The document summarizes the establishment of the Roman Republic after the overthrow of the Etruscan kings in 509 BCE. It describes how Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic with representative institutions like the Centuriate Assembly and the Senate. Tensions arose between the patrician elite and the plebeians over political rights and access to land. The plebeians fought for more power and representation, eventually gaining the right to elect tribunes to advocate for their interests. The founding of the Republic marked the beginning of Rome's rise as a major power in Italy under this new political system.

1. The Nature of the Roman Republic 139
;veal t h a t a
W o m e n e v i -
;d p r o s p e r i t y ,
i e d w i t h her
:atus. D u r i n g
i on increased
;came a force
; a r l y p e r i o d ,
iled the city,
t h e R o m a n
1 4 0 d i s t i n c t
Y'S f r e q u e n t l y
est f o u r cen-
this p e r i o d ,
ills t o d e f e n d
Nevertheless,
t h e R o m a n s h a d a m i c a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h some
n e i g h b o r s — p a r t i c u l a r l y the E t r u s c a n s , w h
o l i v e d
n o r t h w e s t o f R o m e .
I n the seventh a n d s i x t h centuries B . C . E . , E t r -
uscan c u l t u r e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d R o m e . B y 8
0 0
B . C . E . E t r u s c a n s , w h o s e o r i g i n s r e m a i n u n
k n o w n

2. a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y have m i g r a t e d t o I t a l y f r o
m
A n a t o l i a , w e r e f i r m l y estabhshed i n E t r u r i a
( m o d e r n T u s c a n y ) , a r e g i o n i n c e n t r a l I t a l y
b e t w e e n the A r n o a n d T i b e r r i v e r s . By t h e s i x t
h
c e n t u r y B . C . E . t h e y c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y as
f a r
s o u t h as the Bay o f N a p l e s a n d east t o the A d r i -
a t i c Sea. T h e Etruscans m a i n t a i n e d a loose c o n -
f e d e r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t cities t h a t o f t e n f o
u g h t
against o t h e r I t a l i a n peoples.
Etruscans c a r r i e d o n a l i v e l y trade w i t h
G r e e k m e r c h a n t s , e x c h a n g i n g n a t i v e i r o n
ore a n d
o t h e r resources f o r vases a n d o t h e r l u x u r y g o o d s .
C o m m e r c e became the c o n d u i t t h r o u g h w h i c h
Etruscans a n d later R o m a n s absorbed m a n y
aspects o f G r e e k c u l t u r e . T h e Etruscans, f o r
e x a m p l e , a d o p t e d the Greek a l p h a b e t a n d sub-
scribed t o m a n y Greek m y t h s , w h i c h they later
t r a n s m i t t e d t o the R o m a n s .
D u r i n g the s i x t h c e n t u r y B . C . E . , the Etruscans
r u l e d R o m e . A l t h o u g h the Etruscans a n d R o m a n s
spoke d i f f e r e n t languages, a c o m m o n c u l t u r e
d e r i v i n g f r o m native I t a l i a n , E t r u s c a n , a n d
Greek
c o m m u n i t i e s g r a d u a l l y evolved, especially i n r e l i
-
gious practice. T h e three m a i n gods o f R o m e —
Jupiter, M i n e r v a , a n d J u n o — w e r e f i r s t w o r s h i
p e d
i n E t r u r i a . (The Greek equivalents w e r e Zeus,

3. A t h e n a , a n d H e r a . ) E t r u s c a n seers t a u g h t R o m
a n s
h o w t o i n t e r p r e t omens, especially h o w t o learn
the w i l l o f the gods by e x a m i n i n g the entrails o f
sacrificed a n i m a l s . Etruscans also gave the
R o m a n s a d i s t i n c t i v e temple architecture t h a t d i f -
fered f r o m t h a t o f the Greeks. E t r u s c a n a n d later
R o m a n temples h a d m u c h deeper p o r t i c o s , cov-
ered porches s u p p o r t e d by colonnades.
Establishing the Roman Republic
By a b o u t 6 0 0 B . C . E . R o m a n s h a d p r o s p e r e d s
u f f i -
c i e n t l y t o d r a i n the m a r s h t h a t became the
F o r u m . T h e y also began t o c o n s t r u c t temples a n d
p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , i n c l u d i n g the f i r s t Senate ho
u s e.
w h e r e the elders met t o discuss c o m m u n i t y
a f f a i r s . U n d e r the r u l e o f its k i n g s , some o f w h o
m
w e r e o f E t r u s c a n o r i g i n , R o m e became an i m p o r
-
t a n t m i l i t a r y p o w e r i n I t a l y . O n l y free m a l e
i n h a b i t a n t s o f the c i t y w h o c o u l d a f f o r d t h e i
r
o w n w e a p o n s v o t e d i n the c i t i z e n assembly,
w h i c h made p u b l i c decisions w i t h the advice o f
the Senate. P o o r m e n c o u l d f i g h t b u t n o t v o t e .
T h u s began the s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n r i c h a n d p o o r
t h a t w o u l d p l a g u e R o m a n life f o r centuries.
A b o u t 5 0 0 B . C . E . , w h e n R o m e h a d become a
p o w e r f u l c i t y w i t h p e r h a p s 3 5 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a
n t s ,
the R o m a n s p u t a n e n d t o k i n g s h i p a n d estab-

4. l i s h e d a r e p u b l i c , a state i n w h i c h p o l i t i c a l p o
w e r
resides i n the p e o p l e a n d t h e i r representatives
r a t h e r t h a n i n a m o n a r c h . A c c o r d i n g t o l e g e n
d ,
i n 5 0 9 B . C . E . L u c i u s J u n u s B r u t u s , a m e m b e
r o f
t h e r u l i n g d y n a s t i c f a m i l y , o v e r t h r e w the t y
r a n n i -
cal E t r u s c a n k i n g , T a r q u i n the P r o u d .
A f t e r the m o n a r c h y was a b o l i s h e d , R o m e
established several n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t s t r u c t u r
e d
p o l i t i c a l life f o r 5 0 0 years. A n assembly c o m p r i s -
i n g Rome's male citizens, called the C e n t u r i a t e
Assembly, managed the city's legislative, j u d i c i a l ,
a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a f f a i r s . As i n the Greek
poleis,
o n l y m e n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p u b l i c l i f e . Each
year, the
assembly elected t w o chief executives called c o n -
suls, w h o c o u l d a d m i n i s t e r the l a w b u t w h o s e
deci-
sions c o u l d be appealed t o the assembly. I n t i m e ,
the assembly also elected a d d i t i o n a l officers t o deal
w i t h legal a n d f i n a n c i a l responsibilities. T h e Sen-
ate, c o m p r i s i n g a b o u t 3 0 0 R o m a n s w h o h a d h e
l d
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e offices, advised the consuls, t h o u g h
the senators h a d n o f o r m a l a u t h o r i t y . Priests per-
f o r m e d religious ceremonies o n behalf o f the city.
H a t r e d o f k i n g s , w h i c h became a staple o f R o m a n
p o h t i c a l t h o u g h t , prevented any one m a n f r o m
b e c o m i n g t o o p r o m i n e n t . A relatively s m a l l g r o
u p

5. o f i n f l u e n t i a l families h e l d real p o w e r w i t h i n the
p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y by m o n o p o l i z i n g the m a
i n
offices a n d w o r k i t i g b e h i n d the scenes. As w e saw
i n C h a p t e r 3, this k i n d o f g o v e r n m e n t is k n o w n
as
an o l i g a r c h y , or the r u l e o f the f e w .
T o celebrate the e n d o f the m o n a r c h y , the
p e o p l e o f R o m e b u i l t a g r a n d n e w t e m p l e t o
J u p i t e r o n t h e C a p i t o l i n e H i l l , l o o k i n g d o w
n o n
the F o r u m . T h e y also established the c o m m u n i t y
140 CHAPTER 5 The Roman Republic
o f Vestal V i r g i n s , priestesses w h o served as care-
takers o f the sacred fire a n d h e a r t h i n the T e m p l e
o f Vesta, one o f Rome's m o s t a n c i e n t r e l i g i o u s
sites. I n such w a y s the w e l f a r e o f R o m e became a
shared p u b l i c c o n c e r n .
Tensions between social g r o u p s shaped
R o m a n p o l i t i c a l life d u r i n g the R e p u b l i c . A t
the
t o p o f the social h i e r a r c h y s t o o d the p a t r i c i a n s ,
a
w e a l t h y elite w h o traced their ancestry back to
r o y a l R o m e . These families c l a i m e d t o have t o p -
p l e d the m o n a r c h y . Because they m o n o p o l i z e d the
magistracies a n d the p r i e s t h o o d s , patri ci ans occu-
pied most o i the seats i n the Senate. Other rich
l a n d o w n e r s a n d senators w i t h lesser pedigrees, as
w e l l as the prosperous farmers w h o made up the

6. army's r a n k s , j o i n e d the patri ci ans i n resisting
the plebeians, the general b o d y o f R o m a n citizens.
T h e plebeians generally occupied the l o w e r r a n k s
o f R o m a n society, a l t h o u g h some o f t h e m m a n -
aged t o acquire significant w e a l t h . T h e plebeians
demanded m o r e p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s , such as a f a i r
share
o f d i s t r i b u t e d p u b l i c l a n d a n d f r e e d o m f r o m
debt
bondage. These efforts o f p o o r R o m a n s t o acquire
a p o l i t i c a l voice, called the Struggle o f the O r d e r s ,
accelerated d u r i n g the f i f t h c e n t u r y B . C . E . , w h e
n
R o m e experienced a severe economic recession.
T h e m a i n w e a p o n t h a t the plebeians h a d i n
this struggle was the t h r e a t , realized o n o n l y three
occasions, o f l i t e r a l l y l e a v i n g the city, t h e r e b y
b r i n g i n g e c o n o m i c life t o a s t a n d s t i l l a n d d e p
r i v i n g
the a r m y o f its soldiers. T h e f i r s t v i c t o r y i n the ple-
beians' struggle came i n 4 9 4 B . C . E . , w h e n they w o n
the r i g h t t o elect t w o t r i b u n e s each year as their
spokesmen. T r i b u n e s c o u l d veto magistrates' deci-
sions a n d so b l o c k a r b i t r a r y j u d i c i a l actions by
the
p a t r i c i a n s . I n 4 7 1 B . C . E . , a n e w Plebeian
Assembly
gave plebeians the o p p o r t u n i t y to express their
p o h t i c a l views i n a f o r m a l setting, a l t h o u g h w i t h
-
o u t the a u t h o r i t y t o enact legislation.
I n 4 4 5 B . C . E . , a n e w l a w p e r m i t t e d m arri age
between plebeians and p a t r i c i a n s . T h i s enabled
w e a l t h y plebeians t o m a r r y i n t o p a t r i c i a n

7. famiUes.
I n 3 6 7 B . C . E . , p o l i t i c i a n s agreed t h a t one o f
each
year's t w o consuls s h o u l d be a plebeian. T h e
plebeians n o w were f u l l y integrated i n t o R o m a n
g o v e r n m e n t . M o r e o v e r , R o m a n s also l i m i t e d
the
a m o u n t o f p u b l i c l a n d t h a t c o u l d be d i s t r i b u t
e d t o
any citizen. T h e new arrangement prevented p a t r i -
cians f r o m seizing the lion's share o f conquered ter-
r i t o r i e s and enabled p o o r citizen soldiers ro receive
captured l a n d . T h e last concession to the plebeians
came i n 2 8 7 B . C . E . , w h e n the decisions o f the Ple-
beian Assembly became b i n d i n g o n the w h o l e state.
W h e n P o l y b i u s c h r o n i c l e d the meteoric rise o f
R o m e t o w o r l d p o w e r , he a t t r i b u t e d the success
o f the R e p u b l i c t o its m i x t u r e o f the three f o r m s o
f
g o v e r n m e n t i d e n t i f i e d b y A r i s t o t l e : m o n a r
c h y ,
aristocracy a n d democracy. I n the R o m a n R e p u b -
l i c , t w o consuls represented m o n a r c h y , the Senate
aristocracy (those considered vTost fit t o r u l e ) , a n d
the assemblies, w h i c h i n c l u d e d b o t h p a t r i c i a n s a
n d
plebeians, d e m o c r a c y A c c o r d i n g t o P o l y b i u s ,
this
r e p u b l i c a n m i x t u r e o f the three f o r m s o f g o v e r
n -
m e n t was supposed t o prevent the evils t h a t threat-
ened to emerge f r o m each: despotism f r o m
m o n a r c h y , o l i g a r c h y f r o m aristocracy, a n d m o b -
r u l e f r o m democracy. As i t t u r n e d o u t , aristocracy

8. tended t o p t e v a i l i n the R o m a n R e p u b h c because
the t w o consuls w e r e a l m o s t a l w a y s r i c h senators
a n d because p a t r i c i a n s usually h a d the u p p e r h a n d
i n the assemblies. I t is t r u e t h a t the plebeians i n the
assembly c o u l d check the p o w e r o f the p a t r i c i a n s ,
a n d t o t h a t extent the R o m a n c o n s t i t u t i o n was
" b a l a n c e d . " But w e a l t h y plebeians, w h o repre-
sented the " d e m o c r a t i c " element i n the R o m a n
c o n s t i t u t i o n , j o i n e d the p a t r i c i a n s t o f o r m a
n e w
r u l i n g elite. T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f the R o m a n R e p
u b -
lic w a s t h e r e f o r e n o t as balanced as P o l y b i u s
boasted. H i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h a t g o v e r n m e n t , h
o w -
ever, had a lasting i m p a c t o n the efforts o f later
W e s t e r n regimes t o establish a f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n
t
i n w h i c h representatives o f " t h e o n e , " " t h e f e w , "
a n d " t h e m a n y " all h a d a voice.
KoirinaR Law
T h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the p a t r i c i a n s a n d t h e p
l e -
beians d u r i n g t h e e a r l y R e p u b l i c r e s u l t e d i n t
h e
f o r m u l a t i o n o f a b o d y o f l a w g o v e r n i n g r e l a -
t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s ( p r i v a t e l a w ) a n
d
b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ( p
u b l i c
l a w ) . W h e n the R e p u b l i c w a s f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e
d ,
l e g a l d i s p u t e s w e r e s e t t l e d b y a p p e a l i n g t o
a

9. b o d y o f u n w r i t t e n c u s t o m s t h a t w e r e b e l i e v
e d
jUSTiCt
A, C o r r u p t R
o f E x t o i t i o n
Governors sei
provinces wie
corrupted the
w h o was con'
for his flagran
Sicily. The coi
f o u n d guilty i
the Roman R(
t i o n of lands i
one of Rome'
men of h i g h i
honest gover
subjects. The
Rome at its b
While gov
had looted Si
his pursuit of
and sometim
raged victims
tious lawyer f
to prosecute
a better advo
The prosei
of Cicero's illi
active politici
of the Repub

10. most influent
civilization, o
political life a
His many lite
thinkers f r o m
In the Ron
equestrians, I
racy, betweei
juries for civil
m i t t e d . All ac
bring a case i
d o m to d o sc
accusers woe
of the accuse
decision of tf
142 CHAPTER 5 The Roman Republic
the g o o d name w h i c h o u g h t always t o be
y o u r s . . . . I spent fifty days o n a careful investi-
gation of the entire island of Sicily; I g o t t o
kn ow every d o c u m e n t , every w r o n g suffered
either by a c o m m u n i t y or an i n d i v i d u a l . . . .
For three long years he so thoroughly
despoiled and pillaged the province that its
restoration to its previous state is out of the
q u e s t i o n . . . . All the property that anyone In Sicily
still has for his o w n today is merely w h a t hap-
pened to escape the attention of this avaricious
lecher, or survived his glutted appetites.... It was
an appalling disgrace for our country.

11. . . . In the first stage of the trial, then, my
charge is this. I accuse Gaius Verres of c o m m i t -
t i n g acts of lechery and brutality against the cit-
izens and allies of Rome, and many crimes
against God and m a n . I claim that he has ille-
gally taken f r o m Sicily sums a m o u n t i n g to forty
million sesterces. By the witnesses and docu-
ments, public and private, w h i c h I am g o i n g
t o cite, 1 shall convince y o u t h a t these charges
are true.^
Cicero's speech was persuasive, and the jury
f o u n d Verres guilty. Verres w e n t into exile in Mar-
seilles t o avoid his sentence, but he d i d not avoid
punishment altogether, justice—relentless and
ironic—caught up w i t h him years later du r in g the
civil wars that followed Julius Caesar's death in
44 B.C.E. Mark Antony, w h o was also a connoisseur
of other people's wealth, wanted Verres's art col-
lection for himself and so p u t Verres's name on a
death list t o obtain it. The former govemor of
Sicily was murdered in 43 B.C.E.
In his prosecution of Verres, Cicero delivered
more than an i n d i c t m e n t of one c o rrupt m a n . He
revealed some of the deepest flaws of the Roman
Republic. The trial inspired short-term reforms,
b u t not until the reign of Emperor Augustus
(r. 27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) d i d Roman administration
of provincial populations become more just.
Source: From Selected Worki: Against Verres 1; Twenty-Three
Letters; The Second Philippic Against Antony; On Duties, 117;
On Old Age by Cicero, translated by Michael Grant (Pen-
guin Classics 1960, second revised edition 1971.) Copy-

12. right® 1960, 1965, 1971 by Michael Grant. Reproduced
by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.
For Discussion
1 . What does the trial of Verres reveal a b o u t
weaknesses in the Roman Republic?
2. Cicero's speech illustrates his disdain for cor-
r u p t i o n and tyranny. What are the tensions
between personal morality and the require-
ments of governing a large empire?
Taking It Further
Gruen, Erich S. The Last Ceneration of the
Roman Republic. Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1974. A magisterial analysis of
the republic's decline, w i t h emphasis o n
legal affairs.
Rawson, Elizabeth. Cicero: A Portrait. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1975. This book
gives a balanced account of Cicero's life.
, — - — ^
t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t . W h e n
t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f these a n c i e n t c u s t o m s i n a spe-
c i f i c case w a s u n c l e a r , a b o d y o f p a t r i c i a n s
k n o w n as t h e p o n t i f f s w o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h e l a
w .
W h e n p l e b e i a n s b e g a n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e
p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f t h e R e p u b l i c , t h e y r e c o g n i
z e d

13. t h a t t h e p a t r i c i a n s m i g h t i n t e r p r e t t h e l a w i
n
f a v o r o f t h e i r s o c i a l class. T h e assembly t h e r e -
f o r e d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e l a w be p u t i n w r i t i n g
so
t h a t d e c i s i o n s b y t h e p o n t i f f s h a d t o be based o
n
a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d p u b l i c l y k n o w n t e x t .
A c c o r d i n g l y , a c o m m i s s i o n a p p o i n t e d i n 4 5
1
B . C . E . p r o d u c e d a b o d y o f w r i t t e n l a w k n o w
n as
k n o w n as t h e L a w o f t h e T w e l v e T a b l e s , w h i c
h
w a s i n s c r i b e d o n t w e l v e b r o n z e t a b l e t s a n d
p o s t e d i n t h e F o r u m . T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , w h i c
h
w a s s u p p o s e d l y m o d e l e d o n t h e A t h e n i a n l a
w
o f S o l o n , w a s a c t u a l l y a w r i t t e n s u m m a r y o f
e x i s t i n g c u s t o m a r y l a w , n o t n e w l a w b e i n g
h a n d e d d o w n f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e .
T h e o r i g i n
Tables has n o
legal d o c u m e n
b r o a d o u t l i n e j
p r o p e r p r o t e c
r e m a i n u n d e r
w h e n they h a i
d e b t b o n d a g e I
one stands s u n
harness, o r i n i
t o the p l e b e i a r
stance o f the

14. u n f a v o r a b l e t o
i t spelled o u t .
zens discoverer
w h i c h i n c i v i l
m e a n t t h e y w o
i s t r a t e , w h o w<
t o e x a m i n e w i t
i n serious c r i
w o u l d the mag
c u r i n g the cas(
R e p u b h c d i d i
T w e l v e Tables
a m o n g themsel
i n g serious p h y
T h e T w e l v f
disputes among
disputes i n v o l v j
a c q u i r e d distan
a n o t h e r b o d y <
n a t i o n s . Becaus
considered t o b
was o f t e n equa
justice believed
prescribed b y
beame, in effect
R o m a n law
later years o f t h
a n d i n the s i x t l
Jusrinian p r o m i
as the Corpus Ji
legal code later
systems o f mos
never failed t o r
Tables lay at th

15. code. T h u s , the
Roman Territorial Expansion 143
T h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f the L a w o f the T w e l v e
Tables has n o t s u r v i v e d , b u t references i n later
legal d o c u m e n t s p r o v i d e a f a i r l y g o o d idea o f its
b r o a d o u t l i n e s . I t c o v e r e d such m a t t e r s as the
p r o p e r p r o t e c t i o n o f w o m e n ( " W o m e n s h a l l
r e m a i n u n d e r the g u a r d i a n s h i p [ o f a m a n ] even
w h e n they have reached legal a d u l t h o o d " ) a n d
d e b t b o n d a g e ("Unless he pays his d e b t o r some-
one stands surety f o r h i m i n c o u r t , b i n d h i m i n a
harness, o r i n c h a i n s . . . . " ) . T h e value o f the t e x t
t o the plebeians resided n o t so m u c h i n the s u b -
stance o f the l a w , w h i c h w a s i n m a n y respects
u n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e m , b u t i n the legal p r o c e d u r
e s
i t spelled o u t . W i t h the l a w n o w p u b l i s h e d , c i t i -
zens discovered h o w t o s t a r t a legal p r o c e e d i n g ,
w h i c h i n c i v i l cases (those i n v o l v i n g p r o p e r t y )
m e a n t they w o u l d b r i n g the charge before a m a g -
i s t r a t e , w h o w o u l d t h e n a p p o i n t a p r i v a t e c i
t i z e n
t o e x a m i n e witnesses a n d reach a d e c i s i o n . O n l y
i n serious c r i m i n a l cases, such as h o m i c i d e ,
w o u l d the m a g i s t r a t e t a k e the i n i t i a t i v e i n
prose-
c u t i n g the case by himself. Because the R o m a n
R e p u b l i c d i d n o t have a large bureaucracy, the
T w e l v e Tables encouraged citizens t o settle cases
a m o n g themselves, even i n c r i m i n a l cases i n v o l v -
i n g serious p h y s i c a l i n j u r y .

16. T h e T w e l v e Tables governed c i v i l a n d c r i m i n a l
disputes a m o n g R o m a n citizens. T h e frequency o f
disputes i n v o l v i n g noncitizens, especially as R o m e
a c q u i r e d d i s t a n t lands, led t o the establishment o f
another b o d y o f l a w , the jus gentium o r l a w o f
n a t i o n s . Because this l a w was based o n w h a t was
considered t o be the l a w o f all c i v i l i z e d people, i t
was o f t e n equated w i t h n a t u r a l l a w , a system o f
justice believed t o be inherent i n nature r a t h e r t h a n
prescribed b y h u m a n beings. T h e jus gentium
beame, i n effect, the f i r s t b o d y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a
w .
R o m a n l a w developed significantly d u r i n g the
later years o f the R o m a n R e p u b l i c a n d the e m p i r e ,
a n d i n the s i x t h century C . E . the R o m a n emperor
Justinian p r o m u l g a t e d a massive Vegae k n o w n
as the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of C i v i l L a w ) . T h i s
legal code later became the f o u n d a t i o n o f the legal
systems o f m o s t E u r o p e a n countries. B u t R o m a n s
never f a i l e d t o recognize t h a t the L a w o f the Twelve
Tables l a y at the core o f this comprehensive legal
code. T h u s , the l a w w r i t t e n d o w n at the behest o f
plebeians i n the early R o m a n R e p u b l i c became the
f o u n d a t i o n o f the legal c u l t u r e o f the West.
ROMAN TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
a H o w d i d t h e R o m a n R e p u b l i c c o m e
t o d o m i n a t e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d
d u r i n g t h e H e l l e n i s t i c A g e ?
U n d e r the r e p u b l i c , R o m e c o n q u e r e d a n d i n c
o r -
p o r a t e d a l l o f I t a l y , the vast C a r t h a g i n i a n E m

17. p i r e
i n N o r t h A f r i c a , Spain, a n d m a n y o f the C e l t i c
lands t o the n o r t h a n d west o f I t a l y (see M a p 5 . 2 ) .
As a result o f these conquests, the R o m a n state
h a d t o change the m e t h o d s o f g o v e r n m e n t estab-
lished i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y B . C . E .
The Italian Peninsula
T h e n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s
t h a t
developed i n R o m e enabled the R o m a n s t o c o n -
quer the entire I t a l i a n peninsula by 2 6 3 B.C.E. I n the
process the R o m a n s learned the f u n d a m e n t a l les-
sons necessary f o r r u l i n g larger territo r ies a b r o a d .
R o m a n s began t o e x p a n d their r e a l m b y a l l y i n g
w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g cities m Italy. F o r centuries,
R o m e a n d the o t h e r L a t i n - s p e a k i n g peoples o f
L a t i u m (the r e g i o n o f c e n t r a l I t a l y w h e r e R o m
e
was situated) h a d belonged t o a loose c o a l i t i o n o f
cities called the L a t i n League. Citizens o f these
cities shared close c o m m e r c i a l a n d legal ties a n d
c o u l d i n t e r m a r r y w i t h o u t losing citizenship r i g h t
s
i n their native cities. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , they f o r g e d
close m i l i t a r y alliances w i t h one another.
I n 4 9 3 B . C . E . R o m e l e d t h e L a t i n c i t i e s i n
b a t t l e a g a i n s t fierce h i l l t r i b e s w h o c o v e t e d
L a t i u m ' s r i c h f a r m l a n d s . F r o m t h e success o f
t h i s v e n t u r e , R o m e l e a r n e d the v a l u e o f p o l i t
i c a l
a l l i a n c e s w i t h n e i g h b o r s . R o m e a n d i t s a l l i
e s
n e x t c o n f r o n t e d t h e E t r u s c a n s . I n 3 9 6 B . C . E

18. . t h e
R o m a n s o v e r c a m e t h e E t r u s c a n c i t y o f V e i i
t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y m i g h t a n
d
s h r e w d p o l i r i c a J m a n e u v e r i n g . F r o m t h i s e
x p e r i -
ence, t h e R o m a n s d i s c o v e r e d t h e uses o f c a r e f u
l
d i p l o m a c y .
150 CHAPTER 5 The Roman Republic
the R o m a n s c o u l d rely. These u n p o p u l a r regimes
reflected the class distinctions o f R o m e itself. W h e n
A n t i o c h u s I H sent a n a r m y t o free Greece f r o m
R o m a n c o n t r o l , R o m e defeated h i m i n 189 B . C . E .
R o m e i m p o s e d heavy reparations b u t t o o k n o t e r r i -
t o r y , p r e f e r r i n g t o p r o t e c t the n e w l y freed
Greek
cities o f A n a t o l i a a n d Greece f r o m a distance.
Rome's p o l i c y o f c o n t r o l f r o m a distance
changed after a t h i r d w a r w i t h M a c e d o n ( 1 7 2 - 1 6 7
B . C . E . ) , w h e n a n e w M a c e d o n i a n k i n g t r i e d t
o sup-
p l a n t R o m e as p r o t e c t o r o f Greece. A f t e r a smash-
i n g v i c t o r y , R o m e d i v i d e d M a c e d o n i n t o f o u
r
separate repubhcs a n d f o r b a d e m a r r i a g e a n d trade
a m o n g t h e m . R o m a n t r o o p s ruthlessly stamped
o u t a l l o p p o s i t i o n , d e s t r o y i n g 70 cities a n d
selling
1 5 0 , 0 0 0 people i n t o slavery. T h e same fate

19. a w a i t e d the Achaean cities t h a t t u r n e d against
R o m e , m o s t n o t a b l y C o r i n t h , w h o s e d e s t r u c
t i o n at
the hands o f the R o m a n general M u m m i u s was
described at the b e g i n n i n g o f this chapter.
THE CULTURE OF
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
s F l o w d i d t h e R o m a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h G r e e k
c u l t u r e i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d l e a d t o t h e
f o r g i n g o f a d u r a b l e G r e c o - R o m a n
c u l t u r a l s y i i t h c s i s ?
D u r i n g f i v e centuries o f r e p u b l i c a n r u l e , R o m e
cre-
ated a n e w c u l t u r a l synthesis b y m i x i n g elements
o f its o w n c u l t u r e w i t h t h a t o f Greece. T h e result-
i n g synthesis, w h i c h R o m e later disseminated
t h r o u g h o u t its e m p i r e , became a m a j o r f o u n d a t
i o n
o f W e s t e r n i d e n t i t y . M u c h o f the Greek c u l t u r e
t h a t R o m e assimilated a n d m o d i f i e d o r i g i n a t e d i
n
the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a n d the m a i n i m p e t u s o
f
this c u l t u r a l exchange was R o m a n t e r r i t o r i a l
e x p a n s i o n w i t h i n the H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d .
The Encounter between Hellenistic
and Roman Culture
R o m a n s h a d i n t e r a c t e d w i t h G r e e k c u l t u r e f
o r
c e n t u r i e s , f i r s t i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h E t r u s c a
n

20. i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , a n d t h e n t h r o u g h d i r e c t c o
n t a c t
w i t h G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y a
n d
Sicily. D u r i n g t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . , w h e
n
R o m e a c q u i r e d the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n
t h r o u g h its w a r s w i t h M a c e d o n a n d t h e Seleu-
c i d s , H e l l e n i s m ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l i n f l u e n c e o
n R o m e
a c c e l e r a t e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o f i n e statues a n d
p a i n t i n g s , G r e e k ideas a b o u t h t e r a t u r e , a r t , p
h i -
l o s o p h y , a n d r h e t o r i c p o u r e d i n t o R o m e a f t e
r
the M a c e d o n i a n w a r s .
T h i s H e l l e n i s t i c legacy c h a l l e n g e d m a n y
R o m a n a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the w o r l d . B u t t h e
r e
was a p a r a d o x i n h o w R o m a n p a t r i c i a n s
r e a c t e d t o H e l l e n i s m . M a n y n o b l e m e n i n R o
m e
f e l t t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e n o v e l t y o f H e l l e n i s t i
c
ideas. T h e y p r e f e r r e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r conser-
v a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s o f p u b l i c l i f e a n d t h o u g h t
.
T h e y w a n t e d t o preserve t h e i m a g e o f a s t r o n g
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t R o m a n c u l t u r e , u n t a i n t e d
b y
f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s . T h u s , d u r i n g t h e second
cen-
t u r y B . C . E . , R o m a n s o c c a s i o n a l l y t r i e d t o e
x p e l
G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m R o m e because t h e y

21. w o r r i e d t h a t G r e e k ideas m i g h t u n d e r m i n e t r a
-
d i t i o n a l R o m a n v a l u e s . Yet m a n y R o m a n a r i s
-
t o c r a t s also a d m i r e d the s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f G r
e e k
p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , a r t , a n d l i t e r a t u r e a n d w i
s h e d
t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the H e l l e n i s t i c c o m m u n i t y
.
C o n s e q u e n t l y m a n y m e m b e r s o f t h e
R o m a n e l i t e l e a r n e d G r e e k , b u t r e f u s e d t o
s p e a k i t w h i l e o n o f f i c i a l business i n t h e East.
W h i l e L a t i n r e m a i n e d t h e l a n g u a g e s p o k e n i
n
t h e Senate h o u s e , s e n a t o r s h i r e d G r e e k t u t o r s
t o i n s t r u c t t h e i r sons a t h o m e i n p h i l o s o p h y ,
l i t e r a t u r e , h i s t o r y , a n d r h e t o r i c , a n d G r e e
k
i n t e l l e c t u a l s f o u n d a w a r m w e l c o m e f r o m
R o m e ' s u p p e r class. C a t o the C e n s o r , t h e sena-
t o r w h o h a d i n s i s t e d t h a t R o m e d e s t r o y
C a r t h a g e , e m b o d i e d t h e p a r a d o x o f m a i n t a i
n -
i n g p u b l i c d i s t a n c e f r o m G r e e k c u l t u r e w h i l
e
p r i v a t e l y c h e r i s h i n g i t . H e c u l t i v a t e d a n
a p p e a r a n c e o f f o r t h r i g h t n e s s a n d h o n e s t y ,
t r a -
d i t i o n a l R o m a n v a l u e s t h a t he c l a i m e d w e r e
t h r e a t e n e d b y G r e e k c u l t u r e . H e p u b l i c l y
d e n o u n c e d G r e e k o r a t o r y as u n m a n l y , w h i l e
d r a w i n g u p o n his deep k n o w l e d g e o f G r e e k
r h e t o r i c a n d l i t e r a t u r e t o w r i t e his speeches
p r a i s i n g R o m a n c u l t u r e .

22. C I R C U L A R TEMi
This circular temp
century B.C.E. It is
and the original n
f r o m Greece.
Before t h e i r ex
i n the second cen
interest i n l i t e r a t
m a i n l y o f i n s c r i p t
b r o n z e plaques h u i
he b u i l d m g s . F a m i
eulogies o f t h e i r ;
t a i n e d s i m p l e lists
vals. By a b o u t 24i
f o r m e r Greek slave
mas i n t o L a t i n . I n
Q u i n t u s Fab iu s Pic
G r e e k — t h e f i r s t m,
H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t
R o m a n d r a m a . T w
(ca. 2 5 0 - 1 8 4 B . C . I
The Culture of the Roman Republic 151
direct c o n t a c t
e r n I t a l y a n d
B . C . E . , w h e n
l e d i t e r r a n e a n
n d t h e Seleu-

23. nce o n R o m e
statues a n d
t u r e , a r t , p h i -
3 R o m e a f t e r
lenged m a n y
r i d . B u t t h e r e
m p a t r i c i a n s
m e n i n R o m e
)f H e l l e n i s t i c
t h e i r conser-
i n d t h o u g h t .
;e o f a s t r o n g
u n t a i n t e d b y
e second cen-
; r i e d t o e x p e l
because t h e y
i d e r m i n e t r a -
R o m a n a r i s -
t i o n o f G r e e k
e a n d w i s h e d
T i m u n i t y .
lers o f t h e
t r e f u s e d t o
3 i n t h e East,
ge s p o k e n i n
G r e e k t u t o r s
1 p h i l o s o p h y ,
, a n d G r e e k
; l c o m e f r o m
sor, t h e sena-

24. D m e d e s t r o y
o f m a i n t a i n -
: u l t u r e w h i l e
u l t i v a t e d a n
h o n e s t y , t r a -
; l a i m e d w e r e
H e p u b l i c l y
m a n l y , w h i l e
Ige o f G r e e k
h i s speeches
C I R C U L A R T E M P L E
This circular t e m p l e f r o m t h e c i t y of Rome near t h e T
i b e r River dates t o t h e late s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B.C.E. It is t h e earliest s u r v i v i n g m a r b l e t
e m p l e in Rome. T h e p l a n of t h e t e m p l e
and t h e o r i g i n a l m a r b l e of t h e c o l u m n s a n d m u
c h of t h e rest of t h e b u i l d i n g c a m e
f r o m Greece.
Before t h e i r e x p o s u r e t o the H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d
i n the second c e n t u r y B . C . E . , R o m a n s h a d l i t t l e
interest i n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e i r w r i t i n g consisted
m a i n l y o f i n s c r i p t i o n s o f l a w s a n d treaties o n
b r o n z e plaques h u n g f r o m the o u t e r w a l l s o f p u b
-
lic b u i l d i n g s . Families k e p t records o f the f u n e r a l
eulogies o f t h e i r ancestors, w h i l e priests m a i n -
t a i n e d s i m p l e lists o f events a n d r e l i g i o u s festi-
vals. By a b o u t 2 4 0 B . C . E . , L i v i u s A n d r o n i c u s
, a
f o r m e r G r e e k slave, began t o translate Greek d r a -
mas i n t o L a t i n . I n 2 2 0 B . C . E . , a R o m a n senator,

25. Q u i n t u s Fabius Pictor, w r o t e a h i s t o r y o f R o m e i n
G r e e k — t h e f i r s t m a j o r R o m a n prose w o r k .
H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e also h a d a m a j o r i m p a c t o
n
R o m a n d r a m a . T w o R o m a n p l a y w r i g h t s ,
Plautus
(ca. 2 5 0 - 1 8 4 B . C . E . ) a n d Terence (ca. 1 9 0 - 1 5 9
B . C . E . ) , t o o k t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m H e l l e n
i s t i c
N e w C o m e d y a n d injected h u m o r a n d w i t i n t o
R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e i r s u r v i v i n g w o r k s , w
h i c h
w e r e a l w a y s set i n the Greek w o r l d , o f f e r enter-
t a i n i n g glimpses i n t o the p i t f a l l s o f everyday hfe
w h i l e also r e i n f o r c i n g the p a t r i c i a n values o f the
rulers o f Rome's vast n e w d o m a i n s .
Art and Architecture
T h e massive i n f u s i o n o f H e l l e n i s t i c a r t t o R o m
e
f o l l o w i n g the M a c e d o n i a n w a r s i n e v i t a b l y
affected p u b l i c taste. T h e m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s w o r k
s
o f a r t d e c o r a t e d p u b l i c shrines a n d spaces
t h r o u g h o u t the c i t y . M a n y o t h e r s w e n t t o p r i v
a t e
c o l l e c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g G a i u s Verres, the c o r r u p
t
152 CHAPTER s The Roman Republic
£ ;,iTnor o f Sicily w h o p l u n d e r e d the a r t i s t i c

26. - t i s ' j r e s o f t h a t p r o v i n c e w h e n he was g o v e r -
- _ : r e t w e e n 73 a n d 7 1 B . C . E . (See Justice in His-
- i n t h i s chapter.) I r o n i c a l l y C i c e r o , w h o
- - secuted Verres, w a s h i m s e l f a n a v i d c o l l e c t o r
: Greek a r t . T h e m a n i a f o r G r e e k a r t became
: intense t h a t G r e e k a r t i s t s s o o n m o v e d t o
vome t o enjoy t h e p a t r o n a g e of w e a l t h y
R o m a n s .
I n R o m e t h e s e artists o f t e n p r o d u c e d copies
o f G r e e k o r i g i n a l s . I n m a n y cases o n l y these
R o m a n copies have s u r v i v e d . I f i t h a d n o t been
f o r the G r e e k artists i n R o m e , t h e r e f o r e , m a n y
treasures o f G r e e k a r t w o u l d have been lost t o
p o s t e r i t y . T h e e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n Greece a n d
R o m e w a s n o t , h o w e v e r , l i m i t e d t o the i m i t a t
i o n
o f G r e e k w o r k s . I n p o r t r a i t s c u l p t u r e , f o r e x
a m -
p l e , a reahstic style d e v e l o p e d i n R o m e t h a t
u n f l i n c h i n g l y d e p i c t e d a l l t h e w r i n k l e s o f e
x p e r i -
ence o n a person's face. I n t h i s w a y t h e v e n e r a -
ble R o m a n t r a d i t i o n o f m a k i n g ancestral masks
m e r g e d w i t h G r e e k a r t .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f R o m a n a r c h i t e c t u r e
d u r i n g t h e R e p u b l i c t e l l s a s i m i l a r s t o r y . T h
e
e a r l y R o m a n w o r k s of a r c h i t e c t u r e w e r e essen-
t i a l l y c o p i e s o f G r e e k o r i g i n a l s , c o m p l e t e
w i t h
t h e t h r e e o r d e r s o f D o r i c , I o n i c , a n d

27. C o r i n t h i a n c a p i t a l s o n t h e c o l u m n s . T h e m a
i n
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t R o m a n s m a d e to a r c h i t e c
-
t u r e w e r e s t r u c t u r a l , as i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f
arches, v a u l t s , a n d d o m e s , r a t h e r t h a n i n a r t i s
-
t i c d e s i g n . I n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . , h o w e
v e r ,
t h e m a g n i f i c e n t t e m p l e o f F o r t u n e at Praeneste,
a t o w n near R o m e , c o m b i n e d I t a l i a n a n d H e l -
l e n i s t i c c o n c e p t s i n a g e n u i n e l y G r e c o - R o
m a n
s t y l e . B y t h e e n d of t h e R e p u b l i c , R o m a n s h a
d
g a i n e d e n o u g h c o n f i d e n c e to a d o p t t h e i n t e l
l e c -
t u a l h e r i t a g e o f Greece a n d use i t to serve t h e i r
o w n ends w i t h o u t fear o f s e e m i n g " t o o
G r e e k . "
Philosophy and Religion
M a n y e d u c a t e d R o m a n s f o u n d G r e e k p h i l o s o
-
p h y a t t r a c t i v e . T h e t h e o r y o f m a t t e r a d v a n c
e d
b y t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r E p i c u r u s , w
h o s e
e t h i c a l p h i l o s o p h y w e discussed i n C h a p t e r 4 ,
I R E P U B L I C A N P O R T R A I T OF C I C E R O
j This p o r t r a i t of Cicero captures his u n c o m p r o m i s i
n g
I personality. The style of d e p i c t i n g every w r i n k l e
con-

28. ! f o r m s b o t h t o Hellenistic interest in p s y c h o l o g i c a
l
ji p o r t r a i t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n a l Roman directness.
In t h e
!: r e p u b l i c a n p e r i o d this t y p e of p o r t r a i t u r e
was enor-
I m o u s l y popular.
! Source: Dagli Orti/Picture Desk, Inc/Kobal Collection
g a i n e d w i d e acceptance a m o n g R o m a n s .
E p i c u r u s b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e r y t h i n g has a n a t u
r a l
cause: t h a t " n o t h i n g comes f r o m n o t h i n g . "
R o m a n s l e a r n e d a b o u t E p i c u r u s ' s t h e o r i e s
o f
m a t t e r a n d the i n f i n i t y o f t h e u n i v e r s e f r o m
the
p o e m , On the Nature of the Universe, by t h e
R o m a n p o e t L u c r e t i u s ( d . ca. 5 1 B . C . E . ) , w h o
w r o t e i n L a t i n . T h e H e l l e n i s t i c e t h i c a l p h i l
o s o -
p h y t h a t h e l d the greatest a p p e a l t o R o m a n s ,
h o w e v e r , w a s S t o i c i s m , because i t e n c o u r a g e d
a n a c t i v e p u b l i c l i f e . Stoic e m p h a s i s o n m a s t e
r -
i n g h u m a n d i f f i c u l t i e s a p p e a l e d t o p a t r i c i a
n
The Culture of the Roman Republic 153
i p r o m i s i n g
i/rinkle con-
lological

29. ess. In t h e
was enor-
ig R o m a n s ,
l a s a n a t u r a l
m n o t h i n g . "
; t h e o r i e s o f
;rse f r o m t h e
verse, b y t h e
B . C . E . ) , w h o
deal p h i l o s o -
t o R o m a n s ,
: e n c o u r a g e d
;s o n m a s t e r -
t o p a t r i c i a n
•
n u a t i n c ; tnTCunTr' tarinnrrrfj
!MI
n i
r l i i '
R O M A N A N D G R E E K D O R I C O R D E R
T h e R o m a n D o r i c c a p i t a l o n a c o l u m n of t h e T
h e a t e r of M a r c e l l u s o n t h e l e f t was n o t as s i m p l
e as t h e
Greek D o r i c o r d e r , s h o w n h e r e o n t h e P a r t h e n
o n . T h e D o r i c o r d e r w a s t h e s i m p l e s t of t h e t h
r e e o r d e r s ,

30. t h e I o n i c a n d C o r i n t h i a n b e i n g m o r e h i g h l y
d e c o r a t e d . In t h e classical revival of t h e e i g h t e e n t
h
c e n t u r y C.E., t h e D o r i c o r d e r c o n n o t e d
seriousness of p u r p o s e , a n d in t h e U n i t e d States i t s
y m b o l i z e d
R o m a n s ' sense o f d u t y a n d d i g n i t y . C i c e r o , i n
p a r t i c u l a r , c o m b i n e d Stoic ideas i n a p e r s o n a l
y e t f u l l y R o m a n w a y . H e stressed m o r a l behav-
i o r i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e w h i l e u r g i n g the a t t a i n m
e n t
o f a b r o a d e d u c a t i o n . C i c e r o ' s h i g h - m i n d e d
d e v o t i o n to the R e p u b l i c w o n h i m the e n m i t y o f
u n s c r u p u l o u s p o l i t i c i a n s . H e w a s m u r d e r e
d i n
43 B . C . E . a f t e r m a k i n g p u b l i c speeches a c c u s i n
g
•4 R s The Roman Republic
M a r c A n t o n y o f b e i n g a t h r e a t t o r e p u b h c a n
f r e e d o m .
T h e encounter between R o m a n a n d H e l l e n i s -
tic r e l i g i o n p r o v i d e s a s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e o f
the
G r e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r a l synthesis. C o n t a c t w i t h
G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n d u r i n g the H e l l e n i s t i c p e
r i o d
led t o the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a closer correspondence
between m a n y R o m a n a n d Greek gods. T h u s , the
p o w e r f u l R o m a n g o d J u p i t e r a c q u i r e d m a n y

31. o f
the characteristics o f the Greek g o d Z e u s . T h e
R o m a n g o d o f w a r M a r s resembled the Greek g o d
A r e s , a n d the R o m a n goddess o f h u n t i n g , D i a n a ,
a c q u i r e d m a n y o f the a t t r i b u t e s o f A r t e m i s . B
u t
the m y t h i c a l personalities a n d activities o f R o m a n
gods w e r e never the same as those o f t h e i r Greek
c o u n t e r p a r t s . Jupiter, f o r e x a m p l e , w a s n o t as
sex-
u a l l y v o r a c i o u s as Z e u s , w h i l e the R o m a n
goddess
Venus c o m b i n e d m a n y o f the features o f the
G r e e k goddess A p h r o d i t e w i t h those o f the E t r -
uscan d e i t y T u r a n . A l l i n a l l , R o m a n gods w e r e
m u c h better behaved a n d m o r e d i g n i f i e d t h a n the
g r o u p t h a t H o m e r bequeathed t o the Greeks.
R o m a n s also r e c o g n i z e d t h e l o c a l g o d s o f
t h e t e r r i t o r i e s t h e y c o n q u e r e d a n d a b s o r b e
d .
A d e c i s i o n b y t h e R o m a n Senate t o i m p o r t t h e
i m a g e o f t h e f o r e i g n n a t u r e goddess C y b e l e t o
R o m e i n 2 0 4 B . C . E . i l l u s t r a t e s t h e ease w i t h
w h i c h R o m e a c q u i r e d n e w d e i t i e s . T h e c u l t o
f
C y b e l e , k n o w n as t h e G r e a t M o t h e r , f l o u r i s h
e d
i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g d o m o f P e r g a m u m , w h
e r e
devotees w o r s h i p e d her i n the f o r m o f a n
a n c i e n t a n d h o l y r o c k . D u r i n g the w a r w i t h
H a n n i b a l , the Senate i m p o r t e d the r o c k t o R o m e
t o i n s p i r e a n d u n i f y the c i t y . A c o m m i t t e e o f
l e a d i n g c i t i z e n s b r o u g h t the sacred b o u l d e r t o

32. a
n e w t e m p l e o n t h e P a l a t i n e H i l l a m i d w i l d
r e j o i c i n g . W h e n the s h i p c a r r y i n g t h e r o c k g o
t
s t u c k i n the T i b e r R i v e r , legend has i t t h a t a
n o b l e l a d y , C l a u d i a Q u i n t a , t o w e d the s h i p w
i t h
her sash. N o t o n l y d i d R o m e defeat H a n n i b a l
s o o n a f t e r the a r r i v a l o f Cybele's sacred s t o n e ,
b u t the m o v e c e m e n t e d R o m a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h
P e r g a m u m .
T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f i m p o r t e d gods r e s u l t e d i n
a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f R o m a n deities. I n 2 7 B . C . E the
g o v e r n m e n t c o n s t r u c t e d a n e w t e m p l e , the P a
n -
t h e o n ( l i t e r a l l y a " t e m p l e o f a l l t h e g o d s " ) t
o
h o n o r the h u n d r e d s o f gods t h a t the p e o p l e
TABLE 5.1
ROMAN GO D S A N D T H E I R GREEK C O U N T E R P A
R T S
Roman god Greek god Association
Apollo Apollo t h e sun, prophecy, medicine
Bacchus Dionysos w i n e , agriculture, festivity
Ceres Demeter plants, maternal love
Diana Artemis h u n t i n g , the m o o n , fertility
Jupiter Zeus light, the sky
Juno Hera w o m e n
Mars Ares war -̂ ., :• • C
Mercury Hermes trade •
Minerva Athena w i s d o m ' ^ ' V

33. N e p t u n e Poseidon the sea ,
Victoria Nike victory
Pan ' ' P a n herds, forests
Proserpina Persephone or Kore fertility ' >
Pluto Hades the u n d e r w o r l d and the dead
Venus Aphrodite love, sex, beauty
r e c o g n i z e d . W i t
R e p u b l i c develo
v a r i e t y o f rehgic
ever, h a d its l i n
w i t h s u s p i c i o n
n o t c o n d u c t e d )
o r c h a l l e n g e d c
i t y . I n l 8 6 B . C . E
a n e w c u l t o f the
called Bacchus,
c o n d u c t i n g noc
c u l t w e r e allege
i n t e r c o u r s e o f
" d e b a u c h e r i e s
accused o f " p
w e n t undetecte
the noise o f d
the cries o f
r e s p o n d e d t o
The Culture of the Roman Republic 1 5 5
t o i m p o r t the
ess C y b e l e t o
he ease w i t h
>. T h e c u l t o f
ler, f l o u r i s h e d

34. a m u m , w h e r e
f o r m o f a n
the w a r w i t h
r o c k t o R o m e
c o m m i t t e e o f
I b o u l d e r t o a
II a m i d w i l d
t h e r o c k g o t
has i t t h a t a
t h e s h i p w i t h
feat H a n n i b a l
sacred s t o n e ,
re lat ions w i t h
j d s r e s u l t e d i n
n 2 7 B . C . E t h e
n p l e , the P a n -
the g o d s " ) t o
I t t h e p e o p l e
STATUE O F C Y B E L E , T H E G R E A T
M O T H E R
Romans w o r s h i p e d t h e Great M o t h e r (Magna
Mater) after her c u l t was i n t r o d u c e d in Rome
d u r i n g t h e Second Punic War against H a n n i -
bal. People had w o r s h i p e d this goddess
t h r o u g h o u t t h e eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n since
r e m o t e a n t i q u i t y . This statue represents her
majestic p o w e r .
nedicine

35. itivity
fertility
the dead
r e c o g n i z e d . W i t h so m a n y d i f f e r e n t g o d s , the
R e p u b h c d e v e l o p e d a p o l i c y o f t o l e r a t i n g a
w i d e
v a r i e t y o f r e h g i o u s practices. T h i s leniency, h o w -
ever, h a d its l i m i t s . T h e g o v e r n i n g class v i e w e d
w i t h s u s p i c i o n a n y r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e t h a t
w a s
n o t c o n d u c t e d p u b l i c l y , t h r e a t e n e d p u b l i c
o r d e r ,
o r c h a l l e n g e d c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s o f m o
r a l -
i t y . I n 1 8 6 B . C . E . the consuls received r e p o r t s t h a t
a n e w c u l t o f the g o d D i o n y s o s , w h o m the R o m a
n s
called Bacchus, h a d spread f r o m E r t u r i a t o R o m e ,
c o n d u c t i n g n o c t u r n a l orgies. T h e m e m b e r s o f t
h i s
c u l t w e r e allegedly e n g a g i n g i n " t h e p r o m i s c u o
u s
i n t e r c o u r s e o f f r e e - b o r n m e n a n d w o m e n " a n
d
" d e b a u c h e r i e s o f every k i n d . " T h e y also w e r e
accused o f " p o i s o n a n d secret m u r d e r s " t h a t
w e n t u n d e t e c t e d because the " l o u d s h o u t i n g a n
d
the noise o f d r u m s a n d c y m b a l s " d r o w n e d o u t
the cries o f the v i c t i m s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t
r e s p o n d e d t o these r e p o r t s , w h i c h w e r e a l m o s
t

36. c e r t a i n l y e x a g g e r a t e d , by d e m a n d i n g the
arrest
o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , d e c l a r i n g t h a t n o r e l i g i
o u s
ceremonies s h o u l d t a k e place i n p r i v a t e , a n d f o r -
b i d d i n g such assemblies i n the f u t u r e .
Rhetoric
T h e R o m a n p a s s i o n f o r o r a t o r y , e x e m p l i f i e
d i n
the speeches o f C i c e r o , also r e f l e c t e d t h e
R o m a n a d o p t i o n o f a G r e e k t r a d i t i o n . A s w e
s a w i n C h a p t e r 3, A t h e n i a n s d e v e l o p e d t h e a r
t
o f o r a t o r y t o a h i g h l e v e l . R o m a n s h a d g r e a t
a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h i s G r e e k t r a d i t i o n a n d i m i
-
t a t e d A t h e n i a n o r a t o r i c a l s t y l e . T o some e x t
e n t ,
R o m a n s s u f f e r e d f r o m a n i n f e r i o r i t y c o m p l
e x
r e g a r d i n g t h e i r o r a t o r i c a l s k i l l s . T h e g r e a t
R o m a n r h e t o r i c i a n Q u i n t i l i a n ( 3 5 - 1 0 0 C . E .
)
a d m i t t e d t h a t R o m a n s o r a t o r s c o u l d n e v e r be
as e l e g a n t o r as s u b t l e as the G r e e k s , b u t he