1Terrorism is highly d e p e n d e n t o n c a s h f.docx

1
T
errorism is highly d e p e n d e n t
o n c a s h f l o w s f o r t h e p u r c h a s e
o f e v e r y t h i n g f r o m m u n i t i o n s
a n d s u p p l i e s t o d o m a i n s a n d
p a m p h l e t s . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , o n e o f t h e
m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g a s p e c t s o f o r g a n i z i n g
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i t i e s i s
r o o t e d i n f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . T h e
t r a n s f e r o f m o n e y a r o u n d t h e w o r l d
h a s , i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e , f u n d a m e n t a l l y
c h a n g e d t h e w a y t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s
r a i s e m o n e y t o s u p p o r t t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s .
D i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s l i k e e - g o l d , B i t c o i n ,
P e e r c o i n , a n d D o d g e c o i n p r o v i d e
c o m p l e x y e t e f f i c i e n t m e c h a n i s m s f o r
t h e t r a n s f e r o f f u n d s , a s w e l l a s t h e
d e c e n t r a l i z e d c o l l e c t i o n o f d o n a t i o n s
i n a m o r e a n o n y m o u s m a n n e r t h a n
c o n v e n t i o n a l b a n k i n g t r a n s a c t i o n s .
T h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t
t h a t t e r r o r i s t s a r e c o n s i d e r i n g a n d ,
i n l i m i t e d i n s t a n c e s , u s i n g d i g i t a l
c u r r e n c i e s s u c h a s B i t c o i n t o f i n a n c e
a c t i v i t i e s . 1 W h i l e t h e s e t o o l s h a v e
g a i n e d i n p o p u l a r i t y , i n r e c e n t y e a r s
t h e i r e x p a n s i o n i n t o v a r i o u s t e r r o r i s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s b e e n s l o w a n d

d e l i b e r a t e a n d h a s n o t m a t c h e d p a c e
w i t h t r a n s n a t i o n a l c r i m i n a l u s e s o f t h e s e
s a m e t e c h n o l o g i e s .
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s a r t i c l e , t h e t e r m
“ t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n ” d o e s n o t i n c l u d
e
t h e h a c k t i v i s t c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h h a s
a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a t e d w i d e s p r e a d
u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s . H e r e ,
t h e t e r m i s l i m i t e d t o “ i n t e r n a t i o n a l
t e r r o r i s m ” a s o u t l i n e d i n 1 8 U . S . C . §
2 3 3 1 - C h a p t e r 1 1 3 B . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n
i s a n i m p o r t a n t c a v e a t a s i t f r a m e s
t h e s c o p e o f t h e a n a l y s i s t o a s p e c i f i c
c o m m u n i t y o f a c t o r s a n d a c k n o w l e d g e s
t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s h a s
1 This has been witnessed by tracking conversations of
jihadists within various internet chat rooms and forums.
Financing Terror Bit by Bit
By Aaron Brantly
Contents
FEATURE ARTICLE
1 Financing Terror Bit by Bit
By Aaron Brantly
REpoRTs
5 Boko Haram: Recruitment, Financing,
and Arms Trafficking in the Lake Chad
Region
By Jacob Zenn

10 Boko Haram’s Regional Cross-Border
Activities
By scott Menner
15 The Motivations of Syrian Islamist
Fighters
By Vera Mironova, Loubna Mrie and
sam Whitt
17 Syrian and Iraqi Jihads Prompt
Increased Recruitment and Activism in
Southeast Asia
By James Brandon
20 CTC Sentinel Staff & Contacts
oCToBeR 2014 . VoL 7 . IssUE 10
About the CTC Sentinel
The Combating Terrorism Center is an
independent educational and research
institution based in the Department of social
sciences at the United states Military Academy,
West point. The CTC sentinel harnesses
the Center’s global network of scholars and
practitioners to understand and confront
contemporary threats posed by terrorism and
other forms of political violence.
The views expressed in this report are those of
the authors and not of the U.s. Military Academy,
the Department of the Army, or any other agency
of the U.s. Government.
2

b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d b y
o t h e r a c t o r s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a b r o a d e r
d e f i n i t i o n o f t e r r o r i s m .
T h i s a r t i c l e i s d e s i g n e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e
t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e
u s e o f d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s b y i l l i c i t a c t o r
s ,
s p e c i f i c a l l y j i h a d i s t s . F o c u s i s p l a c e d
o n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s p o s e d
t o t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n l e v e r a g i n g
t h e s e c u r r e n c i e s , a s w e l l a s t h e b e n e f i t s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r u s e . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h i s a n a l y s i s d e m o n s t r a t e s , i n b r i e f ,
t h e t e c h n i c a l c h a l l e n g e s f a c e d b y l a w
e n f o r c e m e n t a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c i e s
e n g a g e d i n a n t i - m o n e y l a u n d e r i n g
( A M L ) a n d c o u n t e r i n g t h e f i n a n c i n g o f
t e r r o r i s m ( C F T ) e n d e a v o r s .
Shortcomings in the old Way of Doing
Business
T h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e T r e a s u r y
a n d o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s
r e c o g n i z e t h a t t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s
u s e a v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s t o l a u n d e r
a n d f i n a n c e t e r r o r a c t i v i t i e s . T w o
t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s t h a t t e r r o r i s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e u s e d f o r t h e
f i n a n c i n g a n d l a u n d e r i n g o f f u n d s
a r e t r a d i t i o n a l H a w a l a n e t w o r k s a n d
c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a n k i n g . 2
W h i l e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f i n a n c i n g
t e r r o r i s m e x t e n d t o a w i d e a r r a y o f
m e t h o d s r a n g i n g f r o m r o b b e r y a n d

n a r c o t i c s t o r a n s o m a n d s m u g g l i n g , i t i s
v a l u a b l e t o l i m i t t h e s c o p e f o r a n a l y t i c a l
p u r p o s e s t o e x a m i n i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l
a n d l e g a l / r e g u l a t o r y c h a l l e n g e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s i n
t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e h i s t o r i c a l t e r r o r i s m
f i n a n c i n g m e t h o d s .
A g r e a t d e a l o f e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n p l a c e d
o n b o t h o f t h e s e f i n a n c i n g t y p o l o g i e s .
I n t h e c a s e o f H a w a l a n e t w o r k s , t h e
D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e T r e a s u r y h a s p r o v i d e d
e x t e n s i v e r e p o r t s o n t h e i r u s e t o f i n a n c e
t e r r o r a n d l a u n d e r m o n e y a c r o s s
b o r d e r s . 3 T h e s e n e t w o r k s i m p l i c i t l y
r e l y o n t h e t r u s t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f
b r o k e r s w i t h i n t h e n e t w o r k . W h i l e t h e s e
t r a d i t i o n a l n e t w o r k s a r e e f f i c i e n t a n d
d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c k f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g m o n e y
f r o m p o i n t A t o B , t h e y a r e a t t h e s a m e
2 Hawala – meaning transfer – is a pre-modern financial
transfer system that facilitates the conduct of commerce
through trusted informal networks.
3 Patrick M. Jost and Harjit Singh Sandhu, “The Hawala
Alternative Remittance System and its Role in Money
Laundering,” Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
and INTERPOL/FOPAC, 2003.
t i m e i n e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e d e c e n t r a l i z e d

c o l l e c t i o n o f f u n d s f r o m m u l t i p l e s o u r c e
s
a n d t h e d i s b u r s e m e n t o f t h o s e f u n d s
t o s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y
d i s p e r s e d e n d p o i n t s . T h e l i m i t s i m p o s e d
b y a t r u s t - b a s e d n e t w o r k c o n s t r a i n t h e
d y n a m i c c o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s b u r s e m e n t o f
f u n d s w i t h i n a t e r r o r n e t w o r k a n d s l o w
d o w n t h e p r o c e s s o f f u n d i n g , p l a n n i n g ,
a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g a t t a c k s .
I n c o n t r a s t , c o n v e n t i o n a l b a n k i n g
s y s t e m s u s i n g I S O 9 3 6 2 ( S W I F T - B I C ) 4
o r o t h e r m o d e r n c o m m e r c i a l b a n k i n g
p r o t o c o l s / s t a n d a r d s a r e e f f i c i e n t
m o d e s f o r c o n d u c t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l
f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . T h e c h a l l e n g e
h e r e f o r t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s i s t h a t t h e s e
s y s t e m s a d h e r e t o s t r o n g r e g u l a t o r y
f r a m e w o r k s w i t h i n c o d i f i e d n a t i o n a l
a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s s u c h
a s t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y t h e F i n a n c i a l
A c t i o n T a s k F o r c e ( F A T F ) . 5 T h e u s e
o f c o n v e n t i o n a l b a n k i n g s y s t e m s
u n n e c e s s a r i l y e x p o s e s t e r r o r i s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o o v e r s i g h t b y b a n k s , l a w
e n f o r c e m e n t , a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c i a l s ,
w h i c h t h r e a t e n s t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y .
I n s u m m a r y , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o p t i o n o f
H a w a l a a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l o p t i o n
o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a n k i n g p o s e u n i q u e
r i s k s f o r t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s e n g a g i n g i n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s .
T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n A M L / C F T e f f o r t s i n

t h e s e t w o a r e a s i s e x t e n s i v e . 6 H o w e v e r ,
p a r t l y d u e t o i t s n o v e l t y a n d p a r t l y d u e
t o i t s c o m p l e x i t y , t h e e v o l v i n g w o r l d o f
d i g i t a l o r c r y p t o c u r r e n c i e s l i k e B i t C o i n
a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n A M L / C F T h a s b e e n
g i v e n s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s a t t e n t i o n .
Beyond Convention and Tradition:
New Methods for Financing Terror
M u c h o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o d a t e h a s
f o c u s e d o n t h e f u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t s
o f c r y p t o c u r r e n c i e s a n d a n a r r o w
s u b s e t h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e p r a c t i c a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e p a t h w a y s
4 This system provides unique identification codes for
financial institutions. SWIFT-BIC stands for Society for
Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication-
Business Identifier Codes.
5 Financial Action Task Force. International Standards on
Combating Money Laundering and the Financing of Terror-
ism and Proliferation. (Paris, France: 2013), pp. 1–130.
6 For a broad overview of the current state of the litera-
ture on AML/CFL, see Peter Romaniuk, “The State of the
Art on the Financing of Terrorism,” The RUSI Journal,
159:2 (2014): pp. 6-17.

f o r f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s a t b o t h t h e
n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T w o
r e c e n t c a s e s h a v e e l e v a t e d t h e r o l e o f
d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s i n t h e A M L / C F T
r e s e a r c h s p a c e . T h e f i r s t m a j o r i n c i d e n t
w a s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t a k e d o w n , a n d
i n d i c t m e n t o f L i b e r t y R e s e r v e a n d i t s
f o u n d e r . L i b e r t y R e s e r v e w a s a C o s t a
R i c a - b a s e d d i g i t a l c u r r e n c y f o u n d e d
i n 2 0 0 6 a n d t h e s u c c e s s o r t o s e v e r a l
d i g i t a l g o l d c u r r e n c i e s . 7 T h e s e c o n d
i n c i d e n t , a l s o c u l m i n a t i n g i n 2 0 1 3 ,
w a s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t a k e d o w n
o f S i l k R o a d , a n i l l i c i t o n l i n e m a r k e t
f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h i n t h e “ D e e p W e b . ” 8
L i b e r t y R e s e r v e f u n c t i o n e d s i m i l a r l y
t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l b a n k w i t h a c e n t r a l
l e d g e r o f t r a n s a c t i o n s . H o w e v e r ,
L i b e r t y R e s e r v e e m b e d d e d t a c i t
a n o n y m i t y b y d e l i b e r a t e l y f a i l i n g t o
m a n d a t e a c c o u n t h o l d e r v a l i d a t i o n .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , p e o p l e w h o o p e n e d
a c c o u n t s w e r e n o t r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e
a n y o f t h e b a s i c p e r s o n a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a c o n v e n t i o n a l b a n k
w o u l d r e q u i r e t o c o n d u c t f i n a n c i a l
t r a n s a c t i o n s . T h i s t a c i t a n o n y m i t y
h i d L i b e r t y R e s e r v e a c c o u n t h o l d e r s ’
a c t i v i t i e s f r o m l e g a l a n d r e g u l a t o r y
o v e r s i g h t b y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d
i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c i e s .
L i b e r t y R e s e r v e a d d e d t o t h e t a c i t

a n o n y m i t y o f i t s u s e r s b y r e q u i r i n g a l l
u s e r s t o d e p o s i t a n d w i t h d r a w f u n d s
f r o m t h i r d - p a r t y “ e x c h a n g e r s ” t o
e l i m i n a t e a d i r e c t p a p e r t r a i l t o L i b e r t y
R e s e r v e . T h e c e n t r a l o b j e c t i v e w a s t o
7 United States of America v Liberty Reserve S.A, No.
USA-33s-274 (Ed. 9-25-58), United States District Court,
Southern District of New York, May 2013.
8 “Deep Web” refers to the utilization of Tor networks to
encrypt and hide web traffic.
oCToBeR 2014 . VoL 7. IssUE 10
“Partly due to its novelty
and partly due to its
complexity, the evolving
world of digital or
crypto currencies like
BitCoin and their impact
on AML/CFT has been
given substantially less
attention.”
3
a v o i d U . S . a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w a n d
i n t h e p r o c e s s c r e a t e a b l a c k - m a r k e t
b a n k i n g s y s t e m . F o r t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s ,
t h e g l o b a l r e a c h o f L i b e r t y R e s e r v e

c o m b i n e d w i t h i t s a b i l i t y t o a v o i d
r e v e a l i n g r e g u l a t o r y p r a c t i c e s p r e s e n t e d
a s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l b a n k i n g . 9
S i l k R o a d , u n l i k e L i b e r t y R e s e r v e ,
w a s n o t a f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , b u t
r a t h e r a c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t p l a c e
e q u i v a l e n t t o a n A m a z o n o r E b a y f o r
i l l i c i t m e r c h a n d i s e . 1 0 T h e m a r k e t p l a c e
m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e s a l e o f e v e r y t h i n g
f r o m n a r c o t i c s t o w e a p o n r y . S i m i l a r
t o p u r c h a s i n g a b o o k o n A m a z o n ,
c u s t o m e r s o f S i l k R o a d c o u l d p u r c h a s e
d r u g s a n d g u n s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f
p r i v a t e s e l l e r s , a l l o f w h o m c o n n e c t e d
a n o n y m o u s l y t o t h e m a r k e t a n d a l l
o f w h o m u s e d a d i g i t a l c u r r e n c y t o
e n g a g e i n t r a n s a c t i o n s . 1 1 T h e s i t e
w a s a c c e s s i b l e o n l y t o u s e r s o f T o r 1 2
a n d c o n d u c t e d f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s
t h r o u g h a n e m e r g i n g d i g i t a l c u r r e n c y
c a l l e d B i t c o i n ( B T C ) .
S i l k R o a d w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a s
s u c c e s s f u l a t i l l i c i t e - c o m m e r c e i f i t
u s e d c r e d i t c a r d s a n d b a n k a c c o u n t s
w h i c h t i e u s e r s t o t h e i r t r a n s a c t i o n s
c o n d u c t e d i n t h e d e e p w e b . T o m a i n t a i n
t h e a n o n y m i t y o f t h e m a r k e t p l a c e
b e y o n d a c c e s s t h r o u g h T o r n e t w o r k s ,
t h e s i t e r e l i e d o n B i t c o i n , a s e c u r e ,
9 A more detailed analysis of the inner workings of Lib-

erty Reserve is provided in the 2013 Federal indictment:
United States of America v Liberty Reserve S.A, 2013.
10 Kim Zetter, “How the Feds Took Down the Silk Road
Drug Wonderland,” Wired, November 11, 2013.
11 United States of America v Ross William Ulbricht, USA-
33s-274 (Ed. 9-25-58), United States District Court,
Southern District of New York, February 4, 2014.
12 Tor is free software that enables anonymity by en-
crypting and directing internet traffic through a network
consisting of more than 5,000 relays.
n o n - t r u s t - b a s e d c u r r e n c y . U s i n g t h i r d -
p a r t y m o n e y “ e x c h a n g e r s ” w o u l d
h a v e b e e n i n e f f i c i e n t a n d l i m i t e d t h e
a b i l i t y t o e n g a g e i n r a p i d e - c o m m e r c e
t r a n s a c t i o n s . I f S i l k R o a d h a d u s e d a
s e r v i c e s u c h a s L i b e r t y R e s e r v e , e v e r y
u s e r w o u l d h a v e h a d t o r e g i s t e r w i t h
L i b e r t y R e s e r v e a n d o n e o r m o r e t h i r d
p a r t y “ e x c h a n g e r s ” w i l l i n g t o c o n v e r t
L i b e r t y R e s e r v e c u r r e n c y . T o e n g a g e
i n a n y g i v e n t r a n s a c t i o n , c u r r e n c y
w o u l d h a v e n e e d e d t o b e c o n v e r t e d
o r t r a n s f e r r e d a t l e a s t t h r e e t i m e s . 1 3
T o o v e r c o m e t h i s p r o b l e m , t h e s i t e
l e v e r a g e d a n e w d i g i t a l c u r r e n c y t y p e
t h a t h a d o n l y b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a

y e a r e a r l i e r .
B i t c o i n 1 4 w a s d e s i g n e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
n e e d f o r t r u s t t h r o u g h m a t h e m a t i c a l
p r o o f o f w o r k . T r u s t a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o
e n s u r e t h e s e c u r i t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f
t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e c r u c i a l t o s u s t a i n e d
i t e r a t i v e c o m m e r c e . T h e a b i l i t y t o
e n s u r e t r u s t i n a d i g i t a l c u r r e n c y w a s
a m a j o r t u r n i n g p o i n t t h a t h a s l a r g e l y
f a c i l i t a t e d t h e s u c c e s s o f B i t c o i n .
A l t h o u g h B i t c o i n w a s n o t d e s i g n e d w i t h
a n o n y m i t y i n m i n d , i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n
p r o v i d e s a n o n y m i t y t o i t s u s e r s a s
e v i d e n c e d i n t h e 2 0 1 3 i n d i c t m e n t o f
S i l k R o a d f o u n d e r R o s s U l b r i c h t . 1 5 A l l
c o n v e n t i o n a l B i t c o i n t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e
t r a n s p a r e n t a n d b y d e s i g n o p e n f o r a l l
p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e B i t c o i n n e t w o r k t o
v i e w . I n o t h e r w o r d s , e v e r y t r a n s a c t i o n
e v e r c o n d u c t e d i n B i t c o i n i s r e c o r d e d
a n d d i s t r i b u t e d t o e v e r y o t h e r u s e r
i n t h e n e t w o r k . I n s t e a d o f p r o v i d i n g
13 In contrast, Bitcoin requires only one mathematical
proof and any given transaction takes between 10 min-
utes and 24 hours, far less time than a comparable Lib-
erty Reserve transaction.
14 In 2008, under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto,
a concept paper for a decentralized cryptographic peer-

to-peer digital currency was published. The concepts
presented in this paper led to the creation of a digital
currency rooted in cryptographic proofs (mathematical
equations) based on a cryptographic hash (the present
block), the hash of the previous transaction (previous
block), and what is called a nonce (a generated pseudo
random number). Together these form what is called the
“block chain.” To ensure there is security of the mathe-
matical proof, each hash can be solved by only one nonce.
To complete each stage of the block chain, any given com-
puter in the network must continuously try out different
numbers until it finds the correct nonce to complete the
segment of the chain. Each segment of the chain is unique
and formed by adding the preceding portions of the chain
to the current block.
15 United States of America v Ross William Ulbricht, 2014.
a n o n y m i t y f o r t r a n s a c t i o n s , B i t c o i n ’ s
s t r u c t u r e f a c i l i t a t e s a n o n y m i t y t h r o u g h
t h e a b s e n c e o f p e r s o n a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e
i n f o r m a t i o n ( P I I ) l i n k i n g s e l l e r s a n d

b u y e r s t o t r a n s a c t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e u s e
o f p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e k e y p a i r s , a s w i l l
b e e x a m i n e d i n m o r e d e t a i l b e l o w .
B e c a u s e e a c h t r a n s a c t i o n i s t h e r e s u l t
o f a h a s h - b a s e d ( m a t h e m a t i c a l )
p r o o f - o f - w o r k r e q u i r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t
c o m p u t a t i o n a l p o w e r , i t i s
p r o b a b i l i s t i c a l l y u n l i k e l y t h a t a n y
o n e u s e r c a n d o u b l e s p e n d a n y g i v e n
B i t c o i n . T h e a b i l i t y t o d o u b l e s p e n d w a s
a f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
e a r l y c o n c e p t s o f d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s , a s
t h e v a l i d a t i o n p r o c e s s m i g h t m a k e i t
p o s s i b l e f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l t o e s s e n t i a l l y
p u r c h a s e t h i n g s f r o m t w o d i f f e r e n t
v e n d o r s u s i n g t h e s a m e c u r r e n c y
v a l u e a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h o u t e i t h e r
v e n d o r k n o w i n g t h a t t h e m o n e y u s e d t o
p u r c h a s e a g o o d o r s e r v i c e h a d a l r e a d y
b e e n s p e n t .
S i n c e t h e r e i s n o c e n t r a l o v e r s i g h t
m e c h a n i s m l i k e a b a n k o r i n t h e
c a s e o f c a s h , p h y s i c a l c u r r e n c y , t h e
c r e a t o r s o f B i t c o i n m i n i m i z e d p o t e n t i a l
m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m b y c r e a t i n g
a m a t h e m a t i c a l m e a n s t o e n s u r e t h e
v a l i d i t y o f e a c h t r a n s a c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n
t o t h e b a l a n c e s p r e s e n t i n a c o n s u m e r ’ s
a c c o u n t . T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e e v e r y
u s e r i n t h e n e t w o r k h a s a r e c o r d o f
a l l t r a n s a c t i o n s , i t i s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y
t h a t a n y g i v e n u s e r c a n s p o o f ( f a l s i f y )

t r a n s a c t i o n s s o l o n g a s t h e m a j o r i t y
o f l e d g e r s i n t h e n e t w o r k i n d i c a t e a
t r a n s a c t i o n h a s o c c u r r e d . T h i s c r e a t e s
a n o n - t r u s t - b a s e d v e r i f i c a t i o n t h a t
p r o v i d e s e v e r y u s e r w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f
e v e r y t r a n s a c t i o n t h a t h a s e v e r t a k e n
p l a c e s i n c e B i t c o i n s t a r t e d i n 2 0 0 9 .
“Silk Road would not have
been as successful at illicit
e-commerce if it used credit
cards and bank accounts
which tie users to their
transactions conducted in
the deep web.”
“Unless terrorist
organizations can
sufficiently educate all
members that use crypto
currencies to do so at a
very high level, the use of
these networks may leave
the overall organization
vulnerable.”
4
W h i l e t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s
a r e n o t h i d d e n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l s
e n g a g e d i n t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e l a r g e l y
a n o n y m o u s .

E v e n t h o u g h B i t c o i n u s e r s d o n o t
p r o v i d e a n y d i r e c t P I I , t h e y a r e n o t
c o m p l e t e l y a n o n y m o u s . U s e r s c a n b e
t r a c k e d b y a c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f
t r a n s a c t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y b y a n a l y z i n g
t h e r e p e a t e d u s e o f s p e c i f i c p u b l i c
k e y s t h a t d i r e c t f u n d s f o r p a y m e n t .
I n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n u s e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y
a d v a n c e d a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s t o m a p
u s e r t r a n s a c t i o n s a c r o s s t h e n e t w o r k
a n d p a i r t h e m a c r o s s d a t a s e t s t o f i n d
i n d i v i d u a l n e t w o r k u s e r s . 1 6 E s s e n t i a l l y ,
c o n s t r u c t i n g a p a t t e r n o f b e h a v i o r b a s e d
o n t r a n s a c t i o n s c a n r e v e a l t r e m e n d o u s
a m o u n t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a u s e r ,
t o i n c l u d e w h e r e t h e y s h o p p e d , h o w
m u c h t h e y s p e n t , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f
t r a n s a c t i o n s , a n d a n y t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h
a p a r t y t h a t c o l l e c t e d P I I .
T h e s e d i s c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s a r e t i m e -
c o n s u m i n g a n d i m p e r f e c t , b u t h a v e b e e n
s u c c e s s f u l i n r e d u c i n g t h e a n o n y m i t y
o f B i t c o i n u s e r s w h o u s e t h e s a m e
p u b l i c k e y f o r m u l t i p l e t r a n s a c t i o n s .
S i m i l a r l y , a n a l y s t s u s e t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s
t o r e d u c e o r r e m o v e t h e a n o n y m i t y o f
u s e r s w h o u s e m u l t i p l e s e t s o f p u b l i c
k e y s t o c o m p l e t e t r a n s a c t i o n s i n a n
a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n a n o n y m i t y . 1 7
T h i s c a n p r o v i d e a n o p e n i n g f o r l a w
e n f o r c e m e n t a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c i e s
t o u s e a m a t e u r u s e r s ( w h o e i t h e r d o n a t e
t o o r r e c e i v e f u n d s t o p l a n a n d e n g a g e

16 Fergal Reid and Martin Harrigan, “An Analysis of the
Anonymity in the Bitcoin System,” in Yaniv Altshuler et
al eds., Security and Privacy in Social Networks (New York:
Springer, 2013).
17 Ibid.
i n t e r r o r a c t i v i t i e s ) t h r o u g h B i t c o i n t o
d e c o n s t r u c t a n e t w o r k .
B u y e r s a n d s e l l e r s u s i n g B i t c o i n c a n
e n h a n c e t h e i r a n o n y m i t y b y c h a n g i n g
t h e i r p u b l i c k e y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
v a r i o u s t r a n s a c t i o n s . T h i s i s t h e
e q u i v a l e n t o f u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t c r e d i t
c a r d n u m b e r f o r e v e r y s i n g l e p u r c h a s e
a t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s u m e r m i g h t m a k e .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , n e w s e r v i c e s s u c h a s
D a r k W a l l e t p r o p o s e t o e n h a n c e
t h e a n o n y m i t y o f t r a n s a c t i o n s b y
a l l o w i n g i l l i c i t t r a n s a c t i o n s t o
d i g i t a l l y “ p i g g y b a c k ” o n n o n - i l l i c i t
t r a n s a c t i o n s , c r e a t i n g a s i n g l e
t r a n s a c t i o n t h a t o b f u s c a t e s b o t h . 1 8
T h e s e n e w s e r v i c e s , c o m b i n e d w i t h
t o o l s s u c h a s T o r , c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
e n h a n c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e n g a g i n g i n
a n o n y m o u s t r a n s a c t i o n s o n l i n e u s i n g
B i t c o i n .
W h i l e n o v i c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n B i t c o i n
i s r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , t h e

m a i n t e n a n c e o f h i g h l e v e l s o f a n o n y m i t y
o n B i t c o i n r e q u i r e s s u b s t a n t i a l e f f o r t
a n d t e c h n i c a l s k i l l . A m a t e u r j i h a d i s t
u s e o f B i t c o i n p o s e s a t e c h n i c a l
p r o b l e m f o r t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f
B i t c o i n b y t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
T h e a m a t e u r ( n o n - a n o n y m o u s ) u s e o f
B i t c o i n b y a p a r t i c i p a n t i n a n e t w o r k
c a n r e d u c e t h e a n o n y m i t y o f a l l n e t w o r k
t r a n s a c t i o n s . N o v i c e u s e r s c o u l d
p r o v i d e a p o i n t o f o r i g i n f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e
a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c i e s t o b e g i n
w o r k o n d e c o n s t r u c t i n g a t e r r o r i s t
f i n a n c e n e t w o r k . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e
m o r e t r a n s a c t i o n s m a d e t o a s i n g l e o r
s e t o f p u b l i c k e y s , t h e l e s s l i k e l y i t i s
t h a t t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d w i l l m a i n t a i n
a n o n y m i t y i n a d i s t r i b u t e d f u n d i n g
o r d o n a t i o n n e t w o r k . U n l e s s t e r r o r i s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n s u f f i c i e n t l y e d u c a t e
a l l m e m b e r s t h a t u s e c r y p t o c u r r e n c i e s
t o d o s o a t a v e r y h i g h l e v e l , t h e u s e o f
t h e s e n e t w o r k s m a y l e a v e t h e o v e r a l l
o r g a n i z a t i o n v u l n e r a b l e .
Jihadists Discuss Crypto Currencies
I n d i v i d u a l s i n t e r e s t e d i n j i h a d s e e m t o
b e p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s c o m p l e x i t y
a n d h a v e p o s t e d Y o u T u b e v i d e o s ,
d i s c u s s i o n s l i n k s , a n d l i n k s t o r e s e a r c h
o n t h e a n o n y m i t y o f B i t c o i n o n v a r i o u s
d i s c u s s i o n b o a r d s . 1 9 T h e s e s a m e
18 Andy Greenberg, “‘Dark Wallet’ Is About to Make
Bitcoin Money Laundering Easier than Ever,” Wired,

April 29, 2014.
19 These are some of the links that have been posted
i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e s p e n t t i m e a n d e f f o r t
t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o b l e m s o f f i n a n c i n g
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j i h a d . O n e u s e r e v e n
e x p l i c i t l y w r i t e s a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l
t o p u r c h a s e w e a p o n s a n d a m m u n i t i o n
a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o e x c h a n g e d i g i t a l
c u r r e n c y f o r h a r d c u r r e n c y . Y e t d e s p i t e
t h i s o p t i m i s m , t h e s a m e u s e r g o e s o n t o
d i s c u s s t h e l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e
r e q u i r e d b y u s e r s t o e n g a g e i n f i n a n c i a l
t r a n s a c t i o n s u s i n g B i t c o i n . 2 0
T h e s e f o r u m d i s c u s s i o n s a r e i m p o r t a n t
i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A M L / C F T r e s e a r c h
a s t h e y h i g h l i g h t a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t o n
t h e p a r t o f i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
j i h a d i s t m o v e m e n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d a n e w
a n d e v o l v i n g t e c h n o l o g y t o r a i s e m o n e y
f o r t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i t i e s . W h i l e t h e s e
d i s c u s s i o n s i n d i c a t e a n a s y m m e t r y
i n t h e l e v e l o f k n o w l e d g e b e t w e e n
m o r e t e c h n i c a l j i h a d i s t s a n d t h e i r
l e s s t e c h n i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , t h e y a l s o
i l l u s t r a t e a n e f f o r t b y m o r e t e c h n i c a l
m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o i n f o r m
a n d e d u c a t e t h e i r p e e r s o n t h e p r o p e r
u s e o f d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s . M o r e o v e r ,
t h e r e a r e d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o u s i n g
d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s t o t r a n s f e r m o n e y
i n t o c o u n t r i e s w h e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l
o r t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s o f f i n a n c i a l

t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e d i f f i c u l t d u e t o a l a c k
o f n e t w o r k c a p a c i t y o r s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d
r e g u l a t i o n .
A l t h o u g h s o m e w e b s i t e s a f f i l i a t e d
w i t h t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e
b e g u n c o l l e c t i n g B i t c o i n d o n a t i o n s ,
t h i s p r a c t i c e a p p e a r s t o b e r e l a t i v e l y
l i m i t e d . O n e e x a m p l e w o u l d b e h t t p : / /
k a v k a z c e n t e r . c o m . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
a s t h e t e c h n i c a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e s e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s , t h e i r u s e o f
d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s w i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e .
T h i s i n c r e a s e i s l i k e l y t o b e s m a l l ,
h o w e v e r , i n r e l a t i o n t o o v e r a l l t e r r o r
f i n a n c i n g t h r o u g h o t h e r c h a n n e l s
s u c h a s h a w a l a , k i d n a p p i n g , f r o n t
c o m p a n i e s , n a r c o t i c s s a l e s , o i l s a l e s ,
a n d m a n y m o r e .
on jihadist discussion boards: http://youtube.com/
watch?feature=player_embedded&v=Um63OQz3bjo#!,
http://bitcoinweekly.com/articles/how-bitcoin-se-
curity-works-by-analogy, https://shamikh1.info/vb/
showthread.php?t=200037&highlight=bitcoin.
20 These discussions were posted to the Shumukh al-
Islam Network on April 29, 2013.

“Cryptography is a never-
ending mathematical and
computational arms race
and crypto currencies,
such as Bitcoin, are
likely affected as better
algorithms and more
powerful computers are
developed.”
5
Conclusion
G i v e n t h e i n t e r e s t t h a t t e r r o r i s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e s h o w n i n l e v e r a g i n g
d i g i t a l c u r r e n c i e s , t h e i r u s e o f s u c h
m e d i u m s f o r c o n d u c t i n g f i n a n c i a l
t r a n s a c t i o n s w i l l o n l y i n c r e a s e i n t h e
f u t u r e . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i g i t a l
c u r r e n c i e s p o s e s a l o n g - t e r m c h a l l e n g e
t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e
a g e n c i e s a s t h e t e c h n i c a l s k i l l o f t h e i r
t a r g e t s a n d t h e l e v e l o f c o m p l e x i t y o f
t h e c u r r e n c i e s a v a i l a b l e i n c r e a s e .
Y e t , b e c a u s e t h e s e c u r r e n c i e s a r e
a l l b a s e d o n t h e m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t
s e r v e a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r m o d e r n
c r y p t o g r a p h y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i r
u s e m i g h t a l s o o f f e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
t h e t r a c k i n g o f i l l i c i t b e h a v i o r . H e r e i n
l i e s t h e d i l e m m a o f u s i n g d i g i t a l
c u r r e n c i e s . A s o n e p e r s o n d e v e l o p s
a c r y p t o g r a p h i c a l g o r i t h m a l l o w i n g

t r a n s a c t i o n s t o b e m o r e a n o n y m o u s ,
a n o t h e r p e r s o n i m m e d i a t e l y b e g i n s
w o r k o n s o l v i n g i t t o p e e l b a c k t h e
a n o n y m i t y . C r y p t o g r a p h y i s a n e v e r -
e n d i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l
a r m s r a c e a n d c r y p t o c u r r e n c i e s ,
s u c h a s B i t c o i n , a r e l i k e l y a f f e c t e d a s
b e t t e r a l g o r i t h m s a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l
c o m p u t e r s a r e d e v e l o p e d .
B o t h t e r r o r i s t s a n d g o v e r n m e n t s w i l l
l i k e l y s t r u g g l e t o l e v e r a g e t h e s e t o o l s
t o t h e i r a d v a n t a g e i n t h e c o m i n g
y e a r s . T h e m a i n t a k e a w a y , h o w e v e r ,
i s t h a t w h e n c e r t a i n p a t h w a y s f o r
f i n a n c i n g t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i t i e s b e c o m e
m o r e d i f f i c u l t , t h e r e a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y
g o i n g t o b e a l t e r n a t i v e m e a n s a v a i l a b l e
t o f i n a n c e t e r r o r a n d l a u n d e r m o n e y
a s t e c h n o l o g y a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l s k i l l s
i n c r e a s e .
A a r o n B r a n t l y i s A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f
I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s a n d C y b e r s e c u r i
t y
i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , C y
b e r
P o l i c y F e l l o w a t t h e A r m y C y b e r I n s t i t u t
e ,
a n d C y b e r P o l i c y F e l l o w a t t h e C o m b a t i n
g
T e r r o r i s m C e n t e r a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
M i l i t a r y A c a d e m y a t W e s t P o i n t .
T h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d h e r e a r e t h o s e o f
t h e a u t h o r a n d d o n o t r e f l e c t t h e o f f i c i a l

p o l i c y o r p o s i t i o n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t
h e
A r m y , D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e , o r t h e U . S
.
G o v e r n m e n t .
Boko Haram: Recruitment,
Financing, and Arms
Trafficking in the Lake
Chad Region
By Jacob Zenn
in july 2014, C a m e r o o n ’ s D e f e n s e
M i n i s t r y a n n o u n c e d t h a t B o k o H a r a m 1
w a s a g r o w i n g t h r e a t i n t h e L a k e C h a d
r e g i o n a n d n o w h a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 0 , 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . 2 A
N i g e r i a n j o u r n a l i s t w i t h l o n g s t a n d i n g
c o n t a c t s w i t h B o k o H a r a m , h o w e v e r ,
s a y s t h a t B o k o H a r a m h a s u p t o 5 0 , 0 0 0
m e m b e r s . 3 E v e n t h e l o w e r e s t i m a t e o f
t h e t w o w o u l d m e a n B o k o H a r a m h a s
s i m i l a r m a n p o w e r a s m i l i t a n t g r o u p s
s u c h a s J a b h a t a l - N u s r a i n S y r i a a n d p r o -
R u s s i a n m i l i t i a s i n e a s t e r n U k r a i n e . 4
T h e h i g h e r e s t i m a t e m a y b e c o r r e c t
i f “ m e m b e r s ” i n c l u d e n o t o n l y a r m e d
m i l i t a n t s b u t a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s w h o
c o o p e r a t e w i t h B o k o H a r a m , w h e t h e r
i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r c o e r c e d . U s i n g t h i s
i n c l u s i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f “ m e m b e r s , ” t w o
o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s n e w e s t r e c r u i t m e n t
p r o f i l e s a r e o f f o r c i b l e c o n s c r i p t s ,
e s p e c i a l l y t e e n a g e b o y s a n d g i r l s ,
a n d f i n a n c i e r s , w h o a r e p r i m a r i l y

b u s i n e s s m e n , a r m s t r a f f i c k e r s , a n d
k i d n a p p e r s i n C a m e r o o n .
T h i s a r t i c l e r e v i e w s B o k o H a r a m ’ s
r e c r u i t m e n t f r o m t h e t i m e i t s l e a d e r ,
A b u b a k a r S h e k a u , d e c l a r e d j i h a d
a g a i n s t N i g e r i a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n
2 0 1 0 u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t . I t t h e n d i s c u s s e s
t h e r o l e o f f o r c i b l e c o n s c r i p t s a n d
f i n a n c i e r s i n B o k o H a r a m o p e r a t i o n s i n
2 0 1 4 . T h e a r t i c l e f i n d s t h a t t h e s t r a t e g i c
s h i f t o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s a r m e d m i l i t a n t s
t o s e i z e a n d h o l d l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a r e a s
1 The group Boko Haram identifies itself as Jama`at Ahl
al-Sunna li al-Da`wa wa al-Jihad, which is Arabic for
“People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet’s
Teachings and Jihad.” The term “Boko Haram” means
“Western education is sinful” in the Hausa language.
2 “Cameroon Furious and Fearful Over Boko Haram In-
filtration,” thenewage.za, July 12, 2014.
3 The journalist mentioned was Ahmed Salkida. See Em-
manuel Elebeke, “Boko Haram has 50,000 Members in
its Camp,” Vanguard, August 28, 2014.
4 John Hall, “Could ISIS Now be Twice as Powerful?

Membership of Extreme Group May Double in Size as it
Merges with al Qaeda’s 15,000-Strong Syrian Offshoot
on Border with Iraq,” Daily Mail, June 25, 2014; “Ukraine
Imposes New Conditions on Peace Talks with Pro-Rus-
sia Rebels,” France24, July 9, 2014.
( L G A s ) i n i t s s e l f - d e s c r i b e d c a l i p h a t e i n
n o r t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a e x p l a i n s w h y i t
i n c r e a s i n g l y r e q u i r e s f o r c i b l e r e c r u i t s
a n d f i n a n c i e r s i n i t s m e m b e r s h i p
n e t w o r k . 5
Ideology, economic Vulnerability, and
Infiltration
A f t e r N i g e r i a n s e c u r i t y f o r c e s k i l l e d
B o k o H a r a m f o u n d e r M u h a m m a d
Y u s u f i n c l a s h e s w i t h h i s f o l l o w e r s i n
J u l y 2 0 0 9 , Y u s u f ’ s d e p u t y , S h e k a u ,
e m e r g e d a s h i s s u c c e s s o r . 6 S h e k a u ’ s
l o y a l i s t s i n c l u d e d Y u s u f ’ s d i s c i p l e s
w h o f o u n d i n s p i r a t i o n i n a l - Q a ` i d a ’ s
s t y l e o f m i l i t a n c y a n d Y u s u f ’ s a n d
S h e k a u ’ s c a l l f o r a “ p u r e ” I s l a m i c
s t a t e i n N i g e r i a . B o k o H a r a m a l s o
a t t r a c t e d c r i m i n a l s t h a t m e m b e r s
r e c r u i t e d i n p r i s o n a n d w e r e f r e e d i n
r e s c u e o p e r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e f i r s t
a t t a c k u n d e r S h e k a u o n B a u c h i p r i s o n
i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 0 . 7
B o k o H a r a m ’ s o p e r a t i o n s i n l a t e 2 0 1 0

r e q u i r e d m i n i m a l t r a i n i n g , s u c h a s d r i v e
-
b y a s s a s s i n a t i o n s o f l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s
a n d r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s , w h o w e r e
“ g u i l t y ” o f m i x i n g I s l a m w i t h “ i n f i d e l ”
n o t i o n s o f d e m o c r a c y , s e c u l a r i s m a n d
5 Nigeria has 774 local government areas (LGAs), in-
cluding more than 20 in Borno, Yobe and Adamawa that
are considered under Boko Haram’s control as of Octo-
ber 2014. See “Boko Haram Leader Proclaims ‘Islamic
Caliphate’ in Nigeria,” Vanguard, August 24, 2014.
6 On Shekau’s use of imposters, see Jacob Zenn, “Boko
Haram Leader Abubakar Shekau: Dead, Deposed Or Du-
plicated?” Militant Leadership Monitor 5:5 (2014).
7 Sani Muhd Sani, “Attack On Bauchi Prison - Boko
Haram Frees 721 Inmates,” Leadership, September 8,
2010.
“The strategic shift of
Boko Haram’s armed
militants to seize and
hold local government
areas in its self-described

caliphate in northeastern
Nigeria explains why it
increasingly requires
forcible recruits
and financiers in its
membership network.”
6
W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n . B o k o H a r a m a l s o
p a i d s m a l l f e e s t o f r u i t s e l l e r s a n d
a l - m a j i r i 8 b o y s t o s c o u t o n s e c u r i t y
f o r c e s a n d b u r n d o w n c h u r c h e s a n d
s c h o o l s . 9 H o w e v e r , w h e n B o k o H a r a m
b e g a n c a r r y i n g o u t s o p h i s t i c a t e d
b o m b i n g s , s u c h a s o n c h u r c h e s o n
C h r i s t m a s D a y i n 2 0 1 0 a n d t h e F e d e r a l
P o l i c e H e a d q u a r t e r s a n d U N B u i l d i n g
i n 2 0 1 1 , a n d k i d n a p p i n g f o r e i g n e r s
i n 2 0 1 2 , i t r e l i e d o n N i g e r i a n s w h o
r e c e i v e d f u n d i n g o r t r a i n i n g f r o m
a b r o a d w i t h a l - Q a ` i d a i n t h e I s l a m i c
M a g h r e b ( A Q I M ) a n d w h o w e r e p a r t o f
A n s a r u ’ s 1 0 s h u r a ( l e a d e r s h i p c o u n c i l ) . 1
1
A n s a r u , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a c q u i r e d i n s i d e
i n f o r m a t i o n t o c a r r y o u t k e y a t t a c k s ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e a m b u s h o f N i g e r i a n
t r o o p s i n K o g i b e f o r e t h e y d e p l o y e d
t o M a l i i n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 3 , t h e r e s c u e o f
s e v e r a l d o z e n B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s
f r o m t h e S p e c i a l A n t i - r o b b e r y S q u a d

p r i s o n i n A b u j a i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , a n d
k i d n a p p i n g s o f f o r e i g n e n g i n e e r s i n
n o r t h w e s t N i g e r i a i n 2 0 1 2 . 1 2 B o k o H a r a m
8 Al-majiri (literally meaning “migrants,” derived from
the Arabic word muhajir) are young Islamic students in
northern Nigeria, who beg for alms in return for shelter
and Qur’anic lessons from local leaders. There are mil-
lions of al-majiri students in northern Nigeria, with many
in Kano and Borno. See “Al Majiri Education: Journey to
Nowhere,” Vanguard, April 19, 2012.
9 “Boko Haram: Army Arrests Orange Seller with
N600m,” 247UReports, May 20, 2013.
10 Jama`atu Ansaril Muslimina fi Biladis Sudan (An-
saru) was founded in January 2012 by former Nigerian
AQIM militants, who focused on kidnapping foreigners
and bombing churches in the Middle Belt in Nigeria. It,
however, ideologically opposed Boko Haram’s use of tak-
firi ideology to justify the killing of Muslims.
11 These leaders included Yusuf’s former third-in-com-

mand, the Cameroonian Mamman Nur, and U.S. spe-
cially designated Nigerian terrorists Adam Kambar and
Khalid al-Barnawi.
12 “Islamists Ansaru Claim Attack on Mali-bound Ni-
geria Troops,” Reuters, January 20, 2013; “Declared of
Jama`atu Ansaril Muslimina Fibiladis Sudan Garki II
s i m i l a r l y h a s c o o p e r a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l
r o g u e c u s t o m s o f f i c e r s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
N i g e r i a , w h o t u r n a b l i n d e y e t o c r o s s -
b o r d e r a r m s t r a f f i c k i n g b e c a u s e t h e y ( o r
t h e i r f a m i l i e s ) a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r b r i b e d
b y B o k o H a r a m , o r s y m p a t h i z e w i t h i t s
i d e o l o g y . 1 3
Forcible Conscripts: Chibok as a Turning Point
T h e k i d n a p p i n g o f m o r e t h a n 2 5 0
g i r l s , m o s t l y C h r i s t i a n s , i n C h i b o k ,
B o r n o S t a t e , N i g e r i a o n A p r i l 1 4 , 2 0 1 4 ,
b r o u g h t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n t o B o k o
H a r a m ’ s f o r c i b l e r e c r u i t m e n t . Y e t t h a t
i n c i d e n t w a s n e i t h e r t h e f i r s t n o r l a s t
t i m e B o k o H a r a m e m p l o y e d t h e t a c t i c .
B o k o H a r a m m i l i t a n t s a n d t h e i r w i v e s
b e g a n k i d n a p p i n g y o u n g g i r l s i n e a r l y
2 0 1 3 t o u s e a s a s s e t s t o t r a d e i n p r i s o n e r
e x c h a n g e s , u s e a s d e c o y s t o l u r e t r o o p s
i n t o a m b u s h e s , a n d s e r v e a s p o r t e r s a n d
c o o k s . 1 4 T w o d a y s b e f o r e t h e C h i b o k
k i d n a p p i n g , o n A p r i l 1 2 , 2 0 1 4 , B o k o
H a r a m t o o k s e v e r a l g i r l s f r o m a c o l l e g e

i n D i k w a , B o r n o S t a t e . I n a d d i t i o n , o n
A p r i l 1 9 , M a y 5 , a n d J u n e 1 0 , 2 0 1 4 , t h e
m i l i t a n t s t o o k m o r e t h a n 4 0 g i r l s f r o m
t o w n s n e a r C h i b o k , a n d o n O c t o b e r
2 0 , 2 0 1 4 , t o o k 4 5 m o r e g i r l s f r o m
W a g g a , A d a m a w a S t a t e a n d “ m a r r i e d ”
t h e y o u n g o n e s a f t e r t h e N i g e r i a n
g o v e r n m e n t r e p o r t e d a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h
B o k o H a r a m o n r e l e a s i n g t h e C h i b o k
s c h o o l g i r l s , w h i c h d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i z e . 1
5
I n t e r n a l l y d i s p l a c e d p e o p l e ( I D P s ) w h o
f l e d B o r n o e s t i m a t e t h a t B o k o H a r a m
m a y h a v e a b d u c t e d b e t w e e n 5 0 0 a n d
2 , 0 0 0 w o m e n s i n c e 2 0 1 3 , b u t m o s t
i n c i d e n t s g o u n r e p o r t e d . 1 6
Abuja,” November 30, 2012, available at www.youtube.
com/watch?v=_1m5-zV3zfU; “French Man Kidnap: Pos-
sibly an Inside Job – Katsina CP,” Vanguard, December
21, 2012.
13 Ola Audu, “Soldiers Nab Top Customs Officer for Al-
legedly Ferrying Arms for Boko Haram,” Premium Times,
May 28, 2013; JC Finley, “10 Nigerian Generals Ar-
rested for Supplying Information, Ammunition to Boko
Haram,” UPI, June 3, 2014; “Nigeria Officials Held for
‘Boko Haram Links’,” al-Jazeera, September 30, 2012.

14 Joe Brock, “Insight: Boko Haram, Taking to Hills,
Seize Slave ‘Brides,’” Reuters, November 17, 2013.
15 Drew Hinshaw, “Boko Haram Kidnaps 20 More Girls
in Nigeria,” Wall Street Journal, June 10, 2014; “Boko
Haram Seizes 40 Women in Fresh Raid,” PM News Ni-
geria, October 20, 2014; “Boko Haram Frees Abducted
Women, Girls,” Vanguard, October 23, 2014.
16 Author’s interview of journalists who interviewed
IDPs in Gombe and Adamawa States. Salihu Garba, “Yan
Boko Haram Sun Sace Mutane Fiye da Dubu Uku Banda
na Chibok,” VOA Hausa, August 19, 2014; Tim Cocks,
“Nigerians Doubtful of Girls’ Release after Boko Haram
O n l y a f t e r t h e C h i b o k k i d n a p p i n g
d i d B o k o H a r a m s t a r t u s i n g w o m e n
i n o p e r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e w i v e s o f
s l a i n o r a r r e s t e d m i l i t a n t s a n d b e g g a r s
w h o w e r e o f f e r e d a “ f e w n a i r a n o t e s . ” 1 7
D u r i n g t h e m o n t h o f R a m a d a n i n J u n e
2 0 1 4 , t h e r e w e r e s i x f e m a l e s u i c i d e
b o m b e r s , a l l u n d e r 1 6 - y e a r s - o l d , w h o
c a r r i e d o u t f o u r a t t a c k s a t u n i v e r s i t i e s
a n d f u e l s t a t i o n s i n K a n o , a m i l i t a r y

b a r r a c k s i n G o m b e , a n d a f u e l s t a t i o n
i n L a g o s . I n a d d i t i o n , o n e 1 0 - y e a r - o l d
g i r l w a s d e t e c t e d w i t h a s u i c i d e v e s t i n
K a t s i n a i n J u l y 2 0 1 4 . 1 8
T h e e x p l o s i v e s w e r e p l a c e d u n d e r t h e
g i r l s ’ hijabs o r c l o t h i n g a n d d e t o n a t e d
r e m o t e l y , p o s s i b l y w i t h o u t t h e m
k n o w i n g . 1 9 T h e r e w a s m e d i a s p e c u l a t i o n
t h a t t h e y w e r e f r o m C h i b o k . H o w e v e r ,
i t a p p e a r s m o r e l i k e l y t h e y w e r e
a m o n g t h e d o z e n s o f g i r l s r e c r u i t e d
b y B o k o H a r a m ’ s “ f e m a l e w i n g ” i n
K a n o , w h i c h w a s l e d b y H a f s a t B a k o .
S h e i s t h e w i d o w o f a d e c e a s e d B o k o
H a r a m c o m m a n d e r a n d w a s b a s e d i n
B o r n o ’ s S a m b i s a F o r e s t , w h e r e s o m e
o f t h e C h i b o k g i r l s w e r e i n i t i a l l y h e l d ,
a n d h e r a r r e s t i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 c o i n c i d e d
w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e s e r i e s o f f e m a l e
s u i c i d e b o m b i n g s . 2 0 H e r r o l e i n t h e
f e m a l e w i n g a n d i n S a m b i s a F o r e s t
t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t s a n o p e r a t i o n a l l i n k
b e t w e e n t h e k i d n a p p i n g i n C h i b o k a n d
t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e f e m a l e s u i c i d e
‘Truce’ Breached,” Reuters, October 19, 2014.
17 Naira is the national currency of Nigeria. See “Kano
Bombings Traced to Female Beggars,” This Day, August
4, 2014.
18 Robyn Dixon, “Young Women Used in Nigerian Sui-

cide Bombings,” Los Angeles Times, July 30, 2014.
19 “Women, Kids as Suicide Bombers,” Vanguard, Au-
gust 15, 2014.
20 Ibid.
“Boko Haram militants
and their wives began
kidnapping young girls
in early 2013 to use as
assets to trade in prisoner
exchanges, use as decoys to
lure troops into ambushes,
and serve as porters and
cooks.”
“Boko Haram similarly has
cooperated with several
rogue customs officers in
northeastern Nigeria, who
turn a blind eye to cross-
border arms trafficking.”
7
b o m b e r s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e s c h o o l g i r l s
w e r e l i k e l y n o t t h e b o m b e r s .
Legitimizing the Chibok Kidnapping via
Historical Manipulation and ISIL

T h e f u t u r e o f m a n y o f t h e s c h o o l g i r l s
k i d n a p p e d i n C h i b o k a n d o t h e r t o w n s i n
n o r t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a i s l i k e l y a s “ w i v e s ”
o f m i l i t a n t s ( “ s l a v e s ” i n S h e k a u ’ s o w n
w o r d s ) . A s “ w i v e s , ” t h e i r v a l u e t o B o k o
H a r a m i s g r e a t e r t h a n a s b a r t e r i n g
c h i p s i n a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p r o b a b l e
d e a l w i t h t h e N i g e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t
b e c a u s e o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s d i s p e r s a l o f
t h e g i r l s i n t o m u l t i p l e g r o u p s a n d t h e i r
i n a b i l i t y t o r e c o n v e n e a l l , o r e v e n h a l f ,
o f t h e g i r l s i f a d e a l w e r e r e a c h e d . 2 1
E v e n i f B o k o H a r a m r e t u r n e d 9 0 % o f
t h e C h i b o k s c h o o l g i r l s , t h e m i l i t a n t s
w o u l d s t i l l h a v e m o r e t h a n 2 0 g i r l s
f r o m C h i b o k a n d h u n d r e d s o f o t h e r
g i r l s t o l e v e r a g e i n f u t u r e n e g o t i a t i o n s
o r k e e p e n s l a v e d . I n a p o t e n t i a l
d e a l , t h e m i l i t a n t s w o u l d a l s o l i k e l y
d e m a n d t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m
t h e N i g e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t w o u l d
g u a r a n t e e B o k o H a r a m s o v e r e i g n t y
i n d o z e n s o f L G A s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
N i g e r i a u n d e r i t s c o n t r o l . S h e k a u ,
w h o p r a i s e d t h e I s l a m i c S t a t e i n I r a q
a n d t h e L e v a n t ’ s ( I S I L ) l e a d e r A b u
B a k r a l - B a g h d a d i i n a J u l y 2 0 1 4 v i d e o
s t a t e m e n t , d e c l a r e d t h e s e L G A s a s
“ p a r t ” o f a n I s l a m i c S t a t e i n a s e p a r a t e
v i d e o s t a t e m e n t r e l e a s e d i n O c t o b e r
2 0 1 4 . 2 2 T h e v i d e o f e a t u r e d I S I L ’ s rayat
21 Ameh Comrade Godwin, “Some Chibok Girls are
Pregnant, Others May Never Return – Obasanjo,” Daily

Post, June 13, 2014; “Grave Violations Against Children
in Northeastern Nigeria,” Watchlist on Children and
Armed Conflict, September 2014.
22 Aminu Abubakar, “Nigerian Town Seized by Boko
Haram ‘Part of Islamic Caliphate’,” Agence France-
Presse, August 24, 2014; Stephanie Lining, “Boko Haram
ul-uqab f l a g b e h i n d S h e k a u a n d p l a y e d
I S I L ’ s s i g n a t u r e nasheed, My Umma, Dawn
Has Arrived, a s b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c w h i l e
S h e k a u m a d e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n , s i g n a l i n g
t h a t B o k o H a r a m s e e s i t s c a l i p h a t e a s
p a r t o f a l - B a g h d a d i ’ s . 2 3
B o k o H a r a m w i l l l e g i t i m i z e t h e “ s l a v e r y
”
o f t h e C h i b o k s c h o o l g i r l s b a s e d o n a
t e x t u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Q u r ’ a n a n d
t h e s u p p o r t t h e k i d n a p p i n g r e c e i v e d
f r o m I S I L a s w e l l a s a l - S h a b a b . 2 4 I S I L
c i t e d t h e “ N i g e r i a n m u j a h i d i n ” i n t h e
O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 e d i t i o n o f i t s m a g a z i n e
Dabiq a s p r e c e d e n t f o r I S I L ’ s o w n
k i d n a p p i n g o f s e v e r a l h u n d r e d n o n -
M u s l i m Y a z i d i w o m e n i n n o r t h e r n I r a q ,
w h o I S I L f o r c e d t o b e c o m e “ s e x s l a v e s ”
o f m i l i t a n t s . 2 5 B o k o H a r a m t h e r e f o r e
m a y n o t b e c a r r y i n g o u t k i d n a p p i n g s o f
w o m e n i n 2 0 1 4 f o r t h e s a m e p u r p o s e s i t
k i d n a p p e d w o m e n i n 2 0 1 2 a n d 2 0 1 3 . 2 6

R a t h e r , B o k o H a r a m , l i k e I S I L , m a y
b e s e e k i n g t o r e v i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a t
w e r e v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t s i n c e t h e
e n d o f t h e l a s t c a l i p h a t e e r a i n N i g e r i a
( a n d I r a q a n d t h e L e v a n t ) i n t h e e a r l y
2 0 t h c e n t u r y . S u c h p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d e
k i d n a p p i n g m o s t l y n o n - M u s l i m g i r l s
t o “ c o n t r i b u t e t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o t h e
n e x t g e n e r a t i o n ” o f t h e c a l i p h a t e a n d
hadd p u n i s h m e n t s , s u c h a s b e h e a d i n g ,
s t o n i n g , w h i p p i n g , a n d h a n d - c u t t i n g o f
“ c r i m i n a l s , ” w h i c h B o k o H a r a m c a r r i e s
o u t i n L G A s u n d e r i t s c o n t r o l . 2 7
Releases Video Showing Beheading of Nigerian Air
Force Pilot as Terror Leader Who Was Thought Dead
Reappears,” Daily Mail, October 3, 2014.
23 Jacob Zenn and Allen Grane, “Five Reasons To Pay
Attention to Boko Haram’s Latest Video,” CFR Africa in
Transition, October 7, 2014.
24 “Al-Shabaab Expresses Support for Boko Haram Ab-
duction,” Somalianewsroom.com, May 13, 2014.
25 Dabiq Magazine, al-Hayat Media Center, October
2014.
26 Jacob Zenn and Elizabeth Pearson, “Women, Gender

and the Evolving Tactics of Boko Haram,” St. Andrews
Journal of Terrorism Research, January 2014.
27 For a view on Islam’s abandonment of slavery as a
sign of its adaptability to modern times, the author rec-
ommends the Mauritanian Institute for Access to Mo-
dernity (IMAM); Chris Pleasance, “Hundreds of Yazidi
Women Held in Islamic State Prison Where They are
Held as Sex Slaves or Sold Off as Jihadi Brides for as Lit-
tle as $25,” Daily Mail, August 28, 2014; Paul E. Lovejoy,
“Concubinage and the Status of Women Slaves in Early
Colonial Northern Nigeria,” The Journal of African History
29 (1988): pp 245-266.
Forcible Recruitment of Teenage Boys
S i n c e t h e C h i b o k k i d n a p p i n g i n A p r i l
2 0 1 4 , B o k o H a r a m h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y
k i d n a p p e d t e e n a g e b o y s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
N i g e r i a a n d “ r e - e d u c a t e d ” t h e m a t
Q u r ’ a n i c s c h o o l s t h a t a r e o f t e n i n
C a m e r o o n . 2 8 S i g n p o s t s i n A r a b i c
l a n g u a g e t h a t B o k o H a r a m e r e c t e d i n
C a m e r o o n i a n b o r d e r t o w n s w i t h I S I L ’ s
rayat al-uqab i n s i g n i a o n t h e m s a y , “ I t i s
a c r i m e a n d t r e a s o n n o t t o j o i n j i h a d . ” 2 9
T h i s i s l i k e l y B o k o H a r a m ’ s j u s t i f i c a t i o

n
f o r t h e f o r c i b l e c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d k i l l i n g
o f b o y s ( a n d g i r l s ) w h o r e f u s e .
T h e m i l i t a n t s u s e u n t r a i n e d b o y s t o
a c q u i r e i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d c a r r y o u t t h e
f i r s t w a v e o f a t t a c k s o n v i l l a g e s o r
b a r r a c k s . W h e n t h e y g a i n e x p e r i e n c e ,
t h e y c a n b e p a r t o f t h e s e c o n d w a v e
d e s i g n e d t o o v e r w h e l m t h e s e c u r i t y
f o r c e s a f t e r t h e f i r s t w a v e w e a k e n s t h e i r
p o s i t i o n s a n d m o r a l e . 3 0 B o y s m a y a l s o
b e g i v e n a q u o t a o f h o w m a n y s e c u r i t y
o f f i c e r s o r “ h i g h v a l u e t a r g e t s ” t h e y
m u s t a t t a c k , a n d r i s k d e a t h a t t h e h a n d s
o f t h e i r c o m m a n d e r s i f t h e y f a i l o r s h o w
“ c o w a r d i c e . ” 3 1
28 “Boko Haram Kills Three, Abducts 12 in Cameroun,”
This Day, August 20, 2014; Omeiza Ajayi, “Boko Haram
Begins Forced Recruitment,” nationalmirroronline, July
22, 2014.
29 The author received a video of a battle between secu-
rity forces and Boko Haram in Fotokol, Cameroon where
such signposts could be seen. See “Boko Haram: Over 50
Women Abducted in Gulak Town,” Daily Post, Septem-
ber 15, 2014.

30 “Boko Haram ‘Executes’ 2 for Smoking Cigarettes,”
Agence France-Presse, August 21, 2014; “Boko Haram
Kidnaps Scores of Villagers in Nigeria: Witnesses,”
Agence France-Presse, August 15, 2014; “Gunmen Kill
16 Villagers, Burn Several Houses, Conscript Youths,”
newtelegraphonline.com, April 13, 2014.
31 Kingsley Omonobi, “Thousands Flee to Cameroon as
Boko Haram Conscripts Youths to Fight Nigeria,” Van-
“Even if Boko Haram
returned 90% of the
Chibok schoolgirls, the
militants would still have
more than 20 girls from
Chibok and hundreds of
other girls to leverage in
future negotiations or keep
enslaved.”
“Boko Haram will
legitimize the ‘slavery’ of
the Chibok schoolgirls
based on a textual
interpretation of the
Qur’an and the support the
kidnapping received from

ISIL as well as al-Shabab.”
8
B o k o H a r a m a l s o a p p e a r s t o b e f o c u s i n g
o n C a m e r o o n f o r i t s n o n - f o r c i b l e
r e c r u i t m e n t o f m e n , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f v i l l a g e s i n N i g e r i a
h a s a l i e n a t e d y o u t h s a n d c a u s e d t h e m
t o f l e e t o I D P c a m p s o u t s i d e o f B o r n o o r
j o i n t h e a n t i - B o k o H a r a m C i v i l i a n J o i n t
T a s k F o r c e ( J T F ) v i g i l a n t e g r o u p . I n
C a m e r o o n , w h i c h u n t i l 2 0 1 4 w a s s p a r e d
f r o m l a r g e - s c a l e a t t a c k s , l o c a l s o f t e n
c o n s i d e r B o k o H a r a m “ j u s t a n o t h e r
r e l i g i o u s g r o u p ” o r “ t h e b o y s . ” 3 2
A c c o r d i n g t o C a m e r o o n i a n p o l i c e , t h e r e
h a v e b e e n m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 n e w r e c r u i t s
i n v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e b o r d e r w i t h
N i g e r i a , s o m e o f w h o m w e r e “ d r u g g e d
o r m a n i p u l a t e d ” i n t r a i n i n g c a m p s . 3 3
T h e y p r o v i d e B o k o H a r a m w i t h t h e
a b i l i t y t o u s e C a m e r o o n a s a r e a r b a s e
f o r a t t a c k i n g N i g e r i a , t o r a i s e m o n e y
t h r o u g h k i d n a p p i n g f o r e i g n e r s , a n d
t o t r a f f i c w e a p o n s i n t o N i g e r i a f r o m
C a m e r o o n i a n b o r d e r t o w n s .
Financiers, Arms Traffickers and Kidnappings
in Cameroon
W h e n B o k o H a r a m w a s a n a b o v e g r o u n d
m o v e m e n t b e f o r e 2 0 0 9 , i t h a d w e a l t h y
m e m b e r s w h o s e r v e d a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s

b e t w e e n f i n a n c i a l s p o n s o r s , s u c h a s
l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s o r w e a l t h y
S a l a f i s t s a b r o a d , a n d M u h a m m a d
Y u s u f . 3 4 N o w o f f i c i a l s h a v e d i s t a n c e d
t h e m s e l v e s f r o m B o k o H a r a m , w h i l e
guard, September 1, 2014.
32 “Fears in Cameroon of Boko Haram Recruitment,”
IRIN, April 16, 2014.
33 “Boko Haram Gathers New Recruits in Cameroon,”
news24.com, August 8, 2014.
34 Nasiru L. Abubakar, “Video Shows Ex-Commis-
sioner’s Execution,” Daily Trust, August 4, 2009; “Boko
Haram Gets N40million Donation From Algeria,” Saha-
ra Reporters, May 13, 2012; Eli Lake, “Boko Haram’s Bin
Laden Connection,” Daily Beast, May 11, 2014.
m a i n s t r e a m S a l a f i s t a n d a l - Q a ` i d a
f u n d i n g d e c r e a s e d a s a r e s u l t o f B o k o
H a r a m ’ s m a s s a c r e s , t h e b r e a k - u p o f
A n s a r u ’ s s h u r a i n K a d u n a i n 2 0 1 2 , a n d
t h e F r e n c h - l e d m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n
n o r t h e r n M a l i i n 2 0 1 3 , w h i c h d i s r u p t e d
t h e A Q I M s u p p l y l i n e t o B o k o H a r a m . 3 5
H o w e v e r , B o k o H a r a m h a s m a d e
i n r o a d s w i t h n e w f i n a n c i e r s , w h o a r e
f r o m B o r n o a n d b o r d e r i n g a r e a s o f

C a m e r o o n ’ s E x t r e m e N o r t h R e g i o n
a n d a r e o f t e n e t h n i c K a n u r i s l i k e
Y u s u f , S h e k a u a n d m o s t B o k o H a r a m
m e m b e r s . T h e s e f i n a n c i e r s p r o v i d e
B o k o H a r a m w i t h w e a p o n s a n d a r o u t e
t o n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h t h e C a m e r o o n i a n
g o v e r n m e n t i n k i d n a p p i n g - f o r - r a n s o m
o p e r a t i o n s . 3 6
O n e C a m e r o o n i a n f i n a n c i e r , A l h a j i
A b d a l l a , i s a v e h i c l e e x p o r t e r b a s e d i n
A m c h i d e w h o s e b u s i n e s s o p e r a t i o n s
e x t e n d t o Q a t a r ( t h e v e h i c l e s l i k e l y m o v e
f r o m D o h a t o o t h e r p o r t s i n A s i a ) . 3 7 H e
s e r v e d a s a k e y n e g o t i a t o r f o r B o k o
H a r a m i n t a l k s w i t h t h e C a m e r o o n i a n
g o v e r n m e n t f o r t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e
F r e n c h M o u l i n - F o u r n i e r f a m i l y o f
s e v e n , w h i c h w a s k i d n a p p e d b y B o k o
H a r a m ( l i k e l y i n c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h
A n s a r u ) i n W a z a ( a t o w n 1 6 m i l e s
e a s t o f A m c h i d e ) i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 3 . 3 8
T h e g o v e r n m e n t p a i d a $ 3 . 1 4 m i l l i o n
r a n s o m a n d r e l e a s e d B o k o H a r a m
p r i s o n e r s i n A p r i l 2 0 1 3 i n e x c h a n g e f o r
t h e f a m i l y . 3 9
I n J u l y 2 0 1 4 , B o k o H a r a m k i d n a p p e d
f r o m K o l o f a t a ( a t o w n t h r e e m i l e s
f r o m A m c h i d e ) t h e t o w n ’ s lamido ( l o c a l
r u l e r ) a n d h i s f a m i l y a n d t h e w i f e o f
C a m e r o o n D e p u t y P r i m e M i n i s t e r
A m a d o u A l i , w h o r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
C a m e r o o n s i d e i n n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e
35 “Mali: un Béninois à la tête d’une unité combattante,

une katiba, dans le Nord,” Radio France Internationale,
December 28, 2012; “Barnawi, Kambar: Qaeda-linked
Militants with Boko Haram Ties,” Agence France-
Presse, June 21, 2012.
36 “Cameroun: 10 millions d’euros de rançon pour
libérer le père Vandenbeusch,” Le Journal International,
February 7, 2014.
37 “Cameroun: La Boko Haram connection,” camer.be,
June 2, 2014.
38 Ibid. For details on Ansaru’s likely role in the Moulin-
Fournier kidnapping, see section on “Evidence of An-
saru’s Presence in Borno” in Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s
Evolving Tactics and Alliances in Nigeria,” CTC Sentinel
6:6 (2013): p. 13.
39 “Boko Haram Unleashes Terror in Cameroon,” Sun
News Online, July 28, 2014.
M o u l i n - F o u r n i e r s a n d r a n p r o g r a m s t o
p r e v e n t r e c r u i t m e n t o f C a m e r o o n i a n
y o u t h s t o B o k o H a r a m ( A m a d o u A l i

w a s o u t s i d e o f K o l o f a t a s o h e a v o i d e d
b e i n g k i d n a p p e d ) . 4 0 T h e k i d n a p p i n g
w a s r e p o r t e d l y m o t i v a t e d i n p a r t b y
C a m e r o o n ’ s f a i l u r e t o p a y t h e f u l l
r a n s o m f o r t h e M o u l i n - F o u r n i e r s . 4 1
I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , h o w e v e r , B o k o
H a r a m r e l e a s e d t h e w i f e o f A m a d o u
A l i a n d t h e lamido a n d h i s f a m i l y , a l o n g
w i t h 1 0 C h i n e s e e n g i n e e r s w h o w e r e
k i d n a p p e d i n A p r i l 2 0 1 4 f r o m W a z a ,
a f t e r t h e C a m e r o o n i a n g o v e r n m e n t p a i d
a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n r a n s o m
t o c o v e r t h e r e m a i n i n g p a y m e n t f o r
t h e M o u l i n - F o u r n i e r s . 4 2 I n a d d i t i o n ,
C a m e r o o n r e l e a s e d 3 0 p r i s o n e r s ,
i n c l u d i n g s o m e w h o w e r e i m p r i s o n e d
i n M a r o u a i n J u l y 2 0 1 4 a f t e r b e i n g
c a u g h t s t o c k p i l i n g w e a p o n s i n t h e
t o w n o f K o u s s e r i o n C a m e r o o n ’ s
b o r d e r w i t h C h a d . 4 3 O t h e r s r e l e a s e d
f r o m p r i s o n i n c l u d e d a l e a d i n g B o k o
H a r a m r e c r u i t e r , t h e m a s t e r m i n d o f
a k i d n a p p i n g o f t w o I t a l i a n p r i e s t s
a n d a C a n a d i a n n u n i n a t o w n
n o r t h o f M a r o u a i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 , a n d
t h e t o p C a m e r o o n i a n B o k o H a r a m
c o m m a n d e r , A b a k a r A l i . A b a k a r
A l i h a d b e e n a r r e s t e d i n S e p t e m b e r
2 0 1 4 i n K o u s s e r i a n d r e v e a l e d u n d e r
i n t e r r o g a t i o n t h a t h e c o o r d i n a t e d
a r m s t r a f f i c k i n g w i t h t h e m a y o r o f
F o t o k o l ( a t o w n o n C a m e r o o n ’ s b o r d e r
w i t h N i g e r i a a t G a m b a r o u - N g a l a ) ,
w h o w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y a r r e s t e d w i t h

s t o c k p i l e s o f w e a p o n s a t h i s r e s i d e n c e . 4
4
40 “Biya’s Answer to Boko Haram,” Africa Confidential,
August 29, 2014.
41 “Cameroon/Boko Haram. Was Unpaid Ransom for
French Family Responsible for Kidnap of VPM’s Wife?”
Iroko Magazine, July 28, 2014.
42 Ibid.
43 Mbenju Mfany, “Over 40 Boko Haram Members De-
tained in Maroua,” thecameroonian.com, June 25, 2014.
44 “Cameroon Army Arrests Ramat Musa, Nigerian
“Boko Haram also
appears to be focusing
on Cameroon for its non-
forcible recruitment of
men, possibly because the
destruction of villages
in Nigeria has alienated
youths and caused them to
flee.”
“These financiers provide
Boko Haram with weapons
and a route to negotiation

with the Cameroonian
government in kidnapping-
for-ransom operations.”
9
C a m e r o o n a l s o r e p o r t e d l y r e t u r n e d t o
B o k o H a r a m s o m e o f t h e w e a p o n s a n d
a m m u n i t i o n i t c o n f i s c a t e d f r o m B o k o
H a r a m i n K o u s s e r i . 4 5
T h e p a t t e r n o f B o k o H a r a m k i d n a p p i n g s
o f f o r e i g n e r s i n e x c h a n g e f o r r a n s o m s
a n d t h e r e l e a s e o f w e a p o n s t r a f f i c k e r s
o c c u r r e d i n s e v e r a l o t h e r i n s t a n c e s .
W h e n B o k o H a r a m k i d n a p p e d a F r e n c h
p r i e s t i n “ c o o r d i n a t i o n ” w i t h A n s a r u
i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f r o m a t o w n 1 6 m i l e s
s o u t h o f A m c h i d e , t h e m i l i t a n t s r e l e a s e d
h i m w e e k s l a t e r f o r a m u l t i - m i l l i o n
d o l l a r r a n s o m a n d a K a n u r i w e a p o n s
t r a f f i c k e r . 4 6 B o k o H a r a m a l s o r e l e a s e d
t h e t w o I t a l i a n p r i e s t s a n d C a n a d i a n
n u n a f t e r s e v e r a l w e e k s i n c a p t i v i t y i n
J u n e 2 0 1 4 i n a n o t h e r p r i s o n e r e x c h a n g e
a n d r a n s o m d e a l . 4 7
T h e t i e b e t w e e n a r m s t r a f f i c k e r s a n d
B o k o H a r a m c o m m a n d e r s w a s a l s o
h i g h l i g h t e d i n k e y a r r e s t s i n C a m e r o o n .
O n e C h a d i a n w e a p o n s t r a f f i c k e r w a s
a r r e s t e d i n W a z a i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 w o r k i n g
o n b e h a l f o f a M a r o u a - b a s e d B o k o H a r a m

Mayor of Fotokol, 300 Insurgents,” The Street Journal,
October 4, 2014; “Cameroonian Military Capture Boko
Haram’s Top Commander, Abakar Ali,” Sahara Report-
ers, September 26, 2014.
45 “Amchide: 31 Membres de Boko Haram Livrés au
Nigeria,” Cameroon-Info, December 27, 2012; “40 Sus-
pected Boko Haram Militants Arrested in Cameroon,”
Leadership, June 24 2014; “Cameroun: 20 ans de prison
pour des members,” camer.be, July 31, 2014; “Cameroun:
Les membres de Boko Haram libérés par le gouverne-
ment,” camer.be, October 16, 2014.
46 “Boko Haram: Freed French Priest Arrives in Paris,”
PM News, January 1, 2014; “Senior Officials in Cameroon
Suspected of Complicity With Nigerian Islamic Sect,”
Cameroon-Info.net, April 11, 2014; “Abducted Chi-
nese Likely in Nigeria – Cameroon,” Vanguard, May 17,
2014; Guibai Guitama, “Cameroun – Libération du père
Georges Vandenbeusch: Le négociateur désigné de Boko

Haram réclame son argent,” L’Oeil du Sahel, January 6,
2014.
47 Kathryn Blaze Carlson, “Release of Canadian Nun,
Italian Priests Spurs Questions,” The Globe and Mail,
June 1, 2014
c o m m a n d e r a n d p o s s e s s e d $ 1 5 , 0 0 0
f r o m d e a l s t h a t h e m a d e i n C h a d . 4 8 D a y s
b e f o r e h i s a r r e s t , C a m e r o o n u n c o v e r e d
w e a p o n s s t o c k p i l e s i n M a r o u a ’ s c e n t r a l
m a r k e t . 4 9 I n a d d i t i o n , i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 ,
C a m e r o o n d i s c o v e r e d t r a v e l d o c u m e n t s
f r o m L i b y a ( A f r i c a ’ s l a r g e s t a r m s m a r k e t
s i n c e 2 0 1 1 ) a n d Q a t a r a n d r e c e i p t s f r o m
c a r e x p o r t s t o Q a t a r i n a B o k o H a r a m
c a m p , w h i c h s u g g e s t s a p o s s i b l e l i n k t o
A l h a j i A b d a l l a , w h o w a s B o k o H a r a m ’ s
n e g o t i a t o r i n t h e M o u l i n - F o u r n i e r a n d
o t h e r k i d n a p p i n g s . 5 0
A c r o s s t h e b o r d e r i n N i g e r i a , o n e o f t h e
f i n a n c i e r s o f t h e C h i b o k k i d n a p p i n g
a n d a p l o t t e r o f t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n
o f t h e a m i r o f G w o z a w a s a K a n u r i
n a m e d B a b a j i Y a a r i , w h o r u n s a
l u c r a t i v e c a r t t a x i b u s i n e s s . 5 1 H e
c o o r d i n a t e d t h e C h i b o k k i d n a p p i n g
w i t h t h e l e a d e r o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s
f e m a l e w i n g , H a f s a t B a k o , w h o w a s
d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . B a k o w a s a r r e s t e d
b a s e d o n t h e N i g e r i a n s e c u r i t y f o r c e ’ s

i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f Y a a r i . 5 2 T h e t r a n s f e r
o f m a n y o f t h e s c h o o l g i r l s t o C a m e r o o n
a n d C h a d a f t e r t h e k i d n a p p i n g s u g g e s t s
t h a t B a k o ’ s a n d Y a a r i ’ s n e t w o r k a n d
t h e n e t w o r k o f k i d n a p p e r s , f i n a n c i e r s ,
a n d a r m s t r a f f i c k e r s i n C a m e r o o n l i k e l y
o v e r l a p . 5 3
Conclusion
T h i s a r t i c l e r e v e a l s s e v e r a l n e w
t r e n d s i n t h e B o k o H a r a m i n s u r g e n c y .
F i r s t , B o k o H a r a m ’ s r e c r u i t m e n t n o w
i n c l u d e s h u n d r e d s , i f n o t t h o u s a n d s , o f
f o r c i b l y c o n s c r i p t e d b o y s a n d g i r l s , w h o
a r e o f t e n t a k e n t o a n d “ r e - e d u c a t e d ” i n
48 “Cameroun: Un coursier du Boko Haram aux arrêts à
Waza,” camer.be, June 19, 2014; Moki Edwin Kindzeka,
“Cameroon’s Military Seizes War Weapons,” VOA, June
18, 2014.
49 “Cameroon Arrests 40 Boko Haram Suspects,” Punch,
June 25, 2014; “40 Suspected Boko Haram Militants Ar-
rested in Cameroon,” VOA, June 24, 2014.
50 “Cameroun: La Boko Haram connection,” camer.be,
June 2, 2014.
51 Cart taxis (popularly called Achaba or Going) in north-

ern Nigeria are imported mostly from China and became
a lucrative business after the government imposed a ban
on motorcycles as a means of transportation, which the
government believed are more likely to be used in terror-
ist attacks, such as drive-by shootings. See Jacob Zenn,
“Boko Haram’s ‘Borno Kidnapping Duo’: Hafsat Bako
and Babuji Yaari,” Militant Leadership Monitor V:VII
(2014).
52 Ibid.
53 “Nigeria: Reports Say Boko Haram Ferried Abducted
Girls to Chad, Cameroon,” Daily Trust, April 29, 2014.
C a m e r o o n . T h i s t y p e o f r e c r u i t m e n t
d e m o n s t r a t e s B o k o H a r a m ’ s n e e d f o r
m o r e h u m a n r e s o u r c e s t o c o n t r o l
t e r r i t o r y i n i t s s e l f - d e s c r i b e d
c a l i p h a t e i n n o r t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a ,
a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y a l s o i n C a m e r o o n . 5 4
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w c o m m a n d e r s
o t h e r t h a n A b u b a k a r S h e k a u , w h o w a s
p r e v i o u s l y t h e o n l y p u b l i c f a c e o f B o k o
H a r a m , i n v i d e o s o f a n a t t a c k i n G w o z a
i n B o r n o S t a t e a n d t h e d e c a p i t a t i o n o f
a N i g e r i a n a i r f o r c e p i l o t i n A u g u s t
a n d O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 s h o w B o k o H a r a m ’ s
i n t e n t t o r e v e a l n e w c o m m a n d e r s a n d

amirs a s t h e m i l i t a n t s g a i n c o n t r o l o f
m o r e L G A s . 5 5 M o r e o v e r , t h e a r r e s t o f
T u a r e g s f r o m M a l i f i g h t i n g f o r B o k o
H a r a m i n C a m e r o o n i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4
s u g g e s t s t h a t i t s k i d n a p p i n g a n d a r m s
t r a f f i c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s m a y b e a t t r a c t i n g
m i l i t a n t s w h o c a n s t r e n g t h e n t h e c r o s s -
b o r d e r i n s u r g e n c y i n N i g e r i a a n d
C a m e r o o n . 5 6
S e c o n d , B o k o H a r a m i s i n c r e a s i n g l y
l a u n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n C a m e r o o n ’ s
E x t r e m e N o r t h R e g i o n a n d a t t e m p t i n g
t o s e i z e c o n t r o l o f C a m e r o o n i a n
b o r d e r t o w n s , s u c h a s F o t o k o l ,
A m c h i d e a n d K o l o f a t a , t o s e c u r e
s u p p l y l i n e s f o r r e c e i v i n g w e a p o n s
f r o m C h a d a n d L i b y a f o r u s e i n
N i g e r i a . 5 7 B o k o H a r a m m a y a l s o s e e k
t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f i n t e r i o r t o w n s i n
54 “Nigeria’s Female Suicide Bombers: A Show of
Strength,” War on the Rocks blog, October 16, 2014.
55 “Boko Haram Releases Video Showing Beheading
of Nigerian Air Force Pilot as Terror Leader Who Was
Thought Dead Reappears,” Daily Mail, October 3, 2014;
“Boko Haram Declares Gwoza Islamic Caliphate,” Punch,
August 25, 2014.

56 “Boko Haram Clashes Disrupt Learning in Camer-
oon,” Deutsche Welle, September 10, 2014.
57 Boko Haram has attacked Cameroonian border towns
such as Fotokol, Ashigashia and Kolofata, and Amchide,
which connect to Borno’s border towns of Gambarou,
Gwoza, and Banki, respectively.
“The tie between arms
traffickers and Boko
Haram commanders was
also highlighted in key
arrests in Cameroon.”
“Boko Haram’s
recruitment now includes
hundreds, if not thousands,
of forcibly conscripted
boys and girls, who are
often taken to and ‘re-
educated’ in Cameroon.”
10
t h e E x t r e m e N o r t h R e g i o n , s u c h a s
M a r o u a , W a z a , a n d K o u s s e r i , n o t o n l y
f o r t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s u p p l y l i n e ,
b u t a l s o f o r t h e i r h i s t o r i c v a l u e a s p a r t s

o f t h e f o r m e r K a n e m - B o r n o C a l i p h a t e ,
o r “ G r e a t e r K a n o u r a . ” 5 8 T h e K a n e m -
B o r n o C a l i p h a t e ’ s f o r m e r b o u n d a r i e s
c o r r e s p o n d a l m o s t p r e c i s e l y t o B o k o
H a r a m ’ s c u r r e n t a r e a o f o p e r a t i o n s ,
a n d B o k o H a r a m m a y s e e k t o r e c r e a t e
t h a t c a l i p h a t e t h r o u g h i t s o w n n e w l y -
d e c l a r e d c a l i p h a t e , b u t w i t h takfiri
i d e o l o g y r e p l a c i n g t h e S u f i t r a d i t i o n s
o f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e K a n e m - B o r n o
amirs, w h o B o k o H a r a m h a s k i l l e d o r
e x p e l l e d f r o m n o r t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a . 5 9
B o k o H a r a m ’ s s e i z u r e o f A b a d a m o n
B o r n o ’ s b o r d e r w i t h N i g e r ’ s D i f f a
P r o v i n c e i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , w h i c h i s
a l s o p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r i c K a n e m - B o r n o
e m p i r e , c o u l d s i g n a l f u t u r e B o k o H a r a m
o p e r a t i o n s i n N i g e r , w h e r e B o k o H a r a m
h a s s u p p l y l i n e s t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y m o r e
o f t e n u s e d f o r r e c e i v i n g f o o d a n d f u e l
t h a n w e a p o n s . 6 0 T h e “ r e u n i f i c a t i o n ”
o f t h e f o r m e r K a n e m - B o r n o C a l i p h a t e
a r e a s w o u l d s e e m i n g l y e r a s e t h e
l e g a c y o f c o l o n i a l i s m t h a t B o k o H a r a m
f o u n d e r M u h a m m e d Y u s u f c r i t i c i z e d
i n h i s s e r m o n s f o r “ a m a l g a m a t i n g
[ B o r n o ] t o t h e i n f i d e l s … l e a v i n g N i g e r i n
58 “Greater Kanoura” is a nationalist term used in the
1950s that refers to majority Kanuri areas of Nigeria,
Cameroon, Chad and Niger in the 1950s. See Minahan,
J. Nations Without States (Westport, Connecticut: Green-

wood Press, 1996).
59 Jacob Zenn, Atta Barkindo, and Nicholas Heras, “The
Ideological Evolution of Boko Haram in Nigeria: Merg-
ing Local Salafism and International Jihadism,” The RUSI
Journal, July 2013.
60 “Boko Haram Seizes 40 Women in Fresh Raid,” PM
News Nigeria, October 20, 2014.
p o v e r t y … a n d c r e a t i n g e t h n i c p r o b l e m s
a n d p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s i n C h a d . ” 6 1
F i n a l l y , o n e o f t h e k e y q u e s t i o n s f o r
t h e N i g e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t i s w h e t h e r
a d e a l f o r t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e C h i b o k
s c h o o l g i r l s , o r a n y t y p e o f c e a s e f i r e
w i t h B o k o H a r a m , i s p o s s i b l e a n d
w h e t h e r i t w o u l d r e q u i r e N i g e r i a
t o c e d e t e r r i t o r y t o B o k o H a r a m .
A c c o r d i n g t o M u h a m m e d Y u s u f ’ s
s e r m o n s , e s t a b l i s h i n g a n I s l a m i c S t a t e
w a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r B o k o H a r a m t o
h a v e t h e “ i n d e p e n d e n c e ” t o n e g o t i a t e
o n e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h t h e “ i n f i d e l ”
N i g e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t . 6 2 I t t h e r e f o r e
a p p e a r s t h a t B o k o H a r a m s t i l l f o l l o w s
Y u s u f ’ s d o c t r i n e , b u t n o w a l s o w i t h a
m o d e l a n d l e g i t i m a c y f r o m I S I L o n h o w
t o c r e a t e t h i s I s l a m i c S t a t e t h r o u g h
g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e a n d t e r r i t o r i a l

c o n t r o l .
J a c o b Z e n n i s a n a n a l y s t o f A f r i c a n a n d
E u r a s i a n A f f a i r s f o r T h e J a m e s t o w n
F o u n d a t i o n i n W a s h i n g t o n D C a n d a n
e x p e r t o n c o u n t e r i n g v i o l e n t e x t r e m i s m
f o r t h i n k - t a n k s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n W e s t A f r i c a a n d
C e n t r a l A s i a . M r . Z e n n i s t h e a u t h o r o f
“ N o r t h e r n N i g e r i a ’ s B o k o H a r a m : T h e
P r i z e i n a l - Q a e d a ’ s A f r i c a S t r a t e g y , ”
w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d b y T h e J a m e s t o w n
F o u n d a t i o n i n 2 0 1 2 , a n d i n N o v e m b e r
2 0 1 3 h e p r o v i d e d t e s t i m o n y t o t h e U . S .
C o n g r e s s o n “ T h e C o n t i n u i n g T h r e a t o f
B o k o H a r a m a n d A n s a r u . ” H e w r i t e s i n
h i s c a p a c i t y a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t e x p e r t
a n d h i s v i e w s d o n o t e n g a g e a n y o f t h e
p o l i c i e s o r p o s i t i o n s o f c u r r e n t i n s t i t u t i
o n a l
c l i e n t s .
61 Shaykh Muhammad Yusuf, Tarihin Musulmai, His-
tory of Muslims, video from pre-July 2009, accessed May
2014.
62 Abu Shekau’s (and Muhammed Yusuf’s) tafsir to
Boko Haram members, video from pre- July 2009, ac-
cessed May 2014.
Boko Haram’s Regional
Cross-Border Activities

By scott Menner
on july 27, 2014, o v e r 2 0 0 B o k o H a r a m
m i l i t a n t s s t o r m e d K o l o f a t a , a t o w n i n
C a m e r o o n ’ s E x t r e m e N o r t h R e g i o n . T h e y
t a r g e t e d V i c e P r i m e M i n i s t e r A m a d o u
A l i ’ s h o u s e , k i d n a p p i n g h i s w i f e a n d
s i s t e r - i n - l a w , a s w e l l a s S e i n i L a m i n e ,
a s e n i o r r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r a n d t h e t o w n ’ s
m a y o r . 1 T h e n i g h t b e f o r e , B o k o H a r a m
k i l l e d f o u r C a m e r o o n i a n s o l d i e r s a n d
k i d n a p p e d a t l e a s t 1 3 o t h e r s . 2 E a r l i e r i n
t h e m o n t h , B o k o H a r a m k i d n a p p e d t w o
s o n s o f B i e s h a i r M o h a m a n , C a m e r o o n ’ s
t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r i n L i m a n i o n J u l y 1 5 ,
2 0 1 4 . 3 I n n o r t h e r n N i g e r i a , a u t h o r i t i e s
t r a c e d 4 s o m e o f t h e e x p l o s i v e s u s e d i n
r e c e n t s u i c i d e a t t a c k s t o a q u a r r y i n
n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n t h a t w a s r a i d e d
b y B o k o H a r a m i n M a y 2 0 1 4 . 5 B o k o
H a r a m h a s t a r g e t e d N i g e r a s w e l l . I n
D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 , N i g e r i e n a u t h o r i t i e s
f o i l e d a B o k o H a r a m p l o t t o k i d n a p t h e
c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , t h e
l o c a l g o v e r n o r , a n d t h e m i l i t a r y z o n e
c o m m a n d e r i n D i f f a . 6 T h e r e i s a l s o
i n c r e a s i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t B o k o H a r a m
m a y b e a c t i v e i n t h e C e n t r a l A f r i c a n
R e p u b l i c ( C A R ) a n d C h a d .
1 “Boko Haram Kidnaps Cameroon’s Vice PM’s Wife,
Kills 3,” Nigerian Tribune, July 28, 2014; “Cameroun:
14 Membres de Boko Haram Reçoivent 10 à 20 Ans de

Prison,” Cameroon Web News, July 26, 2014; See also
Javier Blas, “Kidnap Attack Shows an Expanding Boko
Haram Now Targeting Cameroon,” Financial Times, Au-
gust 1, 2014.
2 One soldier who survived the attacks indicated that
Boko Haram may have kidnapped up to 13 of his com-
rades in the attack. See “Boko Haram Clashes with
Cameroon Soldiers in Cross-Border Attacks,” Reuters,
July 26, 2014. See also “Two Cameroon Soldiers ‘Killed
in Crossborder Boko Haram Attack,’” Cameroon Web
News, July 25, 2014.
3 Moki Edwin Kindzeka, “Suspected Boko Haram Mili-
tants Kidnap Cleric’s Children,” Voice of America, July
15, 2014.
4 “Boko Haram: Explosives Used by Female Suicide
Bombers Traced to Chinese Factory,” DailyPost, August
2, 2014.
5 This attack resulted in the kidnapping of 10 Chinese

nationals. See “Suspected Boko Haram Rebels Attack
Chinese Plant in Cameroon,” Reuters, May 17, 2014.
6 David Lewis, “Niger Fears Contagion from Nigeria’s
Boko Haram Islamists,” Reuters, March 19, 2014; Thom-
as Fessy, “Niger Hit by Nigeria’s Boko Haram Fallout,”
BBC News, April 22, 2014.
“One of the key questions
for the Nigerian
government is whether a
deal for the release of the
Chibok schoolgirls, or any
type of ceasefire with Boko
Haram, is possible and
whether it would require
Nigeria to cede territory to
Boko Haram.”
11
T h i s a r t i c l e a n a l y z e s B o k o H a r a m ’ s
c r o s s - b o r d e r a c t i v i t i e s i n N i g e r , C h a d ,
a n d C a m e r o o n , a n d i t s p r e s e n c e i n
t h e C A R . A l t h o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
a s c e r t a i n p r e c i s e l y w h y B o k o H a r a m
i s u n d e r t a k i n g t h e s e c r o s s - b o r d e r

a c t i v i t i e s , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t f o u r
e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r h o w i t h a s c a r r i e d o u t
t h i s a c t i v i t y : t h e r e g i o n ’ s b o r d e r s a r e
l o n g a n d f l u i d , m i l i t a r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n
a r e i n e f f e c t i v e , m u l t i l a t e r a l c o o p e r a t i o
n
i s f a i l i n g , a n d B o k o H a r a m e x p l o i t s
h i s t o r i c e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c c r o s s - b o r d e r
t i e s .
Niger
I n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e 2 0 1 2 M a l i a n
u p r i s i n g a n d N i g e r i a ’ s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
o f t h e 2 0 1 3 S t a t e o f E m e r g e n c y t o c r a c k
d o w n o n B o k o H a r a m , r e f u g e e s f l o o d e d
i n t o n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g
N i g e r , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y f e a r e d B o k o
H a r a m i n f i l t r a t i o n s . I n s o u t h e r n N i g e r ,
B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s h a v e p l o t t e d t o
b o m b p u b l i c p l a c e s . I n 2 0 1 2 , N i g e r i e n
a u t h o r i t i e s a r r e s t e d 1 5 s u s p e c t e d
B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s i n D i f f a , w h e r e
t h e y w e r e p l a n n i n g t o a t t a c k t h e l o c a l
m i l i t a r y g a r r i s o n . 7 O n O c t o b e r 1 4 , 2 0 1 2 ,
n e w s r e p o r t s s p e c u l a t e d t h a t B o k o
H a r a m 8 o r a l - Q a ` i d a i n t h e I s l a m i c
M a g h r e b ( A Q I M ) m i l i t a n t s k i d n a p p e d
f i v e N i g e r i e n s a n d a C h a d i a n i n D a k o r o . 9
I n 2 0 1 4 , t h e N i g e r i e n g o v e r n m e n t
a r r e s t e d 2 0 B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s i n
D i f f a a n d Z i n d e r f o r p l o t t i n g t o a t t a c k
7 Niger: Another Weak Link in the Sahel? (International
Crisis Group, September 19, 2013), p. 41.

8 “Le Niger et Le Nigeria Renforcent Leur Coopération et
Signent Un Accord de Défense,” RFI, October 19, 2012.
9 “Gunmen Kidnap Five Aid Workers, Driver in Niger,”
Vanguard, October 15, 2012.
a m a r k e t . 1 0 N i g e r ’ s a r m y c h i e f G e n e r a l
S e y n i G a r b a s a i d h i s c o u n t r y a v o i d e d a
“ b l o o d b a t h . ” 1 1
B o k o H a r a m i s a l s o k n o w n t o r e c r u i t
N i g e r i e n h e r d s m e n a n d f a r m e r s w h o s e
l i v e l i h o o d s h a v e b e e n u n d e r c u t b y
s e v e r e d r o u g h t . 1 2 A c c o r d i n g t o a n
i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e B B C , s o m e a l l e g e d
B o k o H a r a m r e c r u i t s i n D i f f a c l a i m t h a t
t h e y a c c e p t e d p a y m e n t s o f o v e r $ 3 , 0 0 0
e a c h t o j o i n B o k o H a r a m . 1 3 I n F e b r u a r y
2 0 1 4 , N i g e r i e n a u t h o r i t i e s r e p o r t e d l y
u n c o v e r e d a B o k o H a r a m t r a i n i n g
c a m p . 1 4
M o r e r e c e n t l y , B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s
i n D i f f a a m b u s h e d a n a r m y p a t r o l a n d
e s c a p e d t o t h e N i g e r i a n s i d e o f t h e
b o r d e r . 1 5 T h r e e B o k o H a r a m m e m b e r s
w e r e c a p t u r e d a n d t h e n e x t d a y n i n e
m o r e w e r e a r r e s t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e
a t t a c k . 1 6 S i m i l a r a t t a c k s , c o m p a r a b l e t o
t h e D i f f a k i d n a p p i n g p l o t m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e , 1 7 m a y i n c r e a s e a s B o k o H a r a m
a t t e m p t s t o d e t e r i n c r e a s e d N i g e r i e n
c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s . I f N i g e r t a k e s

a n i n c r e a s e d r o l e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c o a l i t i o n t o d e f e a t B o k o H a r a m , t h e
m i l i t a n t s m a y t r a n s f o r m N i g e r i n t o a
m o r e a c t i v e t h e a t r e o f o p e r a t i o n s .
Chad
A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n
t h e d e t a i l s o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s a c t i v i t i e s
i n C h a d , m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s i n N ’ D j a m e n a
i n t e r v i e w e d b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r i s i s
G r o u p r e v e a l t h a t B o k o H a r a m e l e m e n t s
a r e p r e s e n t i n N ’ D j a m e n a a n d e l s e w h e r e
10 Lewis, “Niger Fears Contagion from Nigeria’s Boko
Haram Islamists.”
11 “Niger Arrests 20 Boko Haram Militants in Suspected
Plot,” Reuters, February 17, 2014.
12 Nafeez Ahmed, “Behind the Rise of Boko Haram -
Ecological Disaster, Oil Crisis, Spy Games,” The Guard-
ian, May 9, 2014.
13 Chris Agbambu and Seyi Gesinde, “How Boko Haram
Recruits Niger Republic Youths with $3,000,” Nige-
rian Tribune, April 23, 2014; See also “Boko Haram Pays
N500,000 to Niger Recruits — Gang Members,” Van-
guard, April 24, 2014.

14 The specific location of the camp was not identi-
fied. See Fidelis Soriwei and Kamorudeen Ogundele,
“B’Haram’s Anti-Aircraft Training Camp Uncovered in
Niger,” Punch, February 19, 2014.
15 “Niger Arrests Fourteen Suspected Boko Haram Gun-
men after Patrol Ambushed,” Reuters, May 7, 2014.
16 Ibid.
17 Lewis, “Niger Fears Contagion from Nigeria’s Boko
Haram Islamists”; Fessy, “Niger Hit by Nigeria’s Boko
Haram Fallout.”
i n t h e c o u n t r y . 1 8 S o m e r u m o r s , i n c l u d i n g
a s t o r y i n t h e Premium Times o n S e p t e m b e r
1 2 , 2 0 1 4 , b a s e d o n C h a d i a n A r m y
s o u r c e s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o b t a i n e d
b e t w e e n N i g e r i a n f i e l d o f f i c e r s a n d t h e
N i g e r i a n m i l i t a r y , a l l e g e t h a t M o d u
S h e r i f f , f o r m e r B o r n o S t a t e g o v e r n o r , i s
a s p o n s o r o f B o k o H a r a m . T h e r u m o r s
s a y t h a t h e h a s h a r b o r e d a n d t r a i n e d
B o k o H a r a m m i l i t a n t s i n A b é c h é ,
C h a d . 1 9 I n a d d i t i o n , a r m s t r a f f i c k i n g
r o u t e s s u g g e s t t h a t w e a p o n s i n t e n d e d
f o r B o k o H a r a m p a s s t h r o u g h C h a d ’ s
t e r r i t o r y f r o m L i b y a , S u d a n , a n d t h e

C A R . 2 0
C h a d i a n P r e s i d e n t I d r i s s D é b y h a s
r a i s e d t h e a l a r m a b o u t i n s t a b i l i t y i n
t h e L a k e C h a d b a s i n a n d a b o u t “ t h e
p e r m a n e n t t h r e a t ” f r o m B o k o H a r a m
a n d A Q I M . 2 1 A s a r e s u l t , C h a d i s
s e n d i n g m o r e t r o o p s t o t h e N i g e r i a n
b o r d e r 2 2 a n d r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t
f r o m F r a n c e , w h i c h i n A u g u s t 2 0 1 4
l a u n c h e d O p e r a t i o n B a r k h a n e , 2 3 a
r e g i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e 2 4 h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n
N ’ D j a m e n a . E v e n s o , C h a d ’ s e x p a n d e d
18 Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insur-
gency (International Crisis Group, April 2014), p. 25.
19 “EXCLUSIVE: Secret Intelligence Report Links Ex-
Governor Sheriff, Chad President to Boko Haram Spon-
sorship,” Premium Times, September 12, 2014.
20 “Arms Smuggling to Boko Haram Threatens Camer-
oon,” IRINnews, February 21, 2014; Sagir Musa, “How
Al-Qaeda, Boko Haram Smuggle Arms into Nigeria,”
Vanguard, May 11, 2013.
21 Ely Karmon, “Boko Haram’s International Reach,”
Perspectives on Terrorism 8:1 (2014), p. 78.

22 “Africa’s Jihadists, on Their Way,” The Economist, July
26, 2014.
23 “François Hollande’s African Adventures,” The Econ-
omist, July 19, 2014; Marcelle Balt, “Operation Barkhane
Increases French Influence in the Sahel,” RFI, July 22,
2014.
24 Conway Waddington, “Understanding Operation
Barkhane,” African Defence Review, August 1, 2014.
“In southern Niger, Boko
Haram members have
plotted to bomb public
places. In 2012, Nigerien
authorities arrested 15
suspected Boko Haram
members in Diffa, where
they were planning to
attack the local military
garrison.”
“Chadian President Idriss
Déby has raised the alarm
about instability in the
Lake Chad basin and about
‘the permanent threat’
from Boko Haram and
AQIM.”

12
r o l e i n F r e n c h - l e d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m
o p e r a t i o n s i s l i k e l y a d o u b l e - e d g e d
s w o r d . A c c o r d i n g t o a U n i t e d K i n g d o m
t r a v e l w a r n i n g , C h a d i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m o p e r a t i o n s w i t h
F r a n c e i n c r e a s e s t h e “ r i s k t h a t
t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s m a y c r o s s i n t o C h a d
t o c a r r y o u t a t t a c k s . ” 2 5 T h e U . S .
S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t a d d r e s s e d b o r d e r
c o n c e r n s f o r C h a d o n J u n e 3 0 , 2 0 1 4 ,
s a y i n g , “ [ d ] e s p i t e r e c e n t s t a b i l i t y ,
C h a d ’ s h i s t o r i c a l l y v o l a t i l e s e c u r i t y
e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d d e t e r i o r a t e
u n e x p e c t e d l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n b o r d e r
a r e a s . ” 2 6
T h e c r a c k s i n C h a d ’ s b o r d e r s e c u r i t y
w i d e n e d o n A u g u s t 6 , 2 0 1 4 , w h e n B o k o
H a r a m m i l i t a n t s c r o s s e d i n t o C h a d a n d
g u n n e d d o w n s i x N i g e r i a n s i n D u b u w a
v i l l a g e . T h e N i g e r i a n s f l e d a n a t t a c k t w o
w e e k s p r i o r o n K i r e n o w a , 2 7 a N i g e r i a n
t o w n c l o s e t o t h e C a m e r o o n i a n b o r d e r . 2 8
I n a m o r e b r a z e n a t t e m p t t o e n t e r C h a d -
i a n t e r r i t o r y , o n A u g u s t 1 6 , 2 0 1 4 , B o k o
H a r a m k i d n a p p e d a t l e a s t 9 7 y o u n g
m e n a n d b o y s , a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l w o m -
e n f r o m t h e D o r o n B a g a f i s h i n g v i l l a g e
25 “Chad Travel Advice - GOV.UK,” available at https://

www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/chad/terrorism.
26 “Chad Travel Warning,” U.S. Department of State
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Passports & Interna-
tional Travel, (June 30, 2014), available at http://travel.
state.gov/content/passports/english/alertswarnings/
chad-travel-warning.html.
27 Kirenowa was the one of the first places that Nigerian
forces removed a Boko Haram camp in 2013 following
the State of Emergency declared by President Goodluck
Jonathan. A fisherman from Kirenowa said that all in-
dications point to a return of Boko Haram in full force
to Marte and “other local government areas along the
shores of the Lake Chad.” Boko Haram reportedly hoist-
ed its flags and indoctrinated children in these villages in
2013 and may be poised to do it again. See Hamza Idris,
“Boko Haram Trails Nigerians to Chad, Kills 6,” Daily
Trust, August 6, 2014.
28 Ibid.

i n N i g e r i a n e a r L a k e C h a d . R e p o r t s o n
t h i s i n c i d e n t v a r y , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e t h a t
s u g g e s t B o k o H a r a m m i l i t a n t s l o a d e d
t h e v i c t i m s i n t o s p e e d b o a t s a n d f e r r i e d
t h e m t o a n i s l a n d u n d e r C h a d i a n c o n -
t r o l 2 9 w h e r e C h a d i a n s e c u r i t y o f f i c i a l s
i n t e r c e p t e d a c o n v o y o f b u s e s , r e s c u -
i n g 8 5 h o s t a g e s a n d a r r e s t i n g s i x m e n
a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e m . 3 0 T h e s e i n c i d e n t s
s u g g e s t t h a t a s h r i n k i n g L a k e C h a d a n d
i t s a r c h i p e l a g i c g e o g r a p h y i n c r e a s e s t h e
p o r o u s n e s s o f t h e b o r d e r r e g i o n a n d c r e -
a t e s a t r a n s i t c o r r i d o r f o r B o k o H a r a m
a n d p o t e n t i a l l y o t h e r v i o l e n t n o n - s t a t e
a c t o r s t o m o v e b e t w e e n N i g e r i a a n d i t s
n e i g h b o r s .
F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t B o k o
H a r a m m a y i n t e n d t o c a r r y o u t m o r e
a t t a c k s i n C h a d . A f t e r t h e M a y 2 0 1 4
P a r i s S u m m i t f o r S e c u r i t y i n N i g e r i a i n
w h i c h P r e s i d e n t D é b y a g r e e d t o l a u n c h
a “ t o t a l w a r ” 3 1 a g a i n s t B o k o H a r a m ,
a n a u d i o t a p e s u r f a c e d o n A l w i h d a
I n f o t h a t t h r e a t e n e d C h a d f o r i t s
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e m i l i t a r y c o a l i t i o n . 3
2
T h e t a p e t h r e a t e n e d P r e s i d e n t D é b y a n d
a n a t t a c k i n N ’ D j a m e n a . T h e s p e a k e r ’ s
v o i c e w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s a C h a d i a n . 3 3 I n
r e s p o n s e , C h a d d e p l o y e d s e c u r i t y f o r c e s
i n N ’ D j a m e n a a n d t h e F r e n c h E m b a s s y
i n s t a l l e d p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . 3 4
Cameroon

C a m e r o o n h a s t h e l o n g e s t a n d p e r h a p s
t h e m o s t v u l n e r a b l e b o r d e r w i t h
N i g e r i a , a n d B o k o H a r a m h a s b e e n a b l e
t o o p e r a t e r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y i n C a m e r o o n
,
c a r r y i n g o u t l o g i s t i c s o p e r a t i o n s ,
a s s a s s i n a t i o n s , 3 5 k i d n a p p i n g s , a n d
r e c r u i t m e n t . E v e n t h o u g h t h e f i r s t s i g n s
o f B o k o H a r a m ’ s c r o s s - b o r d e r a c t i v i t i e s
29 “Boko Haram Dumps Kidnapped Doron Baga Villag-
ers Around Lake Chad,” Sahara Reporters, August 15,
2014.
30 Ibid.; See also Aminu Abubakar, “Chadian Troops
Rescue 85 Nigerian Hostages from Boko Haram,” CNN,
August 17, 2014.
31 “African Leaders Pledge ‘Total War’ on Boko Haram,”
Al Jazeera America, May 17, 2014.
32 Abu Adil, “Boko Haram Menace Le Tchad,” Alwihda
Info, May 23, 2014.
33 “L’enregistrement de Boko Haram Qui Menace Le
Tchad,” Alwihda Info, June 5, 2014.
34 Ibid.

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