h i a S o p h i a w a s t h e l a r g e s t
b u i l d i n g i n E u r o p e . I n 1 4 5 3 t h e
c h u r c h b e c a m e a m o s q u e .
Source: Dagli Orti/Picture Desl<, Inc./Kobal
Collection
t h e m e r c h a n t s t a l l s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , t r a d
e r s f r o m
m a n y c u l t u r e s m e t , h a g g l e d , a n d c a m e t o k n o
w
s o m e t h i n g o f o n e a n o t h e r . N o n e p e r h a p s w e r
e
m o r e u n l i k e t h e o t h e r t h a n t h e r o u g h R u s a n d
t h e
r e f i n e d B y z a n t i n e s , b u t t h e i r m u t u a l d e s i r e
s f o r
p r o f i t k e p t t h e m i n a p e r s i s t e n t , i f t e n t a t i v e
,
e m b r a c e . T h e s e r e p e a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o
n g
d i v e r s e p e o p l e s w h o t r a d e d , c o m p e t e d , a n d
f o u g h t
w i t h o n e a n o t h e r o f f e r c l u e s f o r u n d e r s t a n d
i n g t h e
m e d i e v a l w o r l d , a l s o k n o w n as t h e M i d d l e A g
e s .
T h e t e r m Middle Ages r e f e r s t o t h e p e r i o d
b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o
n s f r o m
a b o u t t h e f i f t h t o f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . M e d i
e v a l
c u l t u r e r e s t e d o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h r e e g r
e a t
c i v i l i z a t i o n s : t h e G r e e k C h r i s t i a n i t y o f B y

z a n t i u m ;
I
4
t h e A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g I s l a m i c c a l i p h a t e s o f
t h e M i d d l e
E a s t , N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d S p a i n ; a n d t h e L a t i n
C h r i s t -
i a n k i n g d o m s o f w e s t e r n a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p
e . T h e
d y n a m i c i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g t h e s e t h r e e c i v
i l i z a -
t i o n s , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y r e l i g i o n a n d l a n g u a
g e , l a y a t
t h e h e a r t o f m e d i e v a l c u l t u r e . F r o m t h e s e v e
n t h t o
t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e m o s t e n e r g e t i c a
n d c r e -
a t i v e o f t h e s e t h r e e c i v i l i z a t i o n s w a s t h e I s
l a m i c
w o r l d , w h o s e a r m i e s t h r e a t e n e d b o t h B y z a n
t i u m
a n d t h e L a t i n C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s . I n t h e c e n
t u r y
a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f i t s f o u n d e r , t h e p r o p h e t M
u h a m -
m a d , i n 6 3 2 , I s l a m ' s f o l l o w e r s b u r s t f r o m t h
e i r
h o m e i n A r a b i a t o c o n q u e r a n e m p i r e s t r e t c h
i n g
f r o m S p a i n t o c e n t r a l A s i a . E s p e c i a l l y d u r i
n g t h e
t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h i s I s l a m i c e
m p i r e

2 3 3
2 3 4 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d
e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d i s l a m
p r o d u c e d i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d
scientific
w o r k , a n d s u p p o r t e d a t h r i v i n g e c o n o m y .
T h e m o s t distinctive feature of the m e d i e v a l
p e r i o d w a s t h a t all t h e s e civilizations rested o n
m o n o t h e i s t i c religions t h a t s h a r e d b a s i c beliefs
a b o u t C o d . All s t r u g g l e d to e l i m i n a t e p o l y t h
e i s m
e i t h e r by p e r s u a s i o n or f o r c e . H o w e v e r , b e c a
u s e
e a c h of t h e s e m e d i e v a l civilizations d e f i n e d itself
as
an e x c l u s i v e c o m m u n i t y of f a i t h , cultural b o u n
d a r i e s
d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n t h e m t h a t are still visible
today.
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t w o of t h e s e civilizations,

B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m . C h a p t e r 9 d i s c u s s e s
the Latin
C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u
e s t i o n
raised by t h e t w o civilizations d i s c u s s e d h e r e is t h i s
:
H o w d i d their different v e r s i o n s of m o n o t h e i s m s
u s -
tain t h e m as e m p i r e s ?
BYZANTIUM: THE SURVIVAL
OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
• H o w d i d t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ' s e a s t e r n
p r o v i n c e s e v o l v e i n t o t h e B y z a n t i n e
E m p i r e ?
I n late a n t i q u i t y C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d R o m e h a
d
s y m b o l i z e d t h e t w o halves o f the R o m a n E m p i r e
.
O n c e j o i n e d i n a c o m m o n C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e ,
east-
ern a n d w e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n s g r a d u a l l y g r e w a
p a r t ,
so t h a t b y the late n i n t h c e n t u r y , t h e y b e g a n t o
c o n s t i t u t e separate c i v i U z a t i o n s , one B y z a n t i
n e
a n d t h e o t h e r L a t i n . T h e r e w e r e s t i l l c u l t u r a
l
exchanges b e t w e e n t h e m as m e r c h a n t s , p i l g r i m
s ,

a n d scholars crossed back a n d f o r t h , b u t the t w o
c i v i l i z a t i o n s h a d ceased t o u n d e r s t a n d on e
a n o t h e r . T h e y h e l d d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s a b o u
t r e l i -
g i o u s m a t t e r s , such as the d a t i n g o f Easter, the
r i t u a l s o f the l i t u r g y , t h e r o l e o f images i n w o r -
s h i p , a n d t h e e x t e n t o f the a u t h o r i t y o f the
b i s h o p i n R o m e , the p o p e . T h e y also s p o k e d i f -
f e r e n t languages. I n the East, G r e e k w a s the l a n -
guage o f m o s t o f the p o p u l a t i o n , a n d L a t i n had
been l a r g e l y f o r g o t t e n by the e n d o f the s i x t h
c e n t u r y . I n the W e s t , L a t i n o r l o c a l dialects o f i t
p r e v a i l e d . E x c e p t i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y a n d
Sicily,
f e w Westerners k n e w G r e e k .
E a s t e r n E u r o p e became a n u n s t a b l e b o r d e r -
l a n d o n t h e f l a n k s o f B y z a n t i u m i n h a b i t e d by
p o l y t h e i s t f a r m e r s a n d n o m a d s . R i v a l m i s s i
o n a r -
ies p r a c t i c i n g G r e e k a n d L a t i n f o r m s o f C h r i s
-
t i a n i t y c o m p e t e d t h e r e f o r c o n v e r t s a n d
allies.
G r e e k m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e the m o s t successful i n
c o n v e r t i n g the Slavic peoples t o O r t h o d o x C h r i s -
t i a n i t y , a f a i t h t h a t s u r v i v e d a m o n g t h e Slavs
even a f t e r the collapse o f B y z a n t i u m itself.
A n E m b a t t l e d Empire
A f t e r the r e i g n o f E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n
(r. 5 2 7 - 5 6 5 ) , the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e w a s g r a d u
-
a l l y r e d u c e d t o a r e g i o n a l p o w e r s t r u g g l i n g
f o r
s u r v i v a l against m a n y enemies. I n the west the

B y z a n t i n e s faced the G e r m a n i c k i n g d o m o f the
L o m b a r d s w h o e r o d e d the i m p e r i a l r u l e o v e r
I t a l y t h a t J u s t i n i a n h a d reestablished. T h e t h r e a t
s
i n t h e B a l k a n s came f r o m n o m a d i c t r i b e s f r o m
the E u r a s i a n steppes, such as the A v a r s , Slavs,
a n d B u l g a r s , w h o p e r m a n e n t l y settled there
w i t h i n the e m p i r e . These peoples became the
ancestors o f some o f the c u r r e n t i n h a b i t a n t s o f
the r e g i o n , such as m o d e r n B u l g a r i a n s , C r o a t s
,
a n d Serbs. T o the east the B y z a n t i n e s c o n f r o n t e d
t h e i r o l d r i v a l , t h e Persian E m p i r e . D e f e a t i n g
Per-
sia i n a series o f w a r s f r o m 6 0 3 t o 6 2 9 t o o k such
a huge t o l l t h a t B y z a n t i u m w a s t o o e x h a u s t e d t
o
resist a n e w t h r e a t o u t o f t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l
a
f r o m the armies o f I s l a m . T h e encounters b e t w e e n
these diverse enemies a n d B y z a n t i u m w e r e u s u -
a l l y h o s t i l e , a n d t h e i r e n c i r c l e m e n t o f B y z a
n t i u m
f o r c e d B y z a n t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d m i l i t
a r y
p o l i c y t o change a n d a d a p t .
T h e B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r s a f t e r J u s t i n i a n t r i
e d
t o h o l d o n t o the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s b y r e o r g a
n i z -
i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d I t
a l y
i n t o t w o n e w u n i t s c a l l e d exarchates—-the E x a r -
chate o f C a r t h a g e ( w h i c h also a d m i n i s t e r e d
s o u t h e r n Spain) a n d t h e E x a r c h a t e o f R a v e n n a

.
Because o f t h e i r l o n g distance f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o -
ple a n d the i m m e d i a t e press o f the l o c a l p r o b -
lems t h e y c o n f r o n t e d , the t w o exarchates w e r e
s o m e w h a t i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m the rest o f the
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e . T h e e x a r c h s (or g o v e r n o r
s )
h e l d b o t h c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t y i n
these
t e r r i t o r i e s — a
h a d k e p t thes
c o m m a n d sig
the e x a r c h s fa
T h i s a d n :
B y z a n t i u m ' s
f e l l t o t h e VJ
a r m i e s t o o k (
b a r d s c a p t u r e
e x a r c h a t e , a l l
s o u t h e r n I t a l y
T h e Byza
p r o v e d f r a g i U
f r o m the lat
B y z a n t i n e w (
t h a t m a d e t
C h r i s t i a n s an
jects o f t h e R(
ist i n v a d e r s . L
t h e m , raiders
E u r a s i a n stej
spread some :
g a r y a n d U k
N o m a d s c o u

h o r s e b a c k . I i
B u l g a r s , a n d
o f B y z a n t i n e
T h e n o m
i n t h e s i x t h c
H u n g a r y f r o r
h a d a bone-cl
H u n g a r y the
B a l k a n s . T h (
the r e g i o n t
t h r e a t e n e d B
t a k i n g shape
T h e A v a
c o n q u e r e d p
Some o f th(
a b o u t 4 0 0 a i
f r o m a bier
g r o u p s . T h e
i n e a s t e r n E
t h e B a l k a n s
T h e i r A v a r
a n d m o s t Sb
p e n d e n c e . H
B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i
r e 2 3 5
t e r r i t o r i e s — a breaic f r o m R o m a n p r a c t i c e , w
h i c h
h a d k e p t these t w o spheres separate. T h i s j o i n t
c o m m a n d s i g n a l e d the g r a v i t y o f the p r o b l e m
s

the exarchs f a c e d .
T h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o v e r h a u l d i d n o t save
B y z a n t i u m ' s w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s . S o u t h e r n
Spain
f e l l t o the V i s i g o t h s i n the 6 3 0 s , a n d M u s l i m
a r m i e s t o o k C a r t h a g e i n 6 9 8 . I n 7 5 1 t h e L o m -
bards c a p t u r e d R a v e n n a a n d p u t an e n d t o the
e x a r c h a t e , a l t h o u g h B y z a n t i n e r u l e s u r v i v
e d i n
s o u t h e r n I t a l y u n t i l the eleventh c e n t u r y .
T h e B y z a n t i n e h o l d o n eastern E u r o p e also
p r o v e d f r a g i l e . I n m u c h o f the B a l k a n p e n i n s
u l a
f r o m the late s i x t h t h r o u g h n i n t h c e n t u r i e s ,
B y z a n t i n e weakness created a p o w e r v a c u u m
t h a t m a d e the setded i n h a b i t a n t s w h o w e r e
C h r i s t i a n s a n d s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d themselves s u b
-
jects o f the R o m a n E m p i r e v u l n e r a b l e t o p o l y t h
e -
ist i n v a d e r s . L i k e so m a n y o t h e r s before a n d after
t h e m , r a i d e r s a n d m i g r a n t s p o u r e d o u t o f the
E u r a s i a n steppes, a b a n d o f grasslands t h a t
spread some 5 , 0 0 0 miles f r o m w h a t is n o w H u n -
g a r y a n d U k r a i n e i n E u r o p e i n t o c e n t r a l A s i a
.
N o m a d s c o u l d easily cross the grasslands o n
h o r s e b a c k . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h the A v a r s ,
Slavs,
B u l g a r s , a n d R u s c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c o n t r a c t
i o n
o f B y z a n t i n e t e r r i t o r y a n d i n f l u e n c e .
T h e n o m a d i c A v a r s , w h o s u d d e n l y a p p e a r e d

i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y o n the p l a i n s o f p r e s e n t - d
a y
H u n g a r y f r o m the steppes n o r t h o f the B l a c k Sea,
h a d a b o n e - c h i l l i n g r e p u t a t i o n f o r f e r o c i t y
. F r o m
H u n g a r y t h e y r a i d e d c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d the
B a l k a n s . These t e n a c i o u s w a r r i o r s d o m i n a t e
d
the r e g i o n u n t i l the early n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d
t h r e a t e n e d B y z a n t i u m a n d the n e w k i n g d o m s
t a k i n g shape i n I t a l y , G e r m a n y , a n d F r a n c e .
T h e A v a r s c r e a t e d an e m p i r e b y f o r c i n g
c o n q u e r e d p e o p l e s t o serve i n t h e i r a r m i e s .
Some o f these p e o p l e s w e r e Slavs. B e t w e e n
a b o u t 4 0 0 a n d 6 0 0 , Slavic societies h a d f o r m e d
f r o m a b l e n d o f m a n y c u l t u r e s a n d e t h n i c
g r o u p s . T h e Slavic c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t d e v e l o p
e d
i n e a s t e r n E u r o p e b e t w e e n the B a l t i c Sea a n d
t h e B a l k a n s l a y o u t s i d e B y z a n t i u m ' s b o r d e r
s .
T h e i r A v a r c o n q u e r o r s r u l e d b y b r u t e f o r c e ,
a n d m o s t Slavs c o u l d n o t w i n b a c k t h e i r i n d e -
p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r , a f e w Slavic c o m m u n i t i e
s
m a n a g e d t o o v e r t h r o w A v a r r u l e . I n t h e s e c o
n d
h a l f o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , b a n d s o f Slavs b e g a n
t o m i g r a t e s o u t h across t h e D a n u b e R i v e r i n t o
t h e B a l k a n s . C o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h m a r a u d i n
g
A v a r s , t h e Slavs s e t t l e d i n s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e
d
f r o n t i e r l a n d s i n w h a t is n o w C r o a t i a a n d Ser-

b i a . A s t h e Slavs p u s h e d s o u t h , m a n y B y z a n -
t i n e s a b a n d o n e d t h e i r c i t i e s t o t h e i n v a d e r s
. By
6 0 0 , Slavic a n d A v a r g r o u p s h a d seized m o s t
B y z a n t i n e l a n d s f r o m t h e D a n u b e t o Greece.
By the n i n t h century, these tribes began t o c o n -
v e r t t o one or a n o t h e r f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n
d the
patterns o f those conversions have h a d l a s t i n g c o n -
sequences. T h e tribes i n eastern E u r o p e w e r e f r a g -
m e n t e d p o l i t i c a l l y , w h i c h m i r r o r e d the i n t r i
c a t e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s n c g r o u p s
. State-
b u i l d i n g was especially c o m p l i c a t e d because m u c h
o f the r e g i o n h a d never been u n d e r R o m a n r u l e
a n d lacked the legacies o f R o m a n cities, i n s t i t u -
t i o n s , a n d l a w t h a t m a d e the s u r v i v a l o f B y z a
n d u m
possible a n d the G e r m a n i c k i n g d o m s o f w e s t e r n
E u r o p e v i a b l e . C o n v e r s i o n patterns exacerbated
eastern E u r o p e a n f r a g m e n t a t i o n because the r e l i -
gious d i v i d i n g line between those w h o adhered t o
R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m a n d those w h o f o l l o w e d
O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y c u t d i r e c t l y t h r o u g
h the
r e g i o n . R e l i g i o n , l i k e e t h n i c i t y a n d language,
became a source o f d i s u n i t y r a t h e r t h a n cohesion.
Fast o n t h e heels o f the A v a r s a n d Slavs f r o m
t h e steppes came t h e n o m a d i c peoples c a l l e d the
B u l g a r s , w h o established r u l e over the l a r g e l y
Slavic i n h a b i t a n t s o f the B a l k a n s by the e i g h t h
c e n t u r y . T h e B u l g a r s d e s t r o y e d t h e s u r v i v i
n g o l d

R o m a n cities t h e r e , e x p e l l e d w h a t C h r i s t i a n s
r e m a i n e d , a n d a t t a c k e d the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r
e . I n
8 1 1 , after a n n i h i l a t i n g a B y z a n t i n e a r m y , the
B u l g a r i a n k h a n (the head o f a c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f
clans) K r u m (r. 8 0 3 - 8 1 4 ) I m e d the s k u l l o f the
s l a i n B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r w i t h silver a n d t u r n e
d i t
i n t o a d r i n k i n g c u p . W i t h this s y m b o l i c act o f
debasement, the B u l g a r i a n s g a i n e d a fierce r e p u -
t a t i o n as enemies o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d B y z a n t i u
m .
I n 8 6 5 , h o w e v e r , K h a n B o r i s I (r. 8 5 2 - 8 8 9 )
accepted the O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y o f his f o r m e
r
enemies i n B y z a n t i u m . H i s c o n v e r s i o n i l l u s t r
a t e s
the p o l i t i c s o f t h e p e r i o d . D u r i n g the n i n t h cen-
t u r y C h r i s t i a n i t y began t o a c q u i r e a p o w e r f u l
e r i a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
a l l u r e a m o n g the p o l y t h e i s t i c t r i b e s . T h e i r
acceptance o f C h r i s t i a n i t y o p e n e d the p o s s i b i l i
t y
f o r d i p l o m a t i c ties a n d alliances w i t h the C h r i s t -
i a n p o w e r s . F o r B o r i s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n v e r s i
o n w a s
a w a y t o w a r d o f f B y z a n t i n e h o s t i l i t y a n d m a
k e
peace. F o r f o u r years, B o r i s n e g o t i a t e d w i t h
R o m e , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d G e r m a n m i s s i o

n a r -
ies, a l l o f w h o m s o u g h t t o c o n v e r t the B u l g a r s .
I n
t h e e n d , B o r i s g o t w h a t he w a n t e d — a B u l g a r i
a n
O r t h o d o x C h u r c h t h a t r e c o g n i z e d the u l t i m a
t e
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l
e b u t
w a s essentially a u t o n o m o u s .
T h e a u t o n o m y o f the B u l g a r i a n C h u r c h was
f u r t h e r g u a r a n t e e d l a t e r i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y
b y
the a d o p t i o n o f a Slavic l i t u r g y r a t h e r t h a n a
L a t i n o r Greek l i t u r g y . T h i s w a s made possible
b y t h e m i s s i o n a r y w o r k i n n e i g h b o r i n g M o r a
v i a
o f C y r i l (ca. 8 2 6 - 8 6 9 ) a n d his b r o t h e r M e t h o d -
ius ( 8 1 5 - 8 8 5 ) , w h o had i n v e n t e d a n a l p h a b e t t
o
w r i t e the Slavic language. T h e y t r a n s l a t e d a
G r e e k c h u r c h l i t u r g y i n t o a v e r s i o n o f the
Slavic
l a n g u a g e n o w k n o w n as O l d C h u r c h S l a v o n i c
.
T h e acceptance o f t h e S l a v o n i c l i t u r g y g r a d u a l l
y
led the e t h n i c a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m i x e d p
e o -
ples o f B u l g a r i a t o i d e n t i f y w i t h Slavic c u l t u r e
a n d l a n g u a g e . F r o m a s t r i n g o f monasteries
established by the B u l g a r i a n s , t h e O l d C h u r c h
S l a v o n i c l i t u r g y spread a m o n g the Serbs, t h e
R o m a n i a n s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y t h e Russians, creat-
i n g c u l t u r a l ties a m o n g these w i d e s p r e a d peoples

t h a t have s u r v i v e d t o the present.
As w e saw a t the b e g i r m i n g o f this chapter,
B y z a n t i u m also faced assault f r o m the n o r t h e r n
R u s . T h e Rus established a h e a d q u a r t e r s at K i e v
o n the D n i e p e r R i v e r a n d e x t e n d e d t h e i r d o m i
n a -
t i o n o v e r the l o c a l Slav t r i b e s . F r o m a m o n g the
m e r c h a n t - w a r r i o r s o f the R u s arose the forebears
o f the p r i n c e s o f K i e v , w h o by the end o f the t e n t h
c e n t u r y r u l e d a vast steppe a n d forest d o m a i n
t h r o u g h a loose c o l l e c t i v e o f subject p r i n c i p a l i
-
ties. T h e t e r m Rus (later Russian) came t o be
a p p l i e d t o a l l the lands the princes o f K i e v r u l e d .
K i e v a n R u s reached its z e n i t h u n d e r
V l a d i m i r the G r e a t (r. 9 7 8 - 1 0 1 5 ) a n d his s o n
l a r o s l a v t h e W i s e (r. 1 0 1 9 - 1 0 5 4 ) . A ruthless
f i g h t e r , V l a d i m i r c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o a single
state
the p r o v i n c e s o f K i e v a n d N o v g o r o d , a c i t y i n
the
f a r n o r t h t h a t h a d g r o w n r i c h f r o m the f u r t r a d
e .
B o r n a p o l y t h e i s t , V l a d i m i r h a d seven w i v e s a
n d
t o o k p a r t i n h u m a n sacrifices. H o w e v e r , w h e n
o f f e r e d a m i U t a r y a l l i a n c e w i t h B y z a n t i u m i
n
9 8 7 , he a b a n d o n e d his w i v e s , m a r r i e d t h e B y z
a n -
t i n e e m p e r o r ' s sister, a n d c o n v e r t e d t o O r t h o d
o x
C h r i s t i a n i t y . H e t h e n f o r c e d t h e i n h a b i t a n t

s o t
K i e v a n d N o v g o r o d t o be b a p t i z e d a n d cast t h e i
r
i d o l s i n t o the r i v e r s . T h e B y z a n t i n e C h u r c h
estabhshed a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l over the Rus
C h u r c h by a p p o i n t i n g an O r t h o d o x a r c h b i s h
o p
f o r K i e v . T h e l i t u r g y w a s i n O l d C h u r c h
S l a v o n i c , w h i c h p r o v i d e d a w r i t t e n language a
n d
the s t i m u l u s f o r t h e h t e r a t u r e , a r t , a n d m u s i c
ar
the f o u n d a t i o n s o f R u s s i a n c u l t u r e . l a r o s l a
v
e m p l o y e d scribes t o t r a n s l a t e G r e e k r e l i g i o u s
b o o k s i n t o O l d S l a v o n i c a n d f o u n d e d n e w
churches a n d m o n a s t e r i e s across the K i e v a n state
(see M a p 8 . 1 ) . T h e r e l i g i o u s a n d p o h t i c a l c o n
-
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e R u s a n d B y z a n t i u m
shaped
Russian h i s t o r y a n d l i m i t e d t h e e a s t w a r d spread
o f L a t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y ( R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m )
.
B y z a n t i n e C i v i l i z a t i o n
I n a d d i t i o n t o assaults f r o m so m a n y d i r e c t i o n s
, the
Byzantine E m p i r e faced t u r m o i l f r o m w i t h i n . T h e
loss o f territories caused economic s u f f e r i n g , a n d
religious controversies at times alienated the p o p u -
l a t i o n f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t . B u t despite t e r r i b l
e
losses, B y z a n r i u m e n d u r e d . T h r e e i n s d t u t i o n
s held
the empire together: the emperor, w h o set policies

and safeguarded his subjects' w e l f a r e ; the army,
w h i c h defended the f r o n d e r s ; a n d the O r t h o d o x
C h u r c h , w h i c h p r o v i d e d s p i r i t u a l guidance.
3!VIPER!AL A . D M i N i S T R A T I O N A N D E C O N O
M Y Based
at C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the e m p e r o r s t o o d at the cen-
ter o f B y z a n t i n e society. H i s a u t h o r i t y reached t o
every c o r n e r o f t h e e m p i r e . T h i s supreme r u l e r
g o v e r n e d w i t h the assistance o f a large b u r e a u -
cracy t h a t he t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d . I n this h i e t a r c
h i -
c a l b u r e a u c r a c y , e l a b o r a t e titles a n d d i f f e r e
n t
c l o t h i n g i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n t r a n k s . O n l y the
e m p e r o r o r m e m b e r s o f his f a m i l y , f o r e x a m p l
e ,
c o u l d w e a r the c o l o r p u r p l e , a s y m b o l o f r o y a
l t y .
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
-rW
Exarchate(
Byzantine Empire, ca. 600
i... Byzantine Empire
•*j Persians
— - f Slavs and Avars
Lombards
MAP 8.1

The Byzantine E m
B y 6 0 0 the B y z a n t i r
t e r r i t o r i e s i n N o r t h ,
g r e a t e s t e n e m y .
H i g h d i g n i t a r i e s w o t
c o l o r s e n c r u s t e d w i d
c i a l , the m o r e gems
B u r e a u c r a t s a n d c
e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a l r
processions i n o r d e r
cated b y the c o l o r c
T h r o u g h these cerem
the g o v e r n m e n t t o t l
w e r e n o t j u s t p o l i t i c
the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t
the h i e r a r c h i c o r d e r (
r e 2 3 7
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
WESSEX 'Sutton Hoo
• NEUSTRIA AUSTRASIA
•PRANKISH
KINGDOM-'
Slavs
KIEVAN
RUS

.Kiev
AOUITAINE
BURGUNDY Lombards
VISIGOTHIC
KINGDOM
Exarchate of Ravenna
ivars/Slavs/Bulgars.s^
f Black Sea ^
^ : i : i l s , - y . ANATOLIA -: " - ' ' ^
S V * * '•Aatioch
'^'ranean Sea
AFGHANISTAN

ARABIA
Byzantine Empire, ca. 600
'• ' Byzantine Empire
~ * Persians
Slavs and Avars
• Lombards
CO •
, 0> Arabian

Sea
500 mi
M A P 8 . 1
T h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , ca. 6 0 0
B y 6 0 0 t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e c o n s i s t e d o f A
n a t o l i a , G r e e c e , p a r t o f t h e B a l k a n s , S y r i a ,
E g y p t , a n d s o m e
t e r r i t o r i e s i n N o r t h A f r i c a a n d S p a i n . U n t i l
t h e r i s e o f I s l a m , t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e r e m a i n
e d B y z a n t i u m ' s
g r e a t e s t e n e m y .
H i g h d i g n i t a r i e s w o r e s i l k g a r m e n t s o f d i s t
i n c t i v e
c o l o r s encrusted w i t h j e w e l s . T h e h i g h e r the o f f
i -
c i a l , the m o r e gems he was p e r m i t t e d t o d i s p l a y .
B u r e a u c r a t s a n d c o u r t i e r s ( m e m b e r s o f the
e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a l r e t i n u e ) l i n e d u p i n e l a
b o r a t e
processions i n o r d e r o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e , as i n d i
-
cated by t h e c o l o r o f t h e i r c l o t h i n g a n d shoes.
T h r o u g h these ceremonies the e m p e r o r d i s p l a y e d
t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o the p e o p l e . Such processions
w e r e n o t j u s t p o l i t i c a l p r o p a g a n d a . T h e y m a
d e
the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the e m p i r e e v i d e n t t h r o u g
h
the h i e r a r c h i c o r d e r o f the p r o c e s s i o n . T h e y
also

i n d i c a t e d the p o l i t i c s o f the c o u r t as f a v o r e d
c o u r t i e r s m o v e d t o a h i g h e r - r a n k e d p o s i t i o
n i n
the p r o c e s s i o n , a n d those o u t o f f a v o r m o v e d t o
a l o w e r - r a n k e d place o r d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e
procession altogether.
M e n f o r t u n a t e o r t a l e n t e d e n o u g h t o o b t a i n
an o f f i c e i n the i m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t a c q u i r e
d
w e a l t h a n d i n f l u e n c e . For this reason l e a d i n g
p r o v i n c i a l f a m i h e s sent t h e i r sons t o C o n s t a n -
t i n o p l e t o o b t a i n p o s i t i o n s i n the b u r e a u c r a c
y .
T h r o u g h t h i s m e t h o d o f r e c r u i t m e n t , C o n s t
a n -
t i n o p l e r e m a i n e d i n close t o u c h w i t h the o u t l y i
n g
e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
KING DAVID PLATE
N i n e s i l v e r p l a t e s m a d e i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
about 6 3 0 i l l u s -
t r a t e s c e n e s f r o m t h e c a r e e r o f t h e b i b l i c a l K
i n g D a v i d . T h e
l a r g e s t p l a t e ( a b o u t 2 0 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r ) s
h o w s D a v i d b a t -
t l i n g t h e g i a n t G o l i a t h . T h o u g h t h e s u b j e c t
m a t t e r is b i b l i c a l ,
t h e s t y l e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g c l o t h i n g , h u m a n b
o d i e s , a n d s p a t i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o m e s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e c l a s s

i c a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e
s u b j e c t c o n n e c t e d B y z a n t i u m ' s s t r u g g l e s w
i t h Persia t o t h e
B i b l e ' s h e r o i c k i n g .
Source: Byzantine, early seventh century. Dish: David and
Goliath. Silver,
Syrian worl<manship. D. 19 1/2 in. Found in Karavas, near
Kyrenia, Cyprus,
1902. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of). Pierpont
Morgan, 1917
regions o f the e m p i r e . T h i s system gave p r o v i n -
c i a l f a m i l i e s a stake i n the success o f the e m p i r e
a n d the p r o v i n c e s a voice i n the c a p i t a l . H o w e v e
r ,
i t w a s also v u l n e r a b l e t o c o r r u p t i o n . M a n y m e
n
o b t a i n e d t h e i r p o s i d o n s by b r i b i n g c o u r t o f f
i c i a l s .
O t h e r o f f i c e h o l d e r s o w e d t h e i r j o b s t o f a m i
l y
i n f l u e n c e r a t h e r t h a n t a l e n t . B u t even a c o r r u
p t
system c a n be a n effective f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t
because o f f i c i a l c o r r u p t i o n m a d e l o y a l t y t o the
e m p e r o r m o r e r e w a r d i n g t h a n o p p o s i t i o n t o
h i m .
F r o m his p o s i t i o n at the head o f this elaborate
hierarchy, the e m p e r o r also c o n t r o l l e d B y z a n -
t i u m ' s e c o n o m y . T h e stable i m p e r i a l coinage
s p u r r e d a f l o u r i s h i n g cash-based economy.
O f f i c i a l m o n o p o l i e s c o n t r o l l e d the p r o d u c -
tion a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f specific c o m m o d i t i e s

such as s i l k . These m o n o p o l i e s p r o t e c t e d the
interests o f the e m p e r o r a n d those he f a v o r e d
by s t i f l i n g c o m p e t i t i o n . As l o n g as the
m o n o p o l i e s f l o u r i s h e d , the g o v e r n m e n t h a d
a source o f revenue t h r o u g h t a x a t i o n .
By the end o f the seventh century, h o w -
ever, w h e n the r i c h provinces o f E g y p t a n d
Syria a n d the w e a l t h y cities o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
A n t i o c h , Carthage, a n d others h a d f a l l e n t o
the A r a b s , the Byzantine e c o n o m y s t i m i b l e d .
T h o u s a n d s o f refugees f r o m lands c o n q u e r e d
by M u s l i m s streamed i n t o the empire a n d
strained its resources. I n conquered Byzantine
provinces, M u s l i m rulers set u p their o w n
m o n o p o l i e s and prevented Byzantine mer-
chants f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n long-distance
commerce. C u t o f f f r o m f o r e i g n markets,
Byzantines stopped m a n u f a c t u r i n g goods f o r
e x p o r t a n d b u i l d i n g new houses a n d churches.
By 7 5 0 , the standard o f l i v i n g i n m o s t Byzan-
tine cities except C o n s t a n t i n o p l e h a d f a l l e n .
T H E IvIiLiTARV SYSTEM OF THE ] ' H t M t s I n
response t o the m a n y e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s ,
B y z a n t i n e society w a s r e o r g a n i z e d f o r c o n -
stant w a r . E m p e r o r s reUed o n t h e i r armies t o
p r o t e c t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the nerve center o f
the s h r i n k i n g B y z a n t i n e srate, a n d t o d e f e n d
the b o r d e r s against i n v a d e r s . B y a b o u t
6 5 0 i n A n a t o l i a , w h i c h became the empire's
m a i n source o f r e c r u i t s f o r t h e a r m y , e m p e r -
ors a b a n d o n e d the late R o m a n system o f r e l y i n g
o n the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s t o p r o t e c t the f r o
n -

tiers. T o replace the o l d p r o v i n c e s , e m p e r o r s
created f o u r m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s c a l l e d themes. E a
c h
o f the themes h a d its o w n a r m y a n d a d m i n i s t r a -
t i o n c o m m a n d e d b y a general chosen by the
e m p e r o r . T h e t h e m e s ' armies d e v e l o p e d s t r o n
g
l o c a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d p r i d e d themselves o n t h e i r
m i l i t a r y s k i l l s , a legacy the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e
h a d
i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e R o m a n legions. These m i l i t a r
y
forces k e p t the e m p i r e f r o m c o l l a p s i n g despite
d e v a s t a t i n g losses t o I s l a m i c armies t h r o u g h o u
t
the seventh c e n t u r y .
By 7 5 0 t h e
able a u t o n o m y
the basis o f f u r t
r u r a l e c o n o m y
Soldiers a n d sai
f r o m the emp(
g r a n t e d l a n d oi
F i g h t i n g i n e n hi
f r o m t h e i r i n c o r
t e m e n a b l e d the
w i t h o u t d i r e c t i
u r y . T h e t h e m e ;
i t y f o r the em]
l a u n c h large-sc;
t i u m c o u l d at le;
O v e r tiiTie t l
d i v i d e d a n d ne
u n t i l by the em

w e r e 38 theme,
e m p i r e came t o
w h i c h free, t a x
v i l l a g e s u n d e r t l
m a n d e r w h o w£
s o l d i e r - f a r m e r s
t r i c t s , w h i c h m
homes a n d f a m i
f o r m i d a b l e b u l w
T h e B y z a n
harassed by M u
t h r u s t o f M u s i
f r o n t i e r i n the se
T u r k s i n 1 4 5 3 ,
the Persian E m j
630s, B y z a n t i u n
the m o s t i m p o r
B y z a n t i u m ' s m i l )
O n e o f the
c o n f l i c t s w a s leg
ends began as s t
B y z a n t i n e arist
f o u g h t the A r a h
w e r e e v e n t u a l l y
p o e m s . O n e s
d e s c r i b e d the he
late e i g h t h c e n t i i
e m p i r e , w h e r e B
a n d c o o p e r a t e d .
r e 2 3 9

By 7 5 0 the themes h a d d e v e l o p e d c o n s i d e r -
able a u t o n o m y f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d w e r e
the basis o f f u r t h e r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e a g r i
c u l -
t u r a l e c o n o m y a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r r e c r u i t m
e n t .
Soldiers a n d sailors w h o w e r e once p a i d i n cash
f r o m the e m p e r o r ' s t a x revenues n o w w e r e
g r a n t e d l a n d o n w h i c h t o s u p p o r t themselves.
F i g h t i n g m e n h a d t o p r o v i d e t h e i r o w n w e a p o
n s
f r o m t h e i r i n c o m e as f a r m e r s , a n d the theme sys-
t e m e n a b l e d the p a r t s o f the e m p i r e t o f u n c t i o n
w i t h o u t d i r e c t s u p p o r t f r o m the i m p e r i a l
treas-
u r y . T h e theme system created defensive f l e x i b i l -
i t y f o r the e m p i r e . W h i l e i t c o u l d n o l o n g e r
l a u n c h large-scale o f f e n s i v e conquests, B y z a n -
t i u m c o u l d at least a t t e m p t t o d e f e n d its b o r d e r
s .
O v e r t i m e the f o u r o r i g i n a l themes w e r e sub-
d i v i d e d a n d n e w ones a d d e d i n o t h e r regions
u n t i l by the end o f the eleventh c e n t u r y , there
w e r e 38 themes. T h e m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h o f t h e
e m p i r e came t o d e p e n d o n the theme system i n
w h i c h free, t a x - p a y i n g s o l d i e r - f a r m e r s l i v e
d i n
villages u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n o f a m i l i t a r y c o m
-
m a n d e r w h o w a s also c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r .
These
s o l d i e r - f a r m e r s u s u a l l y f o u g h t i n t h e i r o w
n dis-
t r i c t s , w h i c h m e a n t t h e y w e r e d e f e n d i n g t h e

i r
h o m e s a n d f a m i l i e s . A s a a r e s u l t they p r o v i d e
d a
f o r m i d a b l e b u l w a r k against i n v a d e r s .
T h e B y z a n t i n e b o r d e r s w e r e especially
harassed b y M u s l i m enemies, b u t f r o m the f i r s t
t h r u s t o f M u s l i m armies against B y z a n t i u m ' s
f r o n t i e r i n the seventh c e n t u r y u n t i l its f a l l t o t h
e
T u r k s i n 1 4 5 3 , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e h e l d o n . W h i
l e
t h e Persian E m p i r e f e l l t o A r a b armies by the
630s, B y z a n t i u m s u r v i v e d . T h a t fact is p e r h a p s
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t measure o f the success o f
B y z a n t i u m ' s m i l i t a r y r e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
O n e o f the l a s t i n g c u l t u r a l f r u i t s o f these
c o n f l i c t s w a s legends o f great heroes. These leg-
ends began as stories r e c i t e d i n verse t o e n t e r t a i n
B y z a n t i n e a r i s t o c r a t s w h o s e ancestors h a d
f o u g h t the A r a b s . Several o f these o r a l legends
w e r e e v e n t u a l l y r e f a s h i o n e d i n t o p o p u l a r
epic
p o e m s . O n e such p o e m , Digenes Akritas,
d e s c r i b e d the h e r o i c feats o f soldiers d u r i n g the
late e i g h t h c e n t u r y o n the eastern f r o n t i e r o f t h e
e m p i r e , w h e r e B y z a n t i n e s a n d A r a b s b o t h f o
u g h t
a n d c o o p e r a t e d . T h e f a t h e r o f the h e r o o f the
p o e m w a s a n A r a b c o m m a n d e r w h o a b d u c t e d
the d a u g h t e r o f a B y z a n t i n e g e n e r a l , m a r r i e d
her,
a n d c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e s o n o f t h
i s

m i x e d m a r r i a g e w a s Digenes ( " t w o - b l o o d e d " )
, a
m a n o f t w o peoples a n d t w o r e l i g i o n s , w h o
became a b o r d e r f i g h t e r (an " a k r i t a s " ) . T h i s
greatest B y z a n t i n e h e r o , w h o l i v e d between t w o
c u l t u r e s , w a s the p o e t i c e m b o d i m e n t o f the
engagement b e t w e e n B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m . T h e
legends s u r r o u n d i n g Digenes Akritas h a d a p r o -
f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n Greek l i t e r a t u r e . L a t e r w r
i t -
ers r e t o l d its stories a g a i n a n d a g a i n .
T H E C H U R C H A H D fltLiGiOus LIFE C o n s t a n t i n o
p l e
boasted so m a n y churches a n d sacred relics t h a t
by 6 0 0 the B y z a n t i n e s h a d b e g u n t o t h i n k o f i t
as
a h o l y c i t y , p r o t e c t e d by G o d a n d u n d e r the spe-
c i a l care o f the V i r g i n M a r y . C h u r c h m e n t a u g h
t
t h a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w a s a " N e w J e r u s a l e m "
t h a t w o u l d be at the center o f events at the e n d o f
days w h e n G o d w o u l d b r i n g h i s t o r y t o a n e n d
a n d j u d g e h u m a n i t y .
O n e o f the i n s t i t u t i o n a l p i l l a r s o f the O r t h o -
d o x C h u r c h i n B y z a n t i u m was the clergy. T h e y
w e r e o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h i c a l l y l i k e the i m p e
r i a l
b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e p a t r i a r c h , o r c h i e f b i s h o
p , o f
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e headed several t h o u s a n d c l e r g y
-
m e n i n the c a p i t a l a n d d i r e c t e d c h u r c h a f f a i r
s
t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e . E m p e r o r s g e n e r a l l y

c o n -
t r o l l e d the a p p o i n t m e n t o f p a t r i a r c h s , a n d o
f t e n
the t w o w o r k e d closely together. T h e p a t r i a r c h
h e l p e d i m p o s e r e l i g i o u s u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t
the
e m p i r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g the n e t w o r k o f b i s h o p
s
based i n cities near a n d far. Each city's b i s h o p
s u p e r v i s e d the v e n e r a t i o n o f the s a i n t s ' reUcs
housed i n its c h u r c h e s . (Byzantines believed t h a t
sacred relics p r o t e c t e d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , j u s t
as
t h e i r p o l y t h e i s t i c ancestors believed the gods h a d
p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n i n the p r e - C h r i s t i a n
past.)
Because bishops u s u a l l y came f r o m the city's
ehte, t h e y w e r e i n f l u e n t i a l l o c a l leaders, r e s p o n
s i -
ble f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g m a n y p u b l i c p o l i c i e s ,
n o t
j u s t r e l i g i o u s ones.
M o n a s t e r i e s , p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the
empire's l i f e . M e n a n d w o m e n w e n t t o separate
m o n a s t e r i e s t o l i v e a s p i r i t u a l l i f e , p r a y i n g
f o r
t h e i r o w n s a l v a t i o n a n d t h a t o f o t h e r s . People
e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
w h o needed h e l p , such as o r p h a n s , the elderly,
b a t t e r e d w i v e s , w i d o w s , a n d the p h y s i c a l l y a

n d
m e n t a l l y i l l , f o u n d refuge i n m o n a s t e r i e s . M o
n k s
a n d n u n s d i s t r i b u t e d f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g t o t h
e
p o o r . D o n o r s gave l a v i s h l y t o f u n d these a c t i v i
-
ties, a n d m a n y monasteries g r e w w e a l t h y
t h r o u g h these g i f t s .
D u r i n g the seventh a n d e i g h t h c e n t u r i e s .
C h r i s t i a n i n s t r u c t i o n u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n
o f
the C h u r c h r e p l a c e d the t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n e d
u -
c a t i o n a l system. Pious C h r i s t i a n s d e v e l o p e d a
s u s p i c i o n o f classical l e a r n i n g , w i t h its references
t o a n c i e n t gods a n d t o c u s t o m s t h e C h u r c h c o n
-
d e m n e d . T h o s e f e w B y z a n t i n e s w h o l e a r n e d
h o w
t o r e a d d i d so by s t u d y i n g the B i b l e , n o t the clas-
sics o f G r e e k a n t i q u i t y . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s
general
decline i n l e a r n i n g , the C h u r c h m o n o p o l i z e d c u
l -
t u r e a n d t h o u g h t . K n o w l e d g e o f classical h t e r a
-
t u r e , h i s t o r y , a n d science d i s a p p e a r e d except i n
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d even there the academi c
c o m m u n i t y was t i n y .
fCONS AND T H E i C O N O C L A , S I i C C O N T R O V E
R S Y T h e
O r t h o d o x C h u r c h created u n i t y o f f a i t h a n d c u l
-

t u r e , b u t t h a t u n i t y w a s b r o k e n i n the e i g h t h
cen-
t u r y by c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h i n the c h u r c h itself. A s
enemies t o r e at the b o r d e r s o f the e m p i r e , B y z a n -
tines w o n d e r e d w h y G o d was p u n i s h i n g t h e m .
T h e i r answer w a s t h a t s o m e h o w t h e y w e r e
a n g e r i n g G o d . C o n v i n c e d t h a t o n l y a p p e a s i
n g
G o d c o u l d save t h e m , E m p e r o r L e o I I I (r.
7 1 7 - 7 4 1 ) t o o k a c t i o n . T o m a k e B y z a n t i u m a
c o m p l e t e l y C h r i s t i a n e m p i r e , he f o r c i b l y c
o n -
v e r t e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f Jews. H i s m o s t i m p o r t
a n t
m o v e , h o w e v e r , w a s t o challenge the use o f i c o n s ,
the images o f C h r i s t a n d saints f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e
i n B y z a n t i n e w o r s h i p .
C e n t u r i e s b e f o r e , the f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s h a d
r e f u s e d t o m a k e images o f C h r i s t a n d o t h e r h o l
y
i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e y h a d t w o reasons f o r b a n n i n g
s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . F i r s t , the H e b r e w B i b
l e f o r -
bids c r e a t i n g r e p r e s e n t a d o n s o f G o d , a n d t h e
y
c o n s i d e r e d t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n s t i l l i n effect f o r
C h r i s t i a n s . Second, they t h o u g h t t h a t C h r i s t i a
n s
m i g h t s t a r t t o w o r s h i p t h e i r images the w a y t h a t
p o l y t h e i s t s w o r s h i p e d statues i n t h e i r t e m p l e
s .
" W h e n images are p u t u p , the c u s t o m s o f the
pagans d o the r e s t , " w r o r e o ne c h u r c h leader i n
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y .

D e s p i t e such w a r n i n g s , m a n y C h r i s t i a n s
r e s p o n d e d a e s t h e t i c a l l y t o the b e a u t i f u l p o l
y t h e -
ist statues a n d images t h a t f i l l e d t h e i r cities.
C h r i s t i a n s c i d p t o r s a n d p a i n t e r s s t a r t e d t o
create
a d i s t i n c t i v e C h r i s t i a n a r t t h a t c o m b i n e d r e
l i -
g i o u s images w i t h the styles a n d techniques o f
classical a r t . A f t e r C o n s t a n t i n e p u t a n e n d t o the
p e r s e c u t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n s , t h i s n e w a r t f l o
u r -
i s h e d . A r t i s t s r o u d n e l y p o r t r a y e d C h r i s t a n
d the
saints i n chur ches. D u r i n g the s i x t h a n d se ve nt h
ce nt ur ie s, B y z a n t i n e s used r e l i g i o u s images w i t
h
greater zeal t h a n ever b e f o r e . By 6 0 0 , f o r e x a m -
p l e , the e m p e r o r p l a c e d a large i m a g e o f C h r i s t
a b o v e the B r o n z e G a t e , the m a i n entrance t o the
i m p e r i a l palace i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . Smaller icons
became i n t e n s e l y p o p u l a r i n c h u r c h e s , ho m es,
a n d m o n a s t e r i e s .
B y z a n t i n e t h e o l o g i a n s defended icons as
d o o r w a y s t h r o u g h w h i c h the d i v i n e presence
c o u l d m a k e itself accessible t o believers. C h u r c h -
m e n c a u t i o n e d t h a t G o d o r saints d o n o t a c t u a l l
y
reside w i t h i n the i c o n s , a n d so believers s h o u l d
n o t w o r s h i p t h e images themselves. Rather, t h e y
s h o u l d c o n s i d e r i c o n s as o p e n i n g s t o a s p i r i t
u a l
w o r l d , e n a b l i n g believers t o e n c o u n t e r a h o l y
presence. T h u s , Byzant ines t r e a t e d i c o n s w i t h

l o v e a n d respect. M o n k s a n d n u n s w e r e p a r t i c u -
l a r l y zealous i n t h e i r v e n e r a t i o n o f i c o n s .
H o w e v e r , by the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , some B y z a n -
t i n e t h e o l o g i a n s t h o u g h t i c o n v e n e r a t i o n h
a d
gone t o o f a r a n d s o u g h t t o revive the e a r l y C h r i s -
t i a n p r o h i b i t i o n s against r e l i g i o u s images. T h e
y
a d v i s e d E m p e r o r L e o t h a t i c o n v e n e r a t i o n
s h o u l d be h a l t e d because u n e d u c a t e d believers
c o n f u s e d the i m a g e o f the i c o n w i t h w h a t i t r e p
-
resented a n d w o r s h i p e d icons as p o l y t h e i s t s w o r
-
s h i p e d i d o l s . W h e n a v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n d e s t
r o y e d
the i s l a n d o f S a n t o r i n i i n the A e g e a n , L e o c o n
-
c l u d e d t h a t these a d v i s o r s w e r e c o r r e c t a n d t h
a t
G o d w a s angered b y i c o n v e n e r a t i o n . I n 7 2 6 L e o
o r d e r e d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f h o l y images (except
f o r c r u c i f i x e s ) t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e , b u t p
u b l i c
resistance f o r c e d h i m t o m o v e c a r e f u l l y . F o r
e x a m p l e , w h e n he o r d e r e d w o r k e r s t o r e m o v e
the image o f C h r i s t f r o m the B r o n z e Gate at the
imperial pal
r i o t e d . F o u r ;
p r o h i b i t ! o n . '
i c o n o c l a s m (i
society u n t i l J

T h e venei
o f p o p u l a r reJ)
t o enforce ic,
R e v o l t s b r o k e
w h e n i m p e r i a
m a g e s . T h e ice
m t e r n a t i o n a J p
p r o h i b i d o n o f :
f ope G r e g o r y I
the West, e x c o n
d e p r i v e d the p j
H T i > i i . , » . i
BYZANTINE ICON
I n t h i s n i n t h - c e n t u r y
w i t h a p o l e is s h o w n
r e 241
c h u r c h leader i n
m a n y C h r i s t i a n s
) e a u t i f u l p o l y r h e -
i l l e d t h e i r cities,
i s t a r t e d t o create
t c o m b i n e d r e l i -
i d t e c h n i q u e s o f
p u t a n e n d t o t h e
) n e w a r t f l o u r -
d C h r i s t a n d the
i x t h a n d s e v e n t h
ous images w i t h

/ 6 0 0 , f o r e x a m -
i m a g e o f C h r i s t
1 e n t r a n c e t o t h e
le. S m a l l e r i c o n s
l u r c h e s , h o m e s ,
; n d e d icons as
d i v i n e presence
:lievers. C h u r c h -
j d o n o t a c t u a l l y
believers s h o u l d
'es. R a t h e r , t h e y
gs t o a s p i r i t u a l
c o u n t e r a h o l y
i t e d i c o n s w i t h
I S w e r e p a r t i c u -
)f i c o n s .
r y , some B y z a n -
v e n e r a t i o n h a d
t h e e a r l y C h r i s -
s images. T h e y
o n v e n e r a t i o n
:cated believers
i t h w h a t i t r e p -
l o l y t h e i s t s w o r -
3tion d e s t r o y e d
gean, L e o c o n -
o r r e c t a n d t h a t
o n . I n 7 2 6 L e o
images (except
Dire, b u t p u b l i c
c a r e f u l l y . F o r
ers t o r e m o v e
ize G a t e a t t h e

i m p e r i a l palace, t h e p e o p l e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
r i o t e d . F o u r years later, L e o r e n e w e d the general
p r o h i b i d o n . T h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f i c o n s , k n o w
n as
i c o n o c l a s m ( i m a g e b r e a k i n g ) , d i v i d e d B y z
a n t i n e
society u n t i l 8 4 2 .
T h e v e n e r a t i o n o f icons w a s such a v i t a l p a r t
o f p o p u l a r rehgious life t h a t Leo f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l
t
t o enforce i c o n o c l a s m o u t s i d e C o n s t a n t i n o p l
e .
R e v o l t s b r o k e o u t i n Greece a n d s o u t h e r n I t a l y
w h e n i m p e r i a l messengers s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y
images. T h e i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y also
affected
i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . O u t r a g e d by the e m pe
r o r 's
p r o h i b i t i o n o f icons, w h i c h he considered heresy.
Pope G r e g o r y I I I , the d o m i n a n t rehgious f i g u r e i
n
the West, e x c o m m u n i c a t e d L e o . I n r e t a h a r i o n
Leo
d e p r i v e d the p a p a c y o f r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y
over
: «iV:̂ «'t>iv4''t*'̂ *̂*.»["'.4*j>->oA'' y:
B Y Z A N T I N E I C O N O C L A S M
I n t h i s n i n t h - c e n t u r y B y z a n t i n e m a n u s c r i p
t , t h e f i g u r e
w i t h a p o l e is s h o w n w h i t i n g o u t a n i m a g e o f C
h r i s t .

s o u t h e r n I t a l y , Sicily, a n d the B a l k a n coast o f the
A d r i a t i c Sea, a u t h o r i t y the popes h a d exercised
since the f o u r t h c e n t u r y . T h e popes never f o r g a v e
the e m p e r o r because w i t h the loss o f r e l i g i o u s
a u t h o r i t y came the loss o f the p r i n c i p a l source o f
p a p a l revenues. T h i s c o n f l i c t c o n t r i b u t e d t o a
g r o w i n g r i f t b e t w e e n Greek O r t h o d o x a n d L a t
i n
C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n the f u t u r e instead o f r e l y i n g o
n
the B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r s f o r m i h t a r y p r o t e c t i
o n ,
the R o m a n popes t u r n e d n o r t h t o t h e F r a n k s . T h
e
I c o n o c l a s t i c C o n t r o v e r s y created a l a s t i n g s h
i f t
t h a t alhed the R o m a n p o p e w i t h the k i n g d o m s o f
w e s t e r n E u r o p e .
A f t e r years o f r u r m o i l , t w o B y z a n t i n e
empresses w h o w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y m o n k s a n d
w h o s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h t h e i r subjects' r e l i g i o u
s
c o n v i c t i o n s r e s t o r e d icons t o c h u r c h e s . I n 7 8
7 ,
t h e Empress Irene c a l l e d a general c h u r c h
c o u n c i l t h a t reversed Leo's c o n d e m n a t i o n o f
i c o n s . A f t e r Irene w a s deposed i n 8 0 2 i c o n o -
c l a s m r e v i v e d , b u r i n 8 4 3 the Empress
T h e o d o r a i n t r o d u c e d a r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n y
f o r c o m m e m o r a t i n g images, w h i c h O r t h o -
d o x C h r i s t i a n s s t i l l celebrate a n n u a l l y . T h e
i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y m a y have w i d e n e d
the g a p b e t w e e n G r e e k O r t h o d o x y a n d
L a t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t its r e s o l u t i o n c r e a t e

d
even greater r e l i g i o u s u n i t y w i t h i n t h e
B y z a n t i n e w o r l d . A c o m m o n r e h g i o u s c u l -
t u r e also p r o v i d e d solace a n d a s p i r i t u a l c o n -
n e c t i o n t o B y z a n t i u m f o r m a n y C h r i s t i a n s
w h o f o u n d themselves i n the f o r m e r B y z a n -
t i n e t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t I s l a m i c r u l e r s h a d c o n -
q u e r e d .
The Macedonian Renaissance
i
B y z a n t i u m ' s losses t o e x t e r n a l enemies w e r e
j reversed d u r i n g the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y
''- ( 8 6 7 - 1 0 5 6 ) , the t e r m f o r a line o f emperors
f r o m the Balkans t h a t lasted six generadons.
Before the M a c e d o n i a n s , i n s t a b i l i t y character-
I ized the B y z a n t i n e i m p e r i a l system because
w h e n a n e m p e r o r d i e d , p o w e r f u l families
struggled over w h o w o u l d become the n e w
emperor. B u t after Basil I (r. 8 6 7 - 8 8 6 ) , the
f i r s t M a c e d o n i a n , m u r d e r e d his w a y t o the
242 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e
r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
t h r o n e , his f a m i l y retained p o w e r by n a m i n g
e m p e r o r s ' sons as co-emperors a n d e n c o u r a g i n g
the p r i n c i p l e o f dynastic succession.
U n d e r t h e M a c e d o n i a n e m p e r o r s , B y z a n t i n
e

a r m i e s a n d fleets f o u g h t M u s l i m s o n several
f r o n t s . I n the east the B y z a n t i n e s p u s h e d i n t o
Syria a n d Palestine a l m o s t t o J e r u s a l e m . A large
p a r t o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n r i v e r v a l l e y f e l l i n
t o
t h e i r h a n d s . T h e y a n n e x e d the k i n g d o m o f G e
o r -
gia a n d p a r t o f A r m e n i a . I n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n
the B y z a n t i n e s r e t o o k the islands o f Crete a n d
C y p r u s a n d k e p t the M u s l i m s f r o m s o u t h e r n
I t a l y , a l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o p r e v e n t
t h e
c o n q u e s t o f Sicily, w h i c h became a center o f
M u s l i m c u l t u r e .
T h e e c o n o m y o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t h r i v e d .
H o m e t o m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l l i o n p e o p l e b y the
t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c i t y became a g r e a t m a r k e t -
p l a c e w h e r e t r a d e r s e x c h a n g e d g o o d s f r o m
as
f a r a w a y as C h i n a a n d the B r i t i s h Isles. I t w a s
also a center f o r the p r o d u c t i o n o f l u x u r y
g o o d s , especially the h i g h l y - p r i z e d s i l k c l o t h
a n d b r o c a d e s t r a d e d t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e , A s
i a ,
a n d N o r t h A f r i c a . A r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s , the
C h u r c h , a n d m o n a s t e r i e s became i m m e n s e l y
r i c h , a n d e m b e l l i s h e d the c i t y w i t h m a g n i f i c
e n t
b u i l d i n g s , m o s a i c s , a n d i c o n s , c r e a t i n g the
M a c e d o n i a n Re nai ssa n ce.
T h e M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y released c r e a t i v e
energies b y r e s t o r i n g the r e l i g i o u s u n i t y t h a t the
i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y h a d c o m p r o m i s e
d . T h e

m o s t o r i g i n a l w o r k w a s r e l i g i o u s , e m b o d i e
d i n
s e r m o n s , t h e o l o g i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , a n d
especially
h y m n s , b u t t h a n k s t o generous i m p e r i a l p a t r o n
-
age, C o n s t a n t i n o p l e also became a center f o r
p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t u d y a n d the w r i t i n g o f h i s t o
r y f o r
the f i r s t t i m e since the seventh c e n t u r y . T h e accu-
m u l a t i o n a n d s t u d y o f a n c i e n t Greek m a n u -
scripts created a n i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l l i n k
b e t w e e n the a n c i e n t a n d m e d i e v a l w o r l d s .
T h e P a t r i a r c h P h o t i u s (ca. 8 1 0 - c a . 893) w a s
one o f the m o s t e m i n e n t scholars i n the h i s t o r y o f
B y z a n t i u m . P h o t i u s m a i n t a i n e d a huge l i b r a r
y ,
w h i c h became a center f o r the s t u d y o f ancient
Greek l i t e r a t u r e . H e w r o t e i m p o r t a n t w o r k s ,
i n c l u d i n g the Library, a n encyclopedic c o m -
p e n d i u m o f classical a n d B y z a n t i n e w r i t e r s b o t
h
THE BYZANTINE PORTRAIT
T h i s i v o r y p l a q u e s h o w s t h e E m p e r o r C o n s t a
n t i n e V I I
P o r p h y r o g e n e t u s (r. 9 1 3 - 9 5 9 ) b e i n g c r o w n e
d b y
C h r i s t . I t w a s p r o b a b l y m a d e i n 9 4 4 t o c o m m e
m o r a t e
P o r p h y r o g e n e t u s ' b e c o m i n g t h e s o l e r u l e r o
f t h e
e m p i r e . U n d e r t h e e m p e r o r ' s l e f t h a n d t h e i n
s c r i p t i o n
r e a d s , " E m p e r o r o f t h e R o m a n s . "

r e l i g i o u s a n d secular. Photius's s u m m a r i e s a n d
analyses o f these w r i t e r s have r e m a i n e d especially
v i t a l because m a n y o f these b o o k s have subse-
q u e n t l y been lost. P h o u u s was also deeply
i n v o l v e d i n c h u r c h p o h t i c s a n d was t w i c e
deposed
f r o m o f f i c e because o f p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e i n C o
n -
s t a n t i n o p l e . H i s selection as p a t r i a r c h b y E m p e
r o r
M i c h a e l I I I i n
s t r o n g o p p o s i t
c r i r i c o f the I
p o p e each exec
o f t e n b l a m e d
t w o m a i n b r a n
U n d e r the
c o L u - t c e r e m o n i
o f the e m p e r o i
tine V I I P o r p h ;
Book of Ceren
r o y a l ceremony
T h e Book of C
concepts o f r u
emperor, l i k e (
these natures ^
other was deriv.
e r l y consecrate,
subjects. H e n
a n o i n t e d w i t h h
ilar to the o r d i n
ity o f m o n a r c h ;
king's a n o i n t m i

p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h
E v e n u n d e
r e m a i n e d unde
empire's succe
d e p e n d e d o n tv
g u a r a n t e e d by t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a
t h r o u g h the m i
CHRONOLO
5 2 7 - 5 6 5
6 3 0 s
6 3 6
6 4 2
6 9 8
7 1 6 - 7 1 8
7 2 6 - 8 4 2
7 4 0
7 5 1
c a . 8 1 0 - < a . 8
8 6 7 - 1 0 5 6
ft
T h e N e w W o r l d o f I s l a m 2 4 3
M i c h a e l I I I i n 858 w h i l e s t i l l a l a y m a n m e t w i t
h
s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m the R o m a n p o p e . A b i t
t e r
c r i t i c o f the L a t i n C h r i s t i a n s — P h o t i u s a n d

the
p o p e each e x c o m m u n i c a t e d the o t h e r — P h o t i u
s is
o f t e n b l a m e d f o r w i d e n i n g the gap b e t w e e n the
t w o m a i n branches o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
U n d e r the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y elaborate
c o u r t ceremonies m a g n i f i e d the quasi-sacred office
o f the e m p e r o r T h e h i s t o r i a n E m p e r o r C o n s t a
n -
tine V n P o r p h y r o g e n e u i s ( r 9 1 2 - 9 5 9 ) w r o t e
the
Book of Ceremonies, w h i c h became a m o d e l f o r
r o y a l ceremony i n k i n g d o m s f r o m Spain t o Russia.
T h e Book of Ceremonies disseminated Byzantine
concepts o f r u l e r s h i p , w h i c h suggested t h a t the
emperor, l i k e C h r i s t , h a d t w o natures. O n e o f
these natures was h u m a n a n d f a l l i b l e , b u t the
other was derived f r o m G o d , w h i c h gave the p r o p -
erly consecrated ruler d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y over his
subjects. H e n c e , Byzantine emperors were
a n o i n t e d w i t h h o l y o i l i n a ceremony t h a t w a s s i
m -
i l a r t o the o r d i n a t i o n o f priests. T h e d i v i n e a u t h
o r -
i t y o f m o n a r c h s represented by the emperor's or
king's a n o i n t m e n t became a central feature o f
p o l i t i c a l r h o u g h t d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages.
Even u n d e r the M a c e d o n i a n s , B y z a n t i u m
r e m a i n e d u n d e r the t h r e a t o f i n v a s i o n s . T h e
empire's success i n m e e t i n g these threats
d e p e n d e d o n t w o f a c t o r s — t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a b
i l i t y
g u a r a n t e e d b y the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y , a n d
the

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire: How Barbarian Invasions Contributed to Rome's Decline

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