The Coming of Mass Politics Industrialization, Ennancip.docx

The Coming of Mass
Politics: Industrialization,
Ennancipation, and
Instability, 1870-1914
B E c o n o m i c T r a n s f o r m a t i o n • D e f i n i n g t h e
P o l i t i c a l N a t i o n
0 B r o a d e n i n g t h e P o l i t i c a l N a t i o n
• O u t s i d e t h e P o l i t i c a l N a t i o n ? T h e E x p e r i e
n c e o f W o m e n
IN THE SPRING OF 1881, A HARROWING SCENE TOOK
PLACE IN
ST. PETERSBURG, capital of the Russian Empire. A 28-year-
old woman, Sofiia Perovskaia, was scheduled to be
executed for her part in the assassination of Tsar
Alexander II. Although born into wealth and privilege,
Perovskaia had joined the revolutionary socialist
movement. She became a leader of the People's Will, a
small revolutionary group that sought to undermine
the tsarist regime through sabotage and assassination.
On March 1, 1881, led by Perovskaia, six People's Will
members (all under age 30) stationed themselves
along the streets of St. Petersburg. At Perovskaia's
signal, they released their bombs and assassinated one
of the most powerful men in Europe.
Yet the death of the tsar did not destroy the
tsarist regime. The assassins were arrested and sen-
tenced to hang. On the day of Perovskaia's execu-

tion, she mounted the scaffold calmly, but when the
noose was placed around her neck, she grabbed
hold of the platform below with her feet. It took the
strength of two men to pry her feet loose so that she
could hang.
The image of Sofiia Perovskaia clinging to the
platform with her bare feet while her executioners
strained to push her to her death captures
the ferocity of political struggle in Europe at the
end of the nineteenth century. As we discussed
in Chapter 22, the ideological conflict among
liberals, conservatives, socialists, and nationalists
shaped the political culture of the West in the
nineteenth century. After 1870, industrial expan-
sion intensified and widened these conflicts.
Individuals and groups that had traditionally
been excluded from power demanded a voice in
political affairs. Neither economic modernization
nor the coming of mass politics ensured the victory
of democracy, however. Like Sofiia Perovskaia's
executioners, the governing classes often
struggled to pry newcomers off the platform of
political power—and they often succeeded.
Examination of these encounters answers a key
question: How did the new mass politics reshape
definitions of the West by the beginning of the
century?
720
ging to the
cecutioners
I captures

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discussed
ct among
lationalists
est in the
iai expan-
conflicts.
aditionally
a voice in
ernization
he victory
^rovskaia's
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icceeded.
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> reshape
ig of the
M A S S S O C I E T Y A T P L A Y
Pierre Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Colette (1876). On
Sunday afternoons in Paris, young working-class
men and women dance at a popular cafe. Urbanization offered
ordinary people new opportunities for leisure
and relaxation.
Source: Pierre Auguste Renoir. Le Moulin de la Galette, 1876.
Oil on canvas. © 2004 Artists Rigiits Society (ARS), New
Yorl<. Louvre
Museum/Art Resource, NY
I

E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N
O J t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
^hape t h e encounters
b e t w e e n established p o l i t i c a l elites a n d
n e w c o m e r s t o the p o l i t i c a l process?
T h r e e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s helped shape
W e s t e r n a c t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s b e r w e e n 1 8 7
0
a n d 1 9 1 4 : the e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n t h a t began
i n 187.3, the e x p a n s i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , a n d accelerated
u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d i m m i g r a t i o n . T h e v i o l e n t
social e n c o u n t e r s o f t e n p r o d u c e d by these
d e v e l o p m e n t s h e l p e d t r a n s f o r m t h e p o l i t i c
a l
s t r u c t u r e s a n d i d e o l o g i e s o f the W e s t .
Economic Depression
I n 1 8 7 3 , Europe's e c o n o m y t i l t e d d o w n w a r d — -
prices, interest rates, and p r o f i t s a l l fell
721
722 CHAPTER 2 J The Coming of Mass Politics:
Industrialization, Emancipation, and Instability, 1870-1914
a n d remained l o w i n m a n y regions u n t i l the m i d -
1890s. A g r i c u l t u r e was h i t hardest. By the 1890s,
the price o f w h e a t was o n l y one-tliii-d o f w h a t i t h a d
been i n the 1860s. Farmers across E u r o p e f o u n d i t

d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e a l i v i n g . I n d u s t r y and
commerce
fared better t h a n a g r i c u l t u r e b u t d e c l i n i n g prices
f o r m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s — o f t e n by as m u c h as
50 percent—squeezed business p r o f i t margins.
W h a t caused this depression? I r o n i c a l l y , the
v e r y success o f the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n
s p a w n e d i t . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the s t e a m s h i
p
a n d the e x p a n s i o n o f r a i l w a y lines across E u r o p e
a n d t h e U n i t e d States r e d u c e d the cost o f t r a n s -
p o r t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l g o o d s .
C h e a p
g r a i n a n d o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s f r o m
the
A m e r i c a n M i d w e s t a n d U k r a i n e f o r c e d E u r o
-
pean f a r m e r s t o accept l o w e r prices f o r t h e i r
p r o d u c t s . M o r e generally, as r e g i o n s a n d n a t i o n
s
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d , t h e y p r o d u c e d m o r e g o o d s .
Yet
m a n y i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s , a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o
r e r s ,
a n d l a n d o w n i n g peasants h a d l i t t l e m o n e y t o
spend o n i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
b y
the 1870s, a mass c o n s u m e r society h a d n o t yet
e m e r g e d . T h u s , i n m a n y p a r t s o f E u r o p e p r o d
u c -
t i o n exceeded c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d the result w a s
l o n g - t e r m a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l d e p r
e s s i o n .

T h e e c o n o m i c depression w a s , t h e n , closely
l i n k e d t o the second i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c d e v e l
-
o p m e n t o f t h i s p e r i o d — t h e c o n t i n u e d e x p a n
s i o n
o f the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n . A s w e s a w i n
C h a p t e r 2 1 , b e t w e e n 1 7 6 0 a n d 1 8 6 0 e c o n o m i
c
p r o d u c t i o n c h a n g e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , f i r s t i n
B r i t a i n ,
t h e n i n p a r t s o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e . A f t e r 1 8 6 0 ,
the
I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n spread across the E u r o -
pean c o n t i n e n t . R a i l w a y s i n c r e a s i n g l y l i n k
e d
E u r o p e ' s c
n e t w o r k . .
n e t w o r k g
Russis
e x p a n s i o n
1 8 9 0 s , R u
t i o n u n d (
( 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 1
t e r Before
W i r t e h a d
i n d u s t r y . I
p r o g r a m o
s t a t e - o w n e
T h i s i m p r t
i n c l u d e d t
acceleratec
across the
W i t t e also
T h i s m o v e

v e r t i b l e i n
i n t e r n a t i o t i
Ru s s i a. B y
U n i t e d Stai
a n d Russia
ized w o r k
d o t t e d U k
d o m i n a t e d
T h e ex
across E u r
w i t h a n e w
gies o f proc
h i s t o r i a n s t
T h e develo
niques f o r :
i n d u s t r y i i
w h i l e b y t h
i n n o v a t i o n ;
steel cheap]
e x p a n d e d j
a n d c o n s t r i
T h e CO
f o r m e d . A i
i r o n , ceme
the i n v e n t !
s t o n e c u t t e r
skies. C i t y
s t r u c t i o n s t
Economic Transformation 723
E u r o p e ' s diverse r e g i o n s i n t o a single e c o n o m i c

n e t w o r k . F r o m 1 8 7 0 t o 1 9 1 4 , the w o r l d ' s r a i l
n e t w o r k g r e w b y 5 0 0 p e r c e n t .
Russia p r o v i d e s a t e l l i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e
e x p a n s i o n o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n . I n t
h e
1 8 9 0 s , Russia u n d e r w e n t d r a m a t i c i n d u s t r i a l
i z a -
t i o n u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p o f Sergei W i t t e
( 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 1 5 ) , Tsar A l e x a n d e r I l l ' s f i n a n c e m
i n i s -
ter. Before e n t e r i n g the tsar's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
W i t t e h a d a successful career i n the r a i l w a y
i n d u s t r y . H e used t h i s experience t o c a r r y o u t a
p r o g r a m o f p l a n n e d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t
. T h e
s t a t e - o w n e d r a i l w a y n e t w o r k d o u b l e d i n
size.
T h i s i m p r e s s i v e e n g i n e e r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t ,
w h i c h
i n c l u d e d the 5 , 0 0 0 - m i l e t r a n s - S i b e r i a n r a i l
w a y ,
accelerated the m o v e m e n t o f g o o d s a n d l a b o r e r s
across the vast expanse o f R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y .
W i t t e also p l a c e d Russia o n the g o l d s t a n d a r d .
T h i s m o v e m a d e t h e R u s s i a n r u b l e easily c o n -
v e r t i b l e i n t o o t h e r currencies a n d so f o s t e r e d
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e . F o r e i g n c a p i t a l p o u r e
d i n t o
Russia. By 1 9 0 0 , o n l y B r i t a i n , G e r m a n y , a n d the
U n i t e d States p r o d u c e d m o r e steel t h a n R u s s i a
—
a n d Russia suppHed 5 0 p e r c e n t o f the i n d u s t r i a l -
ized w o r l d ' s o i l . C o a l m i n e s a n d steel m i l l s
d o t t e d U k r a i n e , a n d huge s t a t e - r u n f a c t o r i e s
d o m i n a t e d M o s c o w a n d St. P e t e r s b u r g .

T h e e x p a n s i o n o f the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n
across E u r o p e a n d the U n i t e d States c o i n c i d e d
w i t h a n e w phase i n the techniques a n d t e c h n o l o -
gies o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n — w h a t
some
h i s t o r i a n s c a l l the Second I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i
o n .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y n t h e t i c dyes a n d n e w
tech-
ni ques f o r r e f i n i n g p e t r o l e u m m a d e the c h e m i c
a l
i n d u s t r y i n t o a n i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c sector,
w h i l e by t h e late 1 8 7 0 s , a series o f t e c h n o l o g i c a
l
i n n o v a t i o n s enabl ed m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o p r o d u
c e
steel cheaply a n d i n huge q u a n t i t i e s . T h i s i n t u r n
e x p a n d e d p r o d u c t i o n i n r a i l r o a d s , s h i p b u i
l d i n g ,
a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n .
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y i t s e l f w a s t r a n s -
f o r m e d . A d v a n c e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f steel,
i r o n , c e m e n t , a n d p l a t e glass, c o m b i n e d w i t h
t h e i n v e n t i o n s o f the m e c h a n i c a l crane a n d
s t o n e c u t t e r , a l l o w e d b u i l d e r s t o r e a c h t o t h
e
skies. C i t y s c a p e s c h a n g e d as these n e w c o n -
s t r u c t i o n s t h r u s t u p w a r d . T h e e n g i n e e r i n g
f i r m
o f G u s t a v e E i f f e l ( 1 8 3 2 - 1 9 2 . 3 ) b u l k a n i r o n
a n d
steel t o w e r t o c e l e b r a t e t h e Paris W o r l d ' s F a i r o
f

1 8 8 9 . M o d e l e d o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t s o f
r a i l w a y v i a d u c t s , t h e E i f f e l T o w e r w a s r i d i
c u l e d
b y c r i t i c s as a " t r u l y t r a g i c street l a m p " a n d a
" h a l f - b u i l t f a c t o r y p i p e , " b u t i t s o o n c a m e t
o
s y m b o l i z e b o t h Paris a n d t h e n e w age o f i n d u s -
t r i a l m o d e r n i t y .
T h i s same era saw the d e v e l o p m e n t o f electric
p o w e r . I n 1 8 6 6 the EngUsh scientist M i c h a e l F a r a -
d a y ( 1 7 9 1 - 1 8 6 7 ) designed the f i r s t e l e c t r o m a g
-
netic generator. I n 1 8 7 9 , the A m e r i c a n T h o m a s
E d i s o n ( 1 8 4 7 - 1 9 3 1 ) i n v e n t e d the l i g h t b u l b .
These
d e v e l o p m e n t s created a huge e n e r g y - p r o d u c i n
g
i n d u s t r y . T h e y also accelerated the p r o d u c t i o n
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l goods as
fac-
tories, shops, a n d the t r a i n a n d t r a m lines t h a t
serviced t h e m were l i n k e d t o c i t y p o w e r g r i d s .
I n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a n g e d as w e l l .
Businesses became larger a n d m o r e c o m p l e x . T o
c o n t r o l p r o d u c t i o n costs i n a t i m e o f d e c l i n i n
g
p r o f i t s , busmess o w n e r s developed n e w o r g a n i z a -
t i o n a l f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g vertical integration—
b u y i n g the c o m p a n i e s t h a t s u p p l i e d t h e i r r a
w
m a t e r i a l s a n d those t h a t b o u g h t t h e i r f i n i s h e
d
p r o d u c t s — a n d horizontal integration, l i n k i n g
u p w i t h c o m p a n i e s i n the same i n d u s t r y t o f i x

prices, c o n t r o l c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d ensure a steady
p r o f i t ( o f t e n called trusts o r cartels). T h e S t a n d a r d
O i l C o m p a n y exempUfies b o t h t r e n d s . F o r m e d i
n
1 8 7 0 b y J o h n D . R o c k e f e l l e r ( 1 8 3 9 - 1 9 3 7 ) ,
S t a n d a r d O i l m o n o p o l i z e d 75 percent o f the
p e t r o l e u m business i n the U n i t e d States by the
1890s, a n d c o n t r o l l e d i r o n m i n e s , t i m b e r l a n d
, a n d
m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n businesses.
W i t h i n these n e w , h u g e , o f t e n m u l t i n a t i o n a l
c o m p a n i e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n g r e w m o r e c o m p l e
x
a n d i m p e r s o n a l . T h e s m a l l f a m i l y f i r m r u n b
y the
o w n e r became r a r e r as layers o f m a n a g e r s a n d
c l e r i c a l s t a f f separated w o r k e r f r o m o w n e r . E v
e n
i d e n t i f y i n g " t h e o w n e r " g r e w d i f f i c u l t . T h
e need
f o r c a p i t a l t o f u e l these huge enterprises d r o v e
businesses t o incorporate—to sell " s h a r e s " i n the
business t o n u m e r o u s s t o c k h o l d e r s , each o f
w h o m n o w s h a r e d o w n e r s h i p i n t h e c o m p a n y .
T h e m a r k e t i n g o f g o o d s also c h a n g e d . D u r -
i n g these decades, a r e v o l u t i o n i n r e t a i l i n g
724 CHAPTER 23 The Coming of Mass Politics:
Industrialization, Emancipation, and Instability, 1870-1914
o c c u r r e d , one t h a t c u l m i n a t e d i n a n e w t y p e o
f

business a i m e d at m i d d l e - c l a s s c u s t o m e r s — t h
e
d e p a r t m e n t s tore. I n a t r a d i t i o n a l s h o p , the
retailer ( w h o w a s o f t e n also t h e p r o d u c e r )
o f f e r e d a s m a l l s el ecti on o f p r o d u c t s i n l i m i t e
d
q u a n t i t i e s at f a i r l y h i g h pri ces. I n c o n t r a s t , i
n the
n e w d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s — B o n M a r c h e i n Paris,
M a c y ' s i n N e w Y o r k , W h i t e l e y ' s i n L o n d o n —
a
vast a r r a y o f p r o d u c t s i n h u g e q u a n t i t i e s c o n -
f r o n t e d t h e c o n s u m e r . These n e w enterprises
m a d e t h e i r p r o f i t s f r o m a q u i c k t u r n o v e r o f a
large v o l u m e o f l o w - p r i c e d g o o d s . T o s t i m u l a
t e
sales, t h e y s o u g h t t o m a k e s h o p p i n g a pleasant
experience b y p r o v i d i n g h u g e , w e l l - l i g h t e d
expanses f i l l e d w i t h a p p e a l i n g g o o d s s o l d by
c o u r t e o u s , w e l l - t r a i n e d c l e r k s . I n - s t o r e r
e a d i n g
r o o m s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s p a m p e r e d s h o p p e r s .
A n o t h e r i n n o v a t i o n , m a i l - o r d e r c a t a l o g s ,
o f f e r e d
t h e store's d e l i g h t s t o d i s t a n t c u s t o m e r s . A d v
e r -
t i s i n g became a c r u c i a l i n d u s t r y as business
s o u g h t t o persuade p o t e n t i a l c u s t o m e r s o f n e w
needs a n d desires.
O n the Move: Emigration
a n d U r b a n i z a t i o n
E c o n o m i c depression a n d the e x p a n s i o n a n d
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o
n accel-

erated p a t t e r n s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d i m m i g r a t
i o n .
T h e depression h i t a g r i c u l t u r a l regions p a r t i c u -
l a r l y h a r d , j u s t w h e n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h
exerted
greater pressure o n l a n d a n d j o b s . I n a d d i t i o n ,
i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n u n d e r c u t r u r a l m a n u f
a c t u r -
i n g a n d h a n d i c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n . A s a resul t, m e
n
a n d w o m e n f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l villages s o u g h t n e
w
e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n the i n d u s t r i a h z i
n g
cities o f E u r o p e , the A m e r i c a s , a n d A u s t r a l i a .
E u r o p e a n cities g r e w d r a m a t i c a l l y after
1 8 7 0 . I n 1 8 0 0 , o n l y 23 E u r o p e a n cities h a d m o r
e
t h a n 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s . By 1 9 0 0 , t h e r e w e
r e
1 3 5 cities o f such a size. T h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a -
t i o n as a w h o l e c o n t i n u e d t o e x p a n d i n t h i s
p e r i o d , b u t the cities increased at a m u c h faster
pace. F o r e x a m p l e , i n 1 8 0 0 t h e c i t y o f Odessa i n
U k r a i n e h e l d 6 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s . By 1 9 1 4 ,
Odessa c o n t a i n e d 4 8 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e .
Seeking o p p o r t u n i t i e s , i n h a b i t a n t s o f i n d u s -
t r i a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d regions m i g r a t e d t o m
o r e
e c o n o m i c a l l y a d v a n c e d areas. I t a l i a n s headed t
o
France a n d S w i t z e r l a n d , w h i l e t h e I r i s h p o u r e
d
across the I r i s h Sea i n t o L i v e r p o o l a n d G l a s g o w

.
Some i m m i g r a n t s headed n o t f o r the nearest c i t y ,
b u t f o r a d i f f e r e n t c o n t i n e n t . B e t w e e n 1 8 6 0
a n d
1 9 1 4 , m o r e t h a n 5 2 m i l l i o n E u r o p e a n s crossed
the oceans i n quest o f a better l i f e . O v e r 7 0 per-
cent o f these transoceanic i m m i g r a n t s t r a v e l e d t o
N o r t h A m e r i c a , 2 1 percent t o S o u t h A m e r i c a ,
a n d the rest t o A u s t r a l i a , N e w Z e a l a n d , o r
c o l o n i e s i n A s i a a n d A f r i c a . ^ E m i g r a n t s f r o
m
eastern E u r o p e a c c o u n t e d f o r a n ever-larger share
o f those b o u n d f o r A m e r i c a . I n the 1880s
1 0 0 , 0 0 0 Poles m o v e d t o the U n i t e d States. By the
1900s, h o w e v e r , between 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 7 5 , 0 0 0
Poles w e r e h e a d i n g t o the U n i t e d States each year.
G r o w i n g Social U n r e s t
R a p i d e c o n o m i c change, c o m b i n e d w i t h acceler-
ated u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d i m m i g r a t i o n , h e i g h t e
n e d
s o c i a l tensions a n d d e s t a b i l i z e d p o h t i c a l s t r u
c -
t u r e s . T h e f r e e f a l l i n prices t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e
d t h e
d e p r e s s i o n e r o d e d c a p i t a l i s t p r o f i t m a r g i n
s . I n
response, businessmen s o u g h t t o reduce t h e
n u m b e r o f t h e i r employees a n d t o increase l a b o r
p r o d u c t i v i t y . W o r k e r s reacted a n g r i l y . R e d u
c e d
prices d i d m e a n t h a t t h e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s o f
employed w o r k e r s rose, b u t so, t o o , d i d u n e m -
p l o y m e n t a n d u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t . H e i g h t e n
e d

class h o s t i h t i e s t h u s c h a r a c t e r i z e d these
decades.
I n r u r a l r e g i o n s such as S p a i n a n d I r e l a n d ,
t h e collapse i n a g r i c u l t u r a l prices f o s t e r e d s o c i
a l
a n d e c o n o m i c crises. A g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o r e r s a n
d
peasants t u r n e d t o v i o l e n c e t o e n f o r c e t h e i r
calls
f o r a f a i r e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d . T h e spread o f
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n t o s o u t h e r n a n d eastern
E u r o p e also led t o u n r e s t as h a n d i c r a f t p r o d u c
e r s
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t artisans f o u g h t t o m a i n t a i n
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l l i v e l i h o o d s .
T h e f l o w o f i m m i g r a n t s i n t o E u r o p e ' s cities
raised s o c i a l tensions. Cities w e r e o f t e n u n a b l e t o
cope w i t h t h e i r d r a m a t i c increases i n p o p u l a t i o n
.
N e w c o m e r s b a t t l e d w i t h estabUshed residents
-•A
m
O h - , ,
THE Bl>
The bicy
wheels ii
had bee
made th
horse or
would g

No long
discover
also con
f o r jobs a
alities a n
l a r l y e x p l
DEFINI
NATIO
• H o w (
t o t h e
p o l i t i c
?14 Defining the Political Nation 725
3 o f i n d u s -
; d t o m o r e
headed t o
ish p o u r e d
i G l a s g o w ,
[earest c i t y ,
1 8 6 0 a n d
ns crossed
/ei 7 0 per-
t r a v e l e d t o
I A m e r i c a ,
; a l a n d , o r
ants f r o m
arger share
the 1880s

ites. By the
d 1 7 5 , 0 0 0
; each year.
t h acceler-
l e i g h t e n e d
i c a l s t r u c -
t e r i z e d the
l a r g i n s . I n
educe the
ease l a b o r
. R e d u c e d
n d a r d s o f
d i d u n e m -
l e i g h t e n e d
e decades,
id I r e l a n d ,
: r e d s o c i a l
lorers a n d
t h e i r calls
spread o f
i eastern
p r o d u c e r s
m a i n t a i n
)pe's cities
. u n a b l e t o
o p u l a t i o n .
residents
THE BICYCLE REVOLUTION
The bicycle revolutionized daily life for ordinary Europeans.

The introduction of equal-sized
wheels in 1886 and of pneumatic tires in 1890 allowed for a far
more comfortable ride than
had been the case with the bone-breaking cycles built earlier
Mass industrial production
made the bicycle affordable. For the first time, ordinary
individuals, far too poor to afford a
horse or automobile, could dare to purchase their own private
means of transportation that
would get them where they wanted to go in one-quarter of the
time that walking required.
No longer confined to their village for work opportunities or
social contacts, bicycle owners
discovered that their daily world had widened fourfold. As this
engraving shows, the bicycle
also contributed to the expansion of the woman's sphere.
f o r j o b s a n d a p a r t m e n t s . T h e m i x t u r e o f n a t i
o n -
alities a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s o f t e n p r o v e d p a r t i c u
-
l a r l y e x p l o s i v e .
DEFINING THE POLITICAL
NATION
• H o w d i d W e s t e r n r u l i n g classes r e s p o n d
t o t h e t h r e a t s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f mass
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ?
E c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l changes h e l p e d create mass
p o l i t i c s — a n e w p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e c h a r a c t e r
i z e d b y
the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f m e n ( b u t n o t yet w o m e n )
o u t s i d e the u p p e r a n d m i d d l e classes. M a s s p o l i
-

tics r e d e f i n e d the p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n : those w i t h a
v o i c e i n p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d
i n the
p o l i t i c a l process o r w h o v o i c e d p o l i t i c a l o p i n
-
i o n s . Because i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n b r o k e d o w
n
l o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l c u l t u r e s , l o y a l t i e s , a n d
m i n d -
sets, i t c l e a r e d the w a y f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
n e w n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d
interests.
T h e r a i l r o a d s , t e l e g r a p h , a n d t e l e p h o n e s h
a t t e r e d
i
The New Imperialism 765
g Story, a t
i c i p l e , t r i -
f r o m 1 9 0 5
f o r t i c k e t s
< a n d a r t i s -
.aiiiOiTii
^ p i c t i o n o f
1 a p o w e r -
i n B r i t a i n ,
a c e n t r a l
t h e s t i l l -
1 r e l i g i o u s

h a t w o r k -
d a m e n t a l s
e n t , m a n y
a n a r c h y
x u t e d t h e
i p t e r 2 2 ) .
t h u s c o n -
• C a t h o l i c
f t h e V i r -
L o u r d e s ,
i r a n c e i n
usands o f
ed t o t h e
E u r o p e ,
eant t h a t
- h i n g f o r
l e y o f t e n
o m e l a n d .
m i g r a n t s
l u r c h f o r
)cial c o n -
i o n a l i s m
i. H e n c e ,
)endence
n was a
. F i n a l l y ,
cpansion
'eared t o
u m p h o f
Y e t t h i s t r i u m p h a l i s m m e t g r o w i n g a n x i e t y
as C h r i s t i a n s f a c e d n e w challenges. A s w e s a w i n

o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f D a r w i n , d e v e l o p m e n t s i n
b i o l -
o g y u n d e r m i n e d the o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n v i e w
o f
n a t u r e as h a r m o n i o u s a n d d i v i n e l y d i r e c t e d
.
M e d i c a l advances also n a r r o w e d the a p p e a l o f
t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . People h a d once accepted
diseases s u c h as c h o l e r a as " a c t s o f G o d , " b u t
n o w t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r n a t u r a l causes.
Scien-
t i s t s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , seemed able t o a n s w e r
q u e s t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t h e p r o v i n c e
o f
t h e o l o g i a n s . F i n a l l y , t h e emergence o f t h e s o c i
a l
sciences d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n g e d C h r i s t i a n i t y b y
d i s m i s s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s t r u t h
a n d a s k i n g i n s t e a d , w h a t is the f u n c t i o n o f r e l
i -
g i o u s belief i n a society? E m i l e D u r k h e i m
( 1 8 5 8 - 1 9 1 7 ) , one o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f F r e n c h
s o c i o l o g y , d a r e d t o l u m p C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h
" e v e n the m o s t b a r b a r o u s a n d t h e m o s t f a n t a s
t i c
rites a n d the strangest m y t h s . " D u r k h e i m
insisted t h a t n o r e l i g i o n w a s m o r e t r u e t h a n a n y
o t h e r — e a c h f i l l e d a s o c i a l need.^
T h e C h r i s t i a n response t o these challenges
v a r i e d . M a n y Protestants e m b r a c e d the s c i e n t i f i
c
m e t h o d as a g i f t f r o m G o d . T h e y a r g u e d t h a t
the
s t u d y o f the B i b l e as a h i s t o r i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y
d o c -

u m e n t — a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d
t e x t s
p r o d u c e d b y a l l - t o o - h u m a n w r i t e r s — p r o m i
s e d
t o free C h r i s t i a n s from a n t i q u a t e d beliefs i m p o s
-
sible t o s u s t a i n i n the n e w s c i e n t i f i c age a n d for a
m o r e r e l e v a n t , r e f o r m - o r i e n t e d r e l i g i o u s l
i f e .
P r o t e s t a n t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s , h o w e v e r , i n s i
s t e d o n
r e t a i n i n g a behef i n t h e l i t e r a l , h i s t o r i c a l , a n
d sci-
e n t i f i c a c c u r a c y o f the C h r i s t i a n s c r i p t u r e s
, a
stance t h a t led t h e m t o o p p o s e science as the
e n e m y o f r e l i g i o n .
T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c p a p a c y a l s o a d o p t e d
a d e f i a n t pose i n t h e face o f m o d e r n c h a l l e n g e s
.
I n 1 8 6 4 , P o p e P i u s I X (r. 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 7 8 ) issue d a
Syllabus of Errors, w h i c h c o n d e m n e d t h e
n o t i o n t h a t t h e p o p e s h o u l d " h a r m o n i z e h i m
-
self w i t h p r o g r e s s , w i t h l i b e r a l i s m , a n d w i t h
m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n . " Six years late r, a c h u r c h
c o u n c i l — t h e f i r s t c a l l e d since t h e s i x t e e n t h
-
c e n t u r y C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n — p r o c l a i m e
d the
d o c t r i n e o f p a p a l i n f a l l i b i l i t y . A c c o r d i n g
t o t h i s
d o c t r i n e , w h e n t h e p o p e issues a decree t h a t
c o n c e r n s m a t t e r s o f f a i t h a n d m o r a l i t y , t h a t

decree is free f r o m e r r o r a n d v a l i d f o r a l l t i m e
a n d a l l places. T h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f p a p a l i n f a l
-
l i b i l i t y r e b u k e d t h o s e C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g i a n
s w h o
a r g u e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d t o a d a p t t o t h e
m o d e r n w o r l d .
T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h also faced
i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l challenges i n these decades.
T h e spread o f s o c i a l i s m p r o v i d e d E u r o p e a n
w o r k e r s w i t h a belief system a n d source o f c o m -
m u n a l Hfe o u t s i d e o f , a n d o p p o s e d t o , t h e
C h u r c h . M o r e o v e r , i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h a large
C a t h o h c p o p u l a t i o n , the C h u r c h ' s alliance w i t h
c o n s e r v a t i s m p u s h e d a n t i c l e r i c a l i s m t o a d
o m i -
n a n t p o s i t i o n o n the l i b e r a l agenda. I n France,
C a t h o l i c s d o m i n a t e d the p o l i t i c a l parties t h a t
d e m a n d e d a r e t u r n t o m o n a r c h i c a l o r a u t h o r
i t a r -
i a n r u l e , a n d l i b e r a l F r e n c h m e n w h o w a n t e d
t h e
T h i r d R e p u b l i c t o s u r v i v e f o u g h t t o reduce t h e
C h u r c h ' s i n f l u e n c e .
T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t challenge faced b y r e l i -
g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s a f t e r 1 8 7 0 , h o w e v e r , e m
e r g e d
n o t f r o m p a r l i a m e n t a r y assemblies, s o c i a l i s t r a
l -
lies, o r s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r a t o r i e s , b u t r a t h e r f r
o m the
d e p a r t m e n t stores a n d s p o r t s f i e l d s . I n t h e g r o
w -
i n g i n d u s t r i a l cities, w o r k i n g - a n d m i d d l e - c l

a s s
i n d i v i d u a l s e n j o y e d new, secular sources o f enter-
t a i n m e n t , i n s p i r a t i o n , a n d desire. Energies once
f o c u s e d o n r e l i g i o u s d e v o t i o n centered increas-
i n g l y o n the a c t i v i t i e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n a n d
recre-
a t i o n . W h e r e a s s h a r e d r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p h a
d
once c e m e n t e d c o m m u n i t y l i f e , t h e r i t u a l s o f
s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s n o w f o r g e d n e w b o n d s o f
l o y a l t y a n d i d e n t i t y . T h e e v e r - c h a n g i n g a r
r a y o f
c o l o r f u l p r o d u c t s d i s p l a y e d i n s h o p w i n d o
w s
p r o m i s e d f u l f i l l m e n t a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n i n the
here
a n d n o w , a n e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e r a t h e r t h a n a
heav-
enly r e w a r d .
THE NEW IMPERIALISM
• W h a t w e r e t h e causes a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f t h e n e w i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y f o r t h e
W e s t a n d n o n - W e s t e r n societies?
766 CHAPTER 24 The West and the World: Cultural Crisis and
the New Imperialism, 1870-1914
M a n y o f t h o s e i t e m s o n d i s p l a y b e h i n d t h e n e
w
p l a t e - g l a s s s h o p w i n d o w s w e r e t h e p r o d u c t
s o f
i m p e r i a l c o n q u e s t . N e w i m p e r i a l i s m i n t e r -

t w i n e d w i t h m a n y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s w e h a
v e
a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a n d i n
C h a p t e r 2 3 . T e l e g r a p h s e n s u r e d r a p i d c o m m
u -
n i c a t i o n f r o m f a r - f l u n g e m p i r e s a n d mass
p r i n t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s g u a r a n t e e d t h a t i l l u
s -
t r a t e d tales o f i m p e r i a l a c h i e v e m e n t m a d e
t h e i r w a y i n t o h o m e s a n d s c h o o l s . Social
D a r w i n i s m s u p p l i e d a s u p p o s e d l y s c i e n t i f i
c
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e c o n q u e s t o f p e o p l e s
d e e m e d b i o l o g i c a l l y i n f e r i o r , w h i l e s w i f t
m i l i -
t a r y v i c t o r i e s o v e r o t h e r societies h e l p e d q u e l
l
a n x i e t y a b o u t E u r o p e a n d e g e n e r a t i o n . F o r
m a n y E u r o p e a n s — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e B r i t i s h
, w h o
p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e l a r g e s t e m p i r e i n t h e w o r l
d —
i m p e r i a l i s t d o m i n a t i o n served as r e a s s u r i n g e
v i -
dence o f t h e a p p a r e n t s u p e r i o r i t y o f W e s t e r n
c i v i h z a t i o n .
Understanding t h e New imperialism
I m p e r i a l i s m i t s e l f w a s n o t new. I n the f i f t e e n t
h
c e n t u r y , E u r o p e a n s h a d e m b a r k e d o n the f i r s
t
phase o f i m p e r i a l i s m , w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f
E u r o p e a n c o n t r o l across c o a s t a l p o r t s o f A f r i
c a
a n d I n d i a , a n d i n t o t h e N e w W o r l d o f t h e A m e

r -
icas (see C h a p t e r 1 3 ) . I n the second phase, w h i c h
began i n the late seventeenth c e n t u r y , E u r o p e a n
c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s i n A s i a a n d t h e W e s t e r n H e
m i -
sphere e x p a n d e d as g o v e r n m e n t s s o u g h t t o
increase t h e i r p r o f i t s f r o m i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d
e
(see C h a p t e r 1 8 ) .
As i n these earlier phases o f i m p e r i a l i s m , t r a d e
m o t i v a t e d m u c h o f the i m p e r i a l a c t i v i t y after 1
8 7 0
as w e l l . T h e need t o p r o t e c t e x i s t i n g i m p e r i a l
i n t e r -
ests also i m p e l l e d f u r t h e r conquests. T h e desire t o
p r o t e c t I n d i a — t h e "Jewel i n the C r o w n " o f the
B r i t i s h E m p i r e — e x p l a i n s m u c h o f B r i t i s h i
m p e r i a l
a c q u i s i t i o n t h r o u g h o u t the n i n e t e e n t h
century.
B r i t a i n ' s a i m e x a t i o n o f B u r m a a n d K a s h m i r
, its
establishment o f spheres o f influence i n the M i d d l e
East, a n d its interests a l o n g the coast o f A f r i c a
were a l l l i n k e d t o its e m p i r e i n I n d i a .
D e f e n s e o f e x i s t i n g e m p i r e s a n d c o m m e r -
c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , does n o t f u l l y
e x p l a i n n e w i m p e r i a l i s m . A f t e r 1 8 7 0 a n d
p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r 1 8 8 0 , t h e West's e x p a n s i o n
b e c a m e m u c h m o r e a g g r e s s i v e . I n j u s t
3 0 y e a r s , E u r o p e a n c o n t r o l o f t h e g l o b e ' s l a
n d
s u r f a c e s w e l l e d f r o m 65 t o 85 p e r c e n t . I n a d d i
-

t i o n , n e w p l a y e r s j o i n e d t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t
g a m e . R e c e n t l y f o r m e d n a t i o n - s t a t e s s u c h
as
G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y j o s t l e d f o r c o l o n i a l t e r r i
-
t o r y i n A f r i c a , t h e U n i t e d States b e g a n t o
e x t e n d i t s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e W e s t e r n H e m i -
s p h e r e , a n d J a p a n i n i t i a t e d i t s i m p e r i a l i s t
m a r c h i n t o C h i n a a n d K o r e a . W h a t f a c t o r s l a
y
b e h i n d t h i s n e w i m p e r i a l i s m ?
TECHNOLOGY, Ecos'-iOiviiCS, AND P o u x t c s P a r t o f
t h e a n s w e r lies i n t h e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t
s
e x a m i n e d i n C h a p t e r 2 3 . Because o f t h e
S e c o n d I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , E u r o p e a n a
n d
A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i e s i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d e
d o n
r a w m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n r e g i o n s such
as
A s i a , A f r i c a , a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . R u b b e r i n
s u -
l a t e d t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d t e l e g r a p h w i r e s n o
w
e n c i r c l i n g t h e g l o b e . P a l m o i l f r o m A f r i c a
p r o v i d e d t h e l u b r i c a n t n e e d e d f o r i n d u s t r i a
l
m a c h i n e r y . T h e s l a u g h t e r o f A f r i c a ' s o n c e -
p l e n t i f u l e l e p h a n t h e r d s p r o v i d e d t h e i v o r y
f o r
m a n y o f t h e n e w c o n s u m e r g o o d s n o w d e c o -
r a t i n g m i d d l e - c l a s s p a r l o r s , s u c h as p i a n o k
e y s
a n d b i l l i a r d b a l l s . R e l y i n g o n these p r i m a r y

r e s o u r c e s . W e s t e r n states w e r e q u i c k t o
r e s p o n d t o p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t s t o t h e i r e c o n o
m i c
i n t e r e s t s . T h e G e r m a n s e v e n c o i n e d a w o r d t
o
d e s c r i b e t h i s f e a r o f l o s i n g access t o e s s e n t i a
l
r a w m a t e r i a l s : Torschlusspanik, o r " f e a r o f t h e
c l o s i n g d o o r . "
C o m p e t i t i o n f o r m a r k e t s also a c c e l e r a t e d
i m p e r i a l a c q u i s i t i o n . W i t h t h e onset o f eco-
n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s (discussed i n
C h a p t e r 2 3 ) , i n d u s t r i a l i s t s f a c e d d e c l i n i n
g
d e m a n d f o r t h e i r p r o d u c t s i n E u r o p e . I m p e r i
a l
e x p a n s i o n seemed t o p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n , w i t h
a n n e x e d t e r r i t o r i e s seen as c a p t i v e m a r k e t s .
A s
a F r e n c h n e w s p a p e r e d i t o r i a l e x p l a i n e d i n
0
c o m m e r -
n o t f u l l y
8 7 0 a n d
e x p a n s i o n
I n j u s t
ibe's l a n d
• I n a d d i -

a n s i o n i s t
s u c h as
i a I t e r r i -
' e g a n t o
1 H e m i -
i p e r i a l i s t
c t o r s l a y
P a r t o f
j p m e n t s
o f t h e
an a n d
i d e d o n
s u c h as
tr i n s u -
2s n o w
A f r i c a
l u s t r i a l
o n c e -
o r y f o r
d e c o -
o keys
r i m a r y
: k t o
n o m i c
o r d t o
i e n t i a l
o f t h e
crated
eco-

ed i n
l i n i n g
s e r i a l
w i t h
s. A s
d i n
1 8 9 1 , " e v e r y g u n s h o t opens a n o t h e r o u t l e t f o
r
F r e n c h i n d u s t r y . " ^
By the m i d - 1 8 9 0 s , h o w e v e r , t h e d e p r e s s i o n
h a d e n d e d i n m o s t r e g i o n s — y e t the pace o f
i m p e r i a h s t e x p a n s i o n d i d n o t s l o w . I n s t e a d
, a
g l o b a l i n v e s t m e n t b o o m e n s u r e d c o n t i n u -
i n g i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n . E u r o p e a n c a p i t
a l
f i n a n c e d r a i l w a y l i n e s , m i n e s , a n d p u b l i c
u t i l i t i e s across the w o r l d . W i t h each r a i l r o a d o r
c o a l m i n e o r d a m , E u r o p e a n i n t e r e s t s i n n o n
-
E u r o p e a n r e g i o n s e x p a n d e d , a n d so d i d the
pressure o n E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n t s t o assume
f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l s h o u l d o u t s i d e c o
m p e t i -
t o r s o r l o c a l p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y t h r e a t e n
those
i n t e r e s t s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o these e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s ,
d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l pressures e n c o u r a g e d i m p e
r i -
alist a c q u i s i t i o n . I n the age o f mass p o l i t i c s ,

p o l i t i c a l leaders needed t o f i n d issues t h a t w o u l d
a p p e a l t o n e w v o t e r s . Tales o f d a n g e r o u s e x p l
o -
r a t i o n s a n d decisive m i l i t a r y v i c t o r i e s p r o v e d
p o p u l a r . I m p e r i a l i s t c o n q u e s t assured o r d i n a
r y
m e n t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t o f a s u p e r i o r , c o n q u e
r -
i n g p e o p l e .
A s t h e Different Voices f e a t u r e i n t h i s
c h a p t e r i l l u s t r a t e s (see page 7 7 0 ) , i n t e r n a t i o
n a l
c o m p e t i t i o n also f o s t e r e d i m p e r i a l i s m . N e w
l y
f o r m e d n a t i o n s s u c h as I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y
s o u g h t e m p i r e s o u t s i d e E u r o p e as a w a y t o g a
i n
p o w e r a n d p r e s t i g e w i t h i n E u r o p e . T h e
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n h i s t o r i a n H e i n
r i c h
v o n T r e i t s c h k e e x p l a i n e d , " A l l g r e a t n a t i o
n s i n
the f u l l n e s s o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h have d e s i r e d t o
set
t h e i r m a r k o n b a r b a r i a n l a n d s a n d t h o s e w h o
f a i l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s g r e a t r i v a l r y w i l l
p l a y
a p i t i a b l e r o l e i n t i m e t o c o m e . " ^ S i m i l a r c o
n -
cerns a b o u t s t a t u s a n d s t r a t e g i c a d v a n t a g e s
m o t i v a t e d n a t i o n s s u c h as B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c
e
t o d e f e n d a n d e x p a n d t h e i r e m p i r e s .

T H E SMPEMAL IDEA N e w i m p e r i a l i s m f u n c t i o n
e d
as a belief system t h a t p e r m e a t e d m i d d l e - c l a s s
a n d mass c u l t u r e i n the decades a f t e r 1 8 7 0 .
T o educate v i e w e r s i n the " i m p e r i a l i d e a , " e x h i
-
b i t i o n s a n d f a i r s d i s p l a y e d g o o d s a n d peoples
f r o m c o n q u e r e d r e g i o n s . Images o f e m p i r e
a p p e a r e d i n b o y s ' a d v e n t u r e s t o r i e s , glossy
ads
f o r soap a n d c h o c o l a t e s , p i c t u r e p o s t c a r d s ,
c o o k i e t i n s , a n d cheap c o m m e m o r a t i v e c h i n a
plates a n d m u g s . I n t h e m u s i c halls a n d t h e a t e r s ,
i m p e r i a l i s t songs a n d d r a m a s received p o p u l a r
a p p l a u s e .
w w 7/ -
W i . s t h e W o T d
o r an I ' i U i i l i y h m a u I rue:
When l i i v c u , i l u i r i u i H
^ V h i i l l i c s a v K . h e w i l l d o .
I
A LESSON IN THE IMPERIAL IDEA
As this alphabet reader makes clear, education in imperial
ideology began early.
Picasso's encounter with the African masks
transformed this specific painting and modern
art itself. After his Trocadero visit, Picasso

reconfigured the faces of the two women on
the right so that their masklike appearances
now clash awkwardly with those of the three
other prostitutes. This step destroyed any unity
of narrative or composition in the painting: The
five figures are no longer part of a single story
or share a single point of view. Picasso also
fragmented each of the bodies, flattening them
and reducing them to jutting geometric forms.
Thus, Demoiselles pushed Picasso toward
Cubism, one of the most influential artistic
styles of the twentieth century (see page 763).
As the art historian John Golding has written, "In
the Demoiselles Picasso began to shatter the
human figure He spent the rest of his artistic
life dissecting, reassembling, and reinventing
i t . " ^ ^ After Picasso, Western artists spent the rest
of the twentieth century dissecting, reassem-
bling, and reinventing the way we see and
depict our world.
For Discussion
How did Picasso use the art of a different culture to
explain and challenge his own? Did Demoi-
selles challenge or did it affirm Western imperi-
alist ideas?
A t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e i m p e r i a l idea s t o o d t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t W e s t e r n d o m i n a n c e o v e r t h
e
w o r l d w a s a g o o d t h i n g . E u r o p e a n s w o u l d n o
t
have s o u g h t t o r e m a k e t h e w o r l d i n t h e
E u r o p e a n i m a g e h a d t h e y n o t been c o n v i n c e d

o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h a t i m a g e . W h a t led t h e
m
t o b e l i e v e t h e y h a d t h e r i g h t a n d t h e r e s p o n s
i -
b i l i t y t o t a k e c h a r g e o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s a n d
c o n t i n e n t s ?
O n e ke y f a c t o r w a s t h e p e r c e i v e d l i n k
b e t w e e n W e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d " c i v i l i z
a t i o n . "
C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s served as a v a n g u a r d o
f
W e s t e r n c u l t u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h
cen-
t u r y . T h e c e l e b r a t e d S c o t t i s h e x p l o r e r D a v
i d L i v -
i n g s t o n e ( 1 8 1 3 - 1 8 7 3 ) , w h o m a p p e d o u t m u c
h o f
c e n t r a l a n d s o u t h e r n A f r i c a , w a s a P r o t e s t a
n t
m i s s i o n a r y ( a l t h o u g h n o t a v e r y successful o n e
—
his o n l y c o n v e r t e v e n t u a l l y r e n o u n c e d t h e C
h r i s -
t i a n f a i t h ) . M i s s i o n a r y society p u b l i c a t i o n s
i n t r o d u c e d t h e i r readers t o e x o t i c t e r r i t o r i e s
,
w h i l e the societies themselves l o b b i e d f o r W e s t -
e r n t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n t o p r o m o t e t h e
spread
o f C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s .
T e c h n o l o g y also seemed t o j u s t i f y W e s t e r n
i m p e r i a l i s m . B e f o r e the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
, t h e
t e c h n o l o g i c a l g a p b e t w e e n the West a n d o t h e r

societies h a d n o t l o o m e d l a r g e . I n some cases,
such as C h i n a , n o n - W e s t e r n societies h a d h e l d
t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n t a g e . I n d u s t r i a l i z
a t i o n ,
h o w e v e r , gave the W e s t the t e c h n o l o g i c a l edge.
T h u s , the B r i t i s h a d v e n t u r e r M a r y K i n g s l e y
( 1 8 6 2 - 1 9 0 0 ) w r o t e , " . . . . [ W ] h e n I c o m e back
f r o m a spell i n A f r i c a , the t h i n g t h a t m a k e s m e
p r o u d o f b e i n g one o f t h e E n g l i s h i s . . . a great
r a i l w a y engine [ I ] t is the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the
s u p e r i o r i t y o f m y race."^^
F i n a l l y , Social D a r w i n i s m seemed t o p r o -
v i d e s c i e n t i f i c a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e i m p e r i a l i
d e a .
T h u s , t h e B r i t i s h L o r d M i l n e r ( 1 8 5 4 - 1 9 2 5 )
e x p l a i n e d i n a speech i n S o u t h A f r i c a i n 1 9 0 3 :
" T h e w h i t e m a n m u s t r u l e , because he is ele-
v a t e d b y m a n y , m a n y steps a b o v e t h e b l a c k
m a n ; steps w h i c h i t w i l l t a k e t h e l a t t e r cen-
t u r i e s t o c l i m b , a n d w h i c h i t is q u i t e p o s s i b l
e
t h a t t h e v a s t b u l k o f t h e b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n m a
y
n e v e r be a b l e t o c l i m b at a l l . "
I m p e r i a h s t s believed t h a t e m p i r e — w h e t h e r
o r d a i n e d by G o d o r by b i o l o g y — w a s a m o r a l
d u t y : M e n a n d w o m e n i n the West w e r e o b l i g e d
t o b r i n g t h e benefits o f t h e i r c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e
rest o f the w o r l d . T h e B r i t i s h p o e t R u d y a r d
K i p l i n g ( 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 3 6 ) f a m o u s l y a r t i c u l a t e d
this

772 CHAPTER 24 The West and the World: Cultural Crisis and
the New Imperialism, 1870-1914
idea i n 1 8 9 9 , i n a p o e m u r g i n g A m e r i c a n p o l i c
y -
malcers t o c o n q u e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s :
Take up the White Man's burden—
Send forth the best ye breed—
Go bind your sons to exile,
To serve your captives' need;
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Halfdevtl and half child}*
N o t a l l E u r o p e a n s a n d A m e r i c a n s e m b r a c e d
t h e idea o f t h e " W h i t e M a n ' s b u r d e n , " a n d m a n
y
rejected the i m p e r i a l i s t a s s u m p t i o n o f W e s t e r n
s u p e r i o r i t y . A s the e x a m p l e o f Picasso makes
clear (see Encounters and Transforynations i n t h i s
c h a p t e r ) , some m o d e r n i s t artists l o o k e d t o n o n -
W e s t e r n c u l t u r e s f o r a r t i s t i c i n s p i r a t i o n .
T h e
Fauves ( " w i l d beasts"), a Paris-based circle o f
a r t i s t s t h a t i n c l u d e d H e n r i M a t i s s e ( 1 8 6 9 -
1 9 5 4 )
a n d P a u l G a u g u i n ( 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 0 3 ) , c o n d e m n e d
m o s t W e s t e r n a r t as a r t i f i c i a l , a n d s o u g h t i n
t h e i r

o w n b r i l l i a n t l y c o l o r e d w o r k s t o rediscover the
v i t a h t y t h a t t h e y f o u n d i n n o n - W e s t e r n c u l t
u r e s .
C r i t i c s o f e m p i r e o f t e n f o c u s e d o n
its d o m e s t i c p o h t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c i m p l i c a -
t i o n s . T h e B r i t i s h e c o n o m i s t J. A . H o b s o n
( 1 8 5 8 - 1 9 4 0 ) c h a r g e d t h a t overseas e m p i r e s
b e n e f i t e d o n l y w e a l t h y c a p i t a l i s t s w h i l e d i
s -
t r a c t i n g p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e need f o r
p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e f o r m a t h o m e . H o b
s o n
a r g u e d t h a t u n r e g u l a t e d c a p i t a l i s m l e d a l m
o s t
i n e v i t a b l y t o i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n : W h i l e
i m p o v e r i s h i n g t h e masses, t h e c a p i t a h s t s y s t e
m
generates h u g e s u r p l u s e s i n c a p i t a l f o r a s m a l l
e l i t e , w
these :
E u r o p e
i s m a l o
The S(
N e w i n :
m a p s 2
b e t w e e i
3 0 n e w
i n g t e n :
t r o l l i n g
p e r c e n t
T h e CO)
r a p i d ai
f i e d E u r

f o r A f r i
M A P 24.1 A
(a) A f r i c a Before the
Scramble, 1876 and
(b) A f r i c a A f t e r the
Scramble, 1914
A comparison of these two
maps reveals the dramatic
impact of the new imperialism
on African societies. Indige-
nous empires such as the
Sokoto Caliphate in West
Africa came under Western
rule, as did tribal societies
such as the Herero. Even
indigenous states ruled by
whites of European descent
came under European rule, as
the examples of the Transvaal
and the Orange Free State in
South Africa illustrate. Only
Ethiopia and Liberia remained
independent.
Madeira Ceuta (Sp.T'. - — — . ^ - . ^
(Port.) • • ^ •
c a n a r y / s ^ ' m ' ' ^ ^f' Mediterranean Set canary Is
MOROCOt • •
pp.) . • ', •— '
- ' V - U
EGYPT

SENEGAl
!6AMBtA '
PORT.
G U I N E A * - ;
S I E R R A W M O W ' S
L E O N E
VJKOion
Emm.
L I B E R I A COAST )
Grand Bassam { r r . ) " * ^ . " '
Assinie (Fr.)
Cotonou (Fr.)
F e r n a n d o Po rSp.K/' G « O N
SJo T h o m e {Port.) •;
(CTHIOPIA)
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
A f r i c a Before the Scramble, 1876
KIHeOOM
RWANDA " Victoria
KARAam V;
BURUNDI SULTANATE OF

ZAimSAR
L. Tangwyika
INDIAN
OCEAN
KATANOAi
Indigenous power
British
French
Portuguese
Turkish (Ottoman) Suzerainty
ANGOiA
IJ _L. Nyasa u MATAtHlUND
8 0 0 l<m
8 0 0 m i
BECHUANALANO
UAUi TRANSVAAL
"/^^ - REPUBUC .
SM7l
CAPE COLONY ^ A ( A M L
' BASUTOLAND

MADAGASCAR
Madeira h
(Port.
Canary Is.
(Sp.)
PORTUGUEK* GUINEA
AIL
DC
Africa Aft
i
e l i t e , w h o m u s t t h e n f i n d s o m e w h e r e t o i n v e
s t
these s u r p l u s e s . H o b s o n ' s ideas i n f l u e n c e d
E u r o p e a n s o c i a l i s t s , w h o c o n d e m n e d i m p e r
i a l -
i s m a l o n g w i t h c a p i t a l i s m .
T h e Scramble for Africa
N e w i m p e r i a l i s m reached its z e n i t h i n A f r i c a . A
s
m a p s 2 4 . 1 a a n d 2 4 . 1 b s h o w , i n j u s t 3 0 years,
b e t w e e n 1 8 7 5 a n d 1 9 0 5 , E u r o p e a n s e s t a b l i s
h e d
3 0 n e w c o l o n i e s a n d p r o t e c t o r a t e s e n c o m p a
s s -

i n g ten m i l l i o n s q u are m i l e s o f t e r r i t o r y a n d c
o n -
t r o l l i n g 1 1 0 m i l l i o n A f r i c a n s . By 1 9 0 5 , 9 0
p e r c e n t o f A f r i c a was u n d e r E u r o p e a n c o n t r o
l .
T h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t was so
r a p i d a n d d r a m a t i c t h a t as e a r l y as 1 8 8 4 m y s t i
-
f i e d E u r o p e a n s began t o t a l k a b o u t the S c r a m b l
e
f o r A f r i c a .
Algiers
'^'^ f-. • r
TUNISIA . •" i . Mediterranean Sea
Vrnpoil ^ Cy*
ALGERIA
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
PORTUGUESE'
GUINEA
^ Khartoum
L. Chad f ANSLO-ECYPTIAN
SUDAN
Fashoda^
/ ; . ./CAMEROONSl.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Africa After the Scramble, 1914
: British
French
i German
Italian
Portuguese
I ' l L . J Belgian
Spanish
Independent African States
0 8 0 0 km
. . . « S , A «
L.^ ORANGE ( l = r - S W J
EREE STATE •
-SWAZIIAND
BASUTOLAND
N OF
SOUTH A F R I C A « -
O v E R C O M i N G THE O B S T A C L E S W h e n the n i n
e -
t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e g a n , E u r o p e a n s k n e w l i t t l
e
m o r e a b o u t the c o n t i n e n t o f A f r i c a t h a n the

a n c i e n t Greeks h a d k n o w n . A p r o f i t a b l e t r a d i
n g
n e t w o r k b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t s a n d
A f r i c a ' s c o a s t a l r e g i o n s e x i s t e d , b u t E u r o p
e a n
e f f o r t s t o establish settlements i n the A f r i c a n
i n t e r i o r faced t h r e e key obstacles: the c h m a t e ,
disease, a n d A f r i c a n resistance.
A f r i c a was k n o w n as " t h e w h i t e man's g r a v e . "
O v e r 75 percent o f the w h i t e soldiers sent t o West
A f r i c a i n the early nineteenth c e n t t i r y died there,
and another 2 0 percent became i n v a l i d s . Tempera-
tures o f m o r e t h a n 100 degrees Fahrenheit i n some
regions a n d constant r a i n f a l l i n others made travel
e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t . T h e m o s q u i t o a n d the
tsetse fly
m a d e it deadly. M o s q u i t o bites b r o u g h t m a l a r i a ,
w h i l e the tsetse fly carried t r y p a n o s o m i a s i s , or
sleeping sickness, a n infectious
illness t h a t ended i n a deadly
paralysis. Sleeping sickness
k i l l e d livestock as w e l l as peo-
ple. I n regions w i t h endemic
t r y p a n o s o m i a s i s , such as equa-
t o r i a l , s o u t h e r n , and eastern
A f r i c a , the use o f horses
a n d o x e n was impossible.
Despite such d i f f i c u l t i e s , E u r o -
peans d i d endeavor t o establish
i n l a n d settlements i n A f r i c a ,
b u t t h e n faced the obstacle
o f A f r i c a n resistance. I n the
seventeenth century, f o r e x a m -
ple, the Portuguese set u p forts

a n d t r a d i n g centers i n m o d e r n
Z i m b a b w e b u t were d r i v e n o u t
by local A f r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n s .
B e g i n n i n g a r o u n d 1 8 3 0 ,
h o w e v e r , a series o f d e v e l -
o p m e n t s a l t e r e d the r e l a t i o n -
s h i p b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n d
A f r i c a a n d m a d e E u r o p e a n
c o n q u e s t possible. F i r s t , E u r o -
pean e x p l o r e r s changed the
BRITISH J
E A S T A f R I C A V
LVictorYB ' W D M W
OCEAN
GEBMAN Mombasa
EAST AFiiCA v__ Zanzibar (Br.)
Tanganyika
'asa. ;
NvWl̂ l
8 0 0 mi C a p e t o w n * . -
I M A P 2 4 . I B
The Origins of the First World War 787
International Competition and Rival
Alliance Systems

T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t r a n s f o r m e d t h i s A u s t r
o -
S e r b i a n c o n f l i c t i n t o a E u r o p e a n w a r , w e need
t o
l o o k at the r i v a l aUiance systems t h a t e m e r g e d i n
response t o h e i g h t e n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i
-
t i o n . These alliances h e l p e d escalate a r e g i o n a l
c o n f l i c t i n t o a E u r o p e a n a n d t h e n a g l o b a l w a
r .
T h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f G e r m a n y i n 1 8 7 1 upset
the balance o f p o w e r b y c r e a t i n g a m i l i t a r y a n d
e c o n o m i c p o w e r h o u s e i n the m i d d l e o f E u r o p
e .
U n t i l 1 8 9 0 , h o w e v e r , the d i p l o m a t i c m a n e u v
e r s
o f O t t o v o n B i s m a r c k , the n e w G e r m a n y ' s c h a
n -
cellor, ensured s t a b i l i t y . B i s m a r c k r e c o g n i z e d
t h a t the F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n W a r o f 1 8 7 0 ( w h i c h
b r o u g h t a b o u t G e r m a n u n i f i c a t i o n ) h a d m a d
e
a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d G e r m a n y c e n t r a l t o F r e n
c h
f o r e i g n p o l i c y . H e also r e c o g n i z e d t h a t Ger-
m a n y ' s p o s i t i o n i n the center o f E u r o p e m a d e i t
v u l n e r a b l e t o e n c i r c l e m e n t , s h o u l d France
suc-
ceed i n f o r m i n g a n a n t i - G e r m a n a l l i a n c e w i t h
a n o t h e r E u r o p e a n state. T o a v o i d such e n c i r -
c l e m e n t , B i s m a r c k m a i n t a i n e d alliances w i t h
Russia, A u s t r i a , a n d I t a l y . T h e D u a l A l l i a n c e
b e t w e e n G e r m a n y a n d the A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n
E m p i r e i n 1 8 7 9 became the T r i p l e A l l i a n c e o f
1 8 8 2 , w h i c h j o i n e d G e r m a n y , A u s t r i a , a n d I

t a l y
i n a defensive treaty. W i t h the R e i n s u r a n c e
T r e a t y o f 1 8 8 7 , Russia a n d G e r m a n y agreed t o
r e m a i n n e u t r a l i f e i t h e r w a s a t t a c k e d .
B u t i n 1 8 8 8 , a n e w emperor. Kaiser W i l l i a m I I
(r. 1 8 8 8 - 1 9 1 8 ) , ascended the G e r m a n t h r o n e .
W i l h a m , an a m b i t i o u s a n d i m p a t i e n t y o u n g
m a n , dismissed B i s m a r c k i n 1 8 9 0 a n d l a u n c h e d
G e r m a n y d o w n a m o r e d a n g e r o u s p a t h . T h e n
e w
kaiser b r o k e w i t h B i s m a r c k ' s p o l i c i e s i n t w o
areas. F i r s t , W i U i a m let the R e i n s u r a n c e T r e a t
y
w i t h Russia lapse, t h u s a l l o w i n g a n t i - G e r m a n
France t o j o i n w i t h Russia i n t h e F r a n c o - R u s s i a n
A l l i a n c e o f 1 8 9 4 . G e r m a n y n o w faced e x a c t l y
the s o r t o f e n c i r c l e m e n t by h o s t i l e p o w e r s , a
n d
the resulting tlireat o f a t w o - f r o n t war, t h a t
B i s m a r c k h a d s o u g h t t o a v o i d .
S e c o n d , W i l l i a m f a v o r e d a n e w " w o r l d
p o l i c y " (Weltpolitik) f o r G e r m a n y t h a t a h e n -
a t e d B r i t a i n . W h e r e a s B i s m a r c k h a d c o n f i n
e d
G e r m a n y ' s i n t e r e s t s t o E u r o p e , W i l l i a m a n
d
m a n y p r o m i n e n t G e r m a n s w a n t e d t o see G e r -
m a n y c l a i m i t s " p l a c e i n t h e s u n " as a g l o b a l
p o w e r : G e r m a n y n e e d e d a m i g h t y overseas
e m p i r e a n d a n a v y t o d e f e n d i t . Such p o l i c i e s
w e r e g u a r a n t e e d t o a g g r a v a t e t h e B r i t i s h .
A s a n i s l a n d s t a t e d e p e n d e n t o n i t s overseas
e m p i r e , B r i t a i n based i t s defense o n its n a v a l

s u p r e m a c y . F r o m t h e B r i t i s h p o i n t o f v i e w ,
a s t r o n g G e r m a n n a v y c h a l l e n g e d B r i t i s h
n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a n d a n e x p a n d i n g G e r m a n
e m p i r e c o n f l i c t e d w i t h B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l
i n t e r e s t s .
H o s t i l i t y t o w a r d G e r m a n a m b i t i o n s o v e r -
came B r i t a i n ' s l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f " s p l e n d i d i s
o l a -
t i o n " f r o m c o n t i n e n t a l e n t a n g l e m e n t s . I n t
h e
f i r s t decade o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a series o f
m i l i t a r y a n d e c o n o m i c a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r m e
d
e v e r - t i g h t e r l i n k s b e t w e e n B r i t a i n a n d
Russia a n d
France, c l e a r i n g the w a y f o r the f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
T r i p l e E n t e n t e a m o n g these three p o w e r s . A n
i n f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a f o r m a l
a l l i a n c e , the T r i p l e E n t e n t e d i d n o t require
B r i t a i n t o j o i n i n a w a r against G e r m a n y . M a n y
B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s , h o w e v e r , v i e w e d G e r m a n
y as the
m a j o r t h r e a t t o B r i t i s h interests.
I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , G e r m a n p o l i c y m a k e r s
p l a c e d h e a v y e m p h a s i s o n t h e a l l i a n c e w i t h
A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y . S t r e n g t h e n i n g t h i s c r u c
i a l
a l l y became p a r a m o u n t . I n J u l y 1 9 1 4 , t h e n ,
w h e n A u s t r i a n o f f i c i a l s d e b a t e d t h e i r
response
t o t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f F r a n z F e r d i n a n d , t h
e
G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t u r g e d a q u i c k a n d decisive
b l o w a g a i n s t S e r b i a . K a i s e r W i l l i a m assured t

h e
A u s t r i a n a m b a s s a d o r t h a t G e r m a n y w o u l d
s t a n d b y A u s t r i a n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e c o s t .
B o t h G e r m a n a n d A u s t r i a n p o l i c y m a k e r s
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the cost m i g h t w e l l be w a r w i t h
R ussia. Eager t o e x p a n d its i n f l u e n c e i n t h e
B a l k a n r e g i o n ( a n d so g a i n access t o the M e d i t e r
-
r a n e a n Sea), the R u s s i a n i m p e r i a l r e g i m e h a d f
o r
decades p o s i t i o n e d itself as the c h a m p i o n o f
Slavic peoples i n the B a l k a n s a n d as t h e p r o t e c t o r
o f i n d e p e n d e n t Slavic states such as Serbia. T h u s ,
i f A u s t r i a a t t a c k e d Serbia, Russia m i g h t w e l l
m o b i l i z e i n Serbia's defense.
786 CHAPTER 25 The First World War
explosive force. For the Czechs, Slovenians, Serbs,
Poles, U k r a i n i a n s , a n d m a n y o t h e r g r o u p s ,
trans-
l a t i n g n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y i n t o p o h t i c a l i d e n t
i t y —
creating a " n a t i o n - s t a t e " — d e m a n d e d the b r e a k
u p
o f empires a n d a r e d r a w i n g o f p o l i t i c a l
boundaries.
T h e d i v i s i v e i m p a c t o f n a t i o n a l i s m i n eastern
E u r o p e e x p l a i n s w h y o f f i c i a l s w i t h i n the A u
s t r o -
H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e r e g a r d e d the s m a l l state o f
Serbia as a m a j o r t h r e a t . A m u l t i e t h n i c , m u l t i l

i n -
g u i s t i c e m p i r e , A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y ' s s u r v i v
a l
d e p e n d e d o n d a m p i n g d o w n the fires o f n a t i o n -
a l i s m w h e r e v e r they f l a m e d u p . Yet Serbian p o l i -
tics centered o n f a i m i n g the n a t i o n a l i s t f l a m e . I n
1 9 0 3 , a g r o u p o f Serbian a r m y o f f i c e r s h a d s h o t
Serbia's despised k i n g a n d q u e e n , c h o p p e d t h e i r
bodies i n t o b i t s , a n d t h r e w the pieces o u t the
w i n d o w . T o r e m a i n i n p o w e r a n d a v o i d such a
g r i s l y f a t e , the n e w k i n g catered t o the d e m a n d s
o f r a d i c a l n a t i o n a l i s t s w h o s o u g h t t h e u n i f i
c a t i o n
o f a l l Serbs i n t o a G r e a t e r Serbian state. Because
m o r e t h a n seven m i l l i o n Serbs l i v e d n o t i n Serbia,
b u t i n A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y , t h e A u s t r i a n m o n a
r c h y
r e g a r d e d this c a l l f o r Serbian u n i f i c a t i o n as a
serious t h r e a t t o t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n E m p i r
e .
T h e h o s t i l e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n Serbia a n d
A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y l e d d i r e c t l y t o the o u t b r e a
k o f
W o r l d W a r I . I n 1 9 0 8 A u s t r i a a n n e x e d B o s n i
a , a
r e g i o n w i t h a large Serbian p o p u l a t i o n . T h e Ser-
b i a n g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n d e d by e n c o u r a g i n g
B o s n i a n Serb separatist a n d t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s .
O n e such g r o u p , the B l a c k H a n d , assassinated
A r c h d u k e F r a n z F e r d i n a n d i n the s u m m e r o f
1 9 1 4 . T h a t assassination c o n v i n c e d A u s t r i a n
o f f i c i a l s t o declare w a r o n Serbia.
ARREST OF GAVRILO PRINCIP

Princip was only 18 years old when he assassinated Archduke
Franz Ferdinand and set
into motion the sequence of events that led to the First World
War Because of his age,
he did not receive the death penalty but instead received a
sentence of 20 years
in prison. He died at age 22 of tuberculosis.
Internal
Alliance
T o u n d e r ;
Serbian cc
l o o k a t th(
response
t i o n . Thes
c o n f l i c t i n i
T h e u
t h e balanc
e c o n o m i c
U n t i l 1 8 9 (
o f O t t o v o
cellor, ens
t h a t t h e F
b r o u g h t al
a n t a g o n i s n
f o r e i g n pc
m a n y ' s p o ;
v u l n e r a b l e
ceed i n f o
a n o t h e r Ei
c l e m e n t , I
Russia, A l
b e t w e e n C
E m p i r e i n
1 8 8 2 , w h i c

i n a d e f e i
T r e a t y o f 1
r e m a i n n e u
B u t i n 1
(r. 1 8 8 8 - 1 !
W i l l i a m , a
m a n , d i s r a i
G e r m a n y d(
kaiser b r o l
areas. First,
w i t h Russi;
France t o jc
A U i a n c e o f
t h e s o r t o f
the r e s u l t i n
B i s m a r c k ha
Second,
p o l i c y " {W.
a t e d B r i t a i i

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