Ernst Von Bergmann

Ernst Von Bergmann
Ernst Von Bergmann
German Surgeon known for Sterilization of Surgical Instruments
Monday, May 24, 2010
Intrudoction to the Surgical Environment
Instructor: Javier Espinales
Paper Written by: Walter Pacheco
My Paper is about a Baltic– German surgeon named, Ernst Von Bergmann.
Dr. Bergmann was Born on December 1836 Riga, Russian Baltic Provinces. He is known as the first
surgeon to use heat to sterilize surgical instruments. Dr. Bergmann came from a religious family. His
father was a Lutheran Pastor in Rujen, Livonia. His mother was a refugee from an epidemic in Riga,
thus Ernst Von Bergmann being born in the city where his mother was a refugee.
Ernst Von Bergmann tried to enter the Theological faculty,trying to follow his ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The biggest trial and misfortune for Ernst Von Bergmann came with the death of Crown Prince and
Kaiser, Frederick. Crwon Prince and Kaiser suffered from hoarseness which means having a "vocal
tone characterized by weakness of intensity and excessive breathiness, the hoarse voice of the
auctioneer". It began when The Crown Prince was diagnosed by another Doctor, named Gerhardt.
Gerhardt saw that the Prince had an irregular projection of the left vocal cord and diagnosed him
with Polypoid (nonmalignant growth or tumor protruding from the mucous lining of an organ such
as the nose, bladder, or intestine, often causing obstruction) which continued to grow. A few months
later, on May of 1887, The Prince was diagnosed with Epithelioma (benign or malignant tumor
derived from epithelial cells. Bergmann came to see the Prince and recommend laryngofissure and
also removal of the affected cord, and possibly part of the thyroid cartilage if it was affected. Since a
well known Doctor name Hahn in Berlin had successfully operated for the same disease.
A couple of days later, another Doctor confirmed the diagnosys of Bergmann, a Doctor name
Tobold. They brought it to the Crown Prince and the Prince also agreed with to have the surgery
performed. The complete laryngectomy had been specifically excluded but on request of Queen
Victoria Doctor Morrell Mackenzie was called
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Macromolecules And Structure Of A Cell
A cell is a dynamic and complex structure surrounded by a very thin membrane known as a plasma
membrane or a cytoplasmic membrane. This membrane acts as a barrier between the inside of the
cell and the outside, which results in different chemical environments on either side. The plasma
membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules, so it can regulate substances
coming in and out of the cell. These membranes have played a crucial role in the evolution of
prokaryotes to multicellular eukaryotes. (Figure 1) In prokaryotes, there is only one type of
membrane i.e. plasma membrane but in eukaryotes, they have intracellular membranes
compartmentalizing its contents into chambers called organelles. These organelles have their own
specific functions; they interact with each other and the membrane to work as a unit.
The membrane therefore has several functions, which can be attributed by its molecular composition
and structure.
Figure 1. Diagram showing the evolution of prokaryotes.
The lipid bilayer [figure 4] is organised in distinct regions primarily because of the hydrophobic
effect caused by the amphipathic nature of these molecules. In order to reduce the contact of the
nonpolar regions with the aqueous environment, lipid molecules arrange themselves in a manner so
that the hydrophobic tails point towards each other and the hydrophilic polar head groups are
exposed on the outside facing the aqueous environment. These lipids also form structures called

Cystic Fibrosis : An Autosomal Recessive Condition Of The...
The Disease Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive condition of the secretory glands, which
affects roughly 30,000 individuals in the United States alone (Cohen & Prince, 2012, p. 509). This
chronic genetic disorder of the sweat and mucous glands affects a number of different anatomical
structures including the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, the exocrine pancreas, and the
exocrine sweat glands. Cystic fibrosis results in the production of abnormally thick mucus which
can detrimentally affect a number of different organs throughout the body, most notably the lungs
and pancreas. With such a widespread effect on the body, cystic fibrosis is truly a multisystem
disorder.
Diagnosis and Management Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed by a sweat test and genetic testing of
the affected individual. In the sweat chloride test, a physician rubs the patient's skin with a chemical
that induces sweating and then applies an electrode to the area which generates a small electrical
current. The sweat is then collected and analyzed. A chloride concentration of greater than 60
mEq/L is indicative of cystic fibrosis (Moskowitz, Chmiel, Sternen, Cheng, Cutting, 2008). Genetic
testing is often utilized in conjunction with the sweat test to affirm the diagnosis. Cystic fibrosis is
mainly managed through the treatment of its symptoms. Pulmonary complications of this genetic
condition such as chronic pulmonary infections are managed with oral, inhaled, or IV antibiotics,

Dimethyl Methyl Polysiloxanes
Column one was a 30m x 0.25mm–i.d coated with 0.5 μm 5% diphenyl and 95% dimethyl
polysiloxane (Rtx®–5). Column two was a 30m x 0.25mm–i.d coated with 0.5 μm midpolarity
phase consisting of 50% phenyl and 50% dimethyl polysiloxane (Rxi®–17sil). Column three was a
30m x 0.25mm–i.d, capillary coating with 0.5 μm film of 100% trifluoropropyl methyl polysiloxane
(Rtx®–200). The separation was performed using the same temperature program on all these
stationary phases. The temperature program used for separation was consisted of an initial
temperature hold at 80 °C for 1.0 min, ramped up to 300 °C at a rate of 30 °C/min, held at 300 °C
for 0.5 min then ramped to 340°C at a rate of 5.0 °C/min and held at 340 °C for 5.0 min with a total
run 21 min. (TP1). Column four was a 30m x 0.25mm–i.d, capillary coated with 0.5 μm film of
midpolarity phase consisting of 35% phenyl and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is an extensive overlap and co–elution of the JWH–018 and 5–(1–naphthoyl)–1–pentylindole
(compound 4) on Rtx–200. The separation is completely resolved with full baseline resolution on
Rtx–5 and Rtx–17Sil. However, the last four peaks showed slightly tailing but this tailing does not
affect the quality of the separation. On the other hand, the run time was increased on the Rxi–35Sil
column to allow for the complete elution of sample components. It takes more than thirty minute to
get a complete separation with slow upward baseline shift. Otherwise, the separation was excellent
with slightly tailing in the last four compounds but this tailing does not affect the quality of the

Hiv And South East Asia
The most HIV–affected region in the world is sub–Saharan Africa, which had an estimated 68
percent of all cases and 66 percent of all deaths in the year 2010. South and South East Asia is the
second most affected region, containing an estimated 12 percent of all people living with HIV in
2010 and about 2.4 million of these are in India. As of 2009 in the UK there were approximately
86,500 cases and 516 deaths. As of 2008 in Canada there were approximately 65,000 and 53 deaths.
Prevalence is the lowest in Central and Western Europe at 0.2 percent, North Africa and Middle East
at 0.1 percent, and East Asia at 0.1 percent.
Today the world's population is approximately 7.2 billion, 319 million of which is the population of
the US. HIV/AIDS ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This RNA genome is bound to nucleocapsid proteins as well as the enzymes needed for the
development of the virion. These are enclosed by a cone–shaped capsid. A matrix that is composed
of another protein surrounds the capsid, which is in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope that is
composed of two phospholipid layers derived from the host human cell membrane when a newly
formed virus budded from the cell. There are proteins embedded in this envelope that stick out
through the surface of the virus membrane and allow the virus to connect and fuse with target cells
in order to begin infecting those cells. These embedded proteins are glycoprotein complexes that
consist of a cap called gp120, and a stem called gp41which anchors the complex in the envelope.
HIV primarily targets components of the human immune system that express the CD4 protein as a
surface receptor, such as CD4+ T cells, which are mature T helper cells that express the protein on
their surface, macrophages, and dendritic cells. HIV gains entry into these cells through interaction
of the virion's gp120 protein with the CD4 receptor molecule on the target and also, secondarily,
with chemokine co–receptors, including CCR5 and CXCR4.
Macrophagetropic, or M–tropic, strains of HIV–1 are also called R5 viruses because they use the
chemokine co–receptor CCR5 for entry. T cell, or T–tropic, strains are also called X4

Anatomy Intorduction to the Human Body Essay
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY I WORKSHEET I
Plasma Membrane and Cellular Transport
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
1. Why do you think it is important to have a membrane surrounding each of our trillions of cells?
Expect varying answers, but the idea is have the students understand the plasma membrane
separates the cells from their environment and each other while also regulating the material within
each cell. 2. What are two distinctive physical features of phospholipids? Heads are polar (water
soluble, hydrophilic) and tails are nonpolar (water hydrophobic).
insoluble,
3.
Describe the conformation of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. What abundant
fluid leads to his conformation? Because the phospholipids heads are ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
D.
Houston Community College
Page 2
8b.
What is a hypotonic solution?
The concentration of dissolved substances is less in the extracellular fluid than in the cytoplasm.
Hypotonic Solution Concentration of dissolved substances (solute) Concentration of water (solvent)
What happens to an animal cells? Inside the cell Greater Less Outside the cell Less Greater
Membrane
Water moves into the cell, leading to swelling and bursting
8c.

What is a hypertonic solution?
The concentration of dissolved substances is greater in the extracellular fluid than in the cytoplasm.
Hypertonic Solution Concentration of dissolved substances (solute) Concentration of water (solvent)
What happens to an animal cells? Inside the cell Less Greater Outside the cell Greater Less
Membrane
Water moves out of the cell, leading to shrinkage
Cellular Transport: Passive and Active Transport
1. In passive transport, what determines the direction of movement of small particles? The direction
of movement of particles in passive transport is determined by the concentration gradient (diffusion)
between the cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid. 2. Why do the molecules in facilitated diffusion
need help moving across the plasma membrane? Likely, the molecules are too large to pass unaided
through the plasma membrane with the concentration gradient; they need to pass through special
transport proteins.
3.
Does facilitated diffusion require the cell to

The Blood Brain Barrier
The Blood Brain Barrier
The central nervous system is comprised of many elements that help maintain a highly regulated
environment for very specialized functions, such as communication throughout the entire body via
nerve pathways (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). This compartmentalization of the nervous system
was first introduced by Paul Ehrlich and Edwin E. Goldman in the 1880's, where after injecting a
coloured dye into the circulatory system, the brain and spinal cord were found to be devoid of any
staining, a phenomenon also observed when the brain was stained and the rest of the organs were
not (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). In addition, neurotoxins and electron dense materials injected
into the bloodstream were not permitted entry into the central nervous system, instead accumulating
outside of what is now known as the blood brain barrier (BBB) (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009).
The BBB is not only a physical barrier, but also a physiological barrier separating the brain and the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the blood circulating through the rest of the body (Braniste et al.,
2014; Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). This barrier is a result of the presence of endothelial cells that
line the microvascular structures in the brain as well as astrocytes, pericytes, neurons, and an
extracellular matrix, all of which induce a physiology that separates the brain from blood (Braniste
et al., 2014; Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009; Persidsky, 2013). Due to the different components, the
BBB

Grey's Anatomy Case Study
Data Workshop 14.1 Josh Bleil May 6, 2018 Grey's Anatomy 1. How common is the disease? a.
Moyamoya disease is very rare, and if you have signs you should seek medical attention
immediately. Moyamoya is a chronic disease. (diseases that develop over a longer period of time
and may not be detected until symptoms occur later in their progression) P.406 2. What are the
causes and contributing factors to the disease? a. Moyamoya's cause is unknown. However, it is a
progressive blood vessel disorder in which the carotid artery in the skull becomes blocked or
narrowed, reducing blood flow to the brain. 3. Does it affect different groups in different ways? a.
Moyamoya is common in Korea, Japan, and China, but can be found in other parts of the world. It
could be associated with Down syndrome, hyperthyroidism, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Being of Asian descent – may be due to genetic factors. b. Having a family history of moyamoya –
If you have a family member with moyamoya disease your risk is 30–40 times higher than the
general population. c. Having a certain medical condition – Moyamoya sometimes occurs in
association with many other diseases. d. Female – Females have a slightly higher chance of having
moyamoya disease. e. Young – adults can have moyamoya disease, but children younger than 15
years are most commonly affected. 5. Who is involved in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease
or condition? a. Your doctor will need to review you and your family medical history. Also, they
will perform a physical exam and order several tests to diagnose moyamoya and underlying
conditions. 6. How expensive, rare, dangerous, and/or available are the treatments, and are there any
side effects? a. Therapy, revascularization surgery, and medication are all types of treatments. Direct
revascularization surgery has a risk of complications, including stroke. The most expensive
treatment would be surgery. 7. How rich, lucky, or well–insured would a patient have to be to
undergo

Vibrio Cholera Essay
Vibrio cholerae, the Human Immune System, and Vaccines
Cholera remains a drastically severe disease, killing hundreds of people each outbreak. When
ingested, it attaches to the mucosal lining of the intestines and disrupts the normal flow of ions so
that there is more sodium, chloride, and water in the intestinal lumen than normal and results in
massive diarrhea. Cholera has made a global impact and been endemic in almost all parts of the
world. Cholera control strongly emphasizes sanitation, clean drinking water, isolation, and careful
food preparation. Two ways our body works against cholera as a self–limiting disease are sloughing
cells and the secretory immunoglobulin (sIgA) antibody produced by mucus throughout our body.
There are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although the mucosa itself does not appear to be damaged by CT, the net flow of Na+ into tissue is
decreased and the net flow of Cl– and water out of tissue is increased so as a result, there is more
Na+, Cl–, and water in the lumen than there should be. This leads to massive diarrhea and great
electrolyte imbalance. A patient with severe cholera can lose up to 20L of water a day (Salyers A.,
Abigail, 141). At times, diarrhea becomes so dilute it is almost clear, containing flecks of mucus that
it is called rice water stool because of its watery consistency (Salyers A., Abigail, 142). This rapid
rate of water loss and dehydration is tremendously fatal. At its most extreme, symptoms emerge in
3–4 hours, previously healthy patients can die within 6–8 hours of infection, and more commonly
go into shock 6–12 hours after infection and die within 18 hours (Weekly Epidemiological Record,
6). Cholera's level of severity is very life threatening and remains a big problem even in our world
today. Almost 100 countries worldwide are still affected by cholera and it's virtually impossible to
completely prevent an outbreak. If left alone, this rapidly infectious disease can cause many
fatalities. However, improved methods for surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment, paired with higher
standards of sanitation and personal

Diffusion And Osmosis Extended Experimental Investigation
Diffusion & Osmosis Extended Experimental Investigation
Introduction
Cells are the basic unit of life, and all organisms are made up of trillions of them. However with the
vast quantities of varying cell structures that exist, one thing remains constant; their cell membrane.
The cell membrane is a barrier that separates a cell from its surrounding environment. The cell
membrane or plasma membrane is the outer boundary of a cell. It is composed of four different
types of molecules. The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of a cell membrane. It indicates
that the cell membrane is not solid. It is flexible and has a similar consistency to vegetable oil. So all
the individual molecules are just floating in a fluid medium, and they are all capable of moving
sideways within the cell membrane.
The plasma membrane is an assortment of phospholipids, cholesterol molecules, proteins, and
carbohydrates. Phospholipids make up the basic structure of a cell membrane. A single phospholipid
molecule has two different ends: a head and a tail. The head end contains a hydrophilic phosphate
group. This means that this part of the bilayer is water–loving and thus will be in contact with water.
The tail end is made up of two strings of hydrogen and carbon atoms called fatty acid chains. These
chains are hydrophobic or do not like to mingle with water molecules.)The phospholipids of a cell
membrane are arranged in a double layer called the lipid bilayer. The hydrophilic phosphate heads

Potassium Chloride And The Molecules Through Semipermeable...
Potassium Iodide Binds to Polysaccharide Molecules through Semipermeable Membrane
Introduction:
Diffusion is defined at the net movement of molecular substances from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. Beyond that, diffusion can further be divided into two
different kinds of net movement of substance to opposing concentration gradients, dialysis and
osmosis. Dialysis is defined as the separation of small molecules from large molecules as they pass
through a semipermeable membrane (Koerner, 1992).
When talking about dialysis, it is most often associated with the function or failure of the kidneys
ability to process and rid the body of toxins from the blood. It would prove to be fatal if the kidneys
failed to remove the roughly 1,500 liters of waste building up in the body (Nordqvist, 2015). This
experiment mimics the nature of a selective plasma membrane and with time, monitors to passing of
substances in and out of the barrier. The end results should appear to show a color changing
chemical reaction within the more concentrated tube of 15%glucose/1%starch solution. Initially the
clear and milky appearance should transform into a black and deep purple hue from the attachment
of iodine to the sugar solution. The experiment has been conducted previously yielding various
results. External factors affecting the rate of diffusion play a part in this experiment. Heat due to its
influence on the thermodynamics of the molecular substances. Increasing

G7Ikhgfcutifyguhj
Clara Skepple
Miranda Wilby, Sarah Cavanagh
Thursday, March 3 2016
Observing Diffusion and Osmosis
INTRODUCTION:
Related Theory: The cell membrane is the outermost boundary of the cell, made up of proteins and
lipids. This membrane holds the cell together and establishes the movement of materials that go into
and out of the cell. This is a selectively permeable membrane: a barrier that allows some molecules
to pass through, but prevents other molecules from penetrating (1). Passive transport is the
movement of materials across a cell membrane without the use of energy from the cell. One type of
passive transport is diffusion. Diffusion involves the movement of molecules from an area with a
higher concentration to one with a lower ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
12. To test for salt put a drop of silver nitrate into the sample from a preloaded pipet. Be sure to
wear goggles while doing this test.
13. To test for glucose bring a beaker of water to a boil. Label each of the test tubes of water
samples to ensure you can decipher which tube has which substance in it. Then put seven or eight
drops of the Benedict's solution each test tube and place them in the boiling water. If there is glucose
in the water, they will turn yellow or bright orange and opaque.
14. In a table record which tests results were positive and which were negative for each sample.
Observations:
Cell | Starch test | Ag No3 | Benedict's test | Starch | – | – | – | Starch + Amylase | – | – | + | Salt | – | +
| – | Glucose | – | – | + |
APLICATION:
Analysis: The objective of this lab was to build a selectively permeable membrane and observe
osmosis and diffusion through this membrane. There were four cells created; starch, starch and
amylase, salt and glucose. For testing if starch was apparent a few drops of iodine where placed in
each cell. For all of the cells starch was not apparent this is because starch molecules are too large to
pass through the cell

Gonorrhea Research Paper
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, commonly known as gonorrhea, is a gram–negative bacteria found in the
family Neisseriaceae. This proteobacteria does not form spores, cannot move (have no flagellum),
are encapsulated in a bacterial capsule, and are non–acid fast. They are diplococci, found in pairs of
round kidney–bean shaped bacteria. They are small, smooth and colourless with flattened sides.
These obligate aerobes need oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrient supplementation (usually
chocolate agar) to survive. They produce the enzyme β–lactamase, allowing N. gonorrhoeae to resist
certain antibiotics. There are 70 known strains of N. gonorrhoeae, and they produce colonies after
18–24 hours of incubation.
All victims of N. gonorrhoaeae are human. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In females, the organs most affected are the cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and urethra. In males, the
organs most affected are the testicles and penis. Gonorrhoea is also commonly found in the anus and
rectum, the mouth and throat, and the eyes.
Infected people take a dose of antibiotics (often a dose of two antibiotics at once) to cure
gonorrheoea. As gonorrhoeae becomes much more antibiotic resistant, the treatment options become
much more limited, meaning even those who can properly diagnose their symptoms are at risk for
debilitating

Client Presentation Case Study
Client's general pigmentation is very light tan with deep yellow undertones. Client's skin is even and
consistent with genetic background. Client's facial expressions are symmetric and respond
accordingly to appropriate behavior or mood. Client's skin is intact with no obvious lesions. Client
expresses a relaxed and comfortable facial expression which accompanies his adequate vision.
(Jarvis, 2016, p. 293)
Client has no eyebrows.
Client's eyelids skin is intact without redness, swelling, discharge, or lesions. Client's eyelashes are
distributed evenly along the lid margins and curve outward. (Jarvis, 2016, p. 294)
Client's eyeballs are aligned in their sockets with no protrusion or sunken appearance. (Jarvis, 2016,
p. 294)
Client's right eye has red beefy–looking ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Client presents no cracking or lesions. (Jarvis, 2016, p. 363)
Client's teeth present no diseased, absent, loose, or abnormally positioned teeth. The client's teeth
are white, straight, evenly spaced and clean and free of decay. The client presents normal occlusion
in the back; is the upper teeth resting directly on the lower teeth; in the front the upper incisors
slightly override the lower incisors. The client's gum color is pink with a stippled surface. The gum
margins at the teeth are tight and well defined. The client presents no swelling, no retraction of
gingival margins, no spongy bleeding gums or discolored gums. (Jarvis, 2016, p. 364)
The client presents a pink and even color tongue. The dorsal surface appears roughened from the
papillae. The client's ventral tongue surface looks smooth and glistening and shows veins. The
client's U–shaped tongue presents no oral malignancies; white patches, lesions, nodules, or
ulcerations. Saliva is present. (Jarvis, 2016, p. 364–365)
The client's buccal mucosa is pink, smooth and moist. There are no brown patches and no swelling
in the client's buccal mucosa. (Jarvis, 2016, p.

Healthcare
Assignment Brief Subject | Human Physiology | Unit | CELLS 3–RH33–058 | Tutor Name | David
Funge | Assignment Title | Assignment 1 (Nursing groups) | Deadline–as shown on Moodle |
I declare that this is my own work. I understand that copying and/or plagiarism will result in
rejection of the work with no opportunity for resubmission
Student Name _____________________________________________
Student Signature ____________ Date _____________________
I declare that this is my own work. I understand that copying and/or plagiarism will result in
rejection of the work with no opportunity for resubmission
Student Name _____________________________________________
Student Signature ____________ Date ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
* 40% sugar solution when the potato was placed into it and the mass was measured from time 5
minutes the mass was low then decreased greatly at a faster pace from time 10 minutes to 25
minutes * From time 60% the mass of the potato was low at time 5minutes which kept decreasing
sharply from time 10 minutes to 25 minutes
4. Identify and suggest reasons for any anomalies (if none write "none)
An anomaly will be that when the mass of the potato was measured for 6% of sugar solution, the
mass at time 5minutes was high then it decreased sharply at times 10 minutes to time 20 minutes
this shows that the pressure with which the potato shrunk made the potato less rigid which made the
cell membrane of the potato start shrink from the cell itself therefore causing the mass to decrease,
also from 20% to 60% of sugar solution was used the mass of the potato decreased sharply as time
went on which also shows that the cell membrane of the potato has plasmolysed which shows that
the cell membrane has pulled away from the cell which shows with the shrinkage of the potato.
5. Explain the trends observed in the group's data: The trends showed that with distilled water the
mass increased within a time range which showed that osmosis was taking place so the cell were
rigid and the weight of the potato increased then it started decreasing in mass which shows that it
started losing water but then after 25mins it regained its rigidity by absorbing more

New Challenges From An Old Bug
Leptospirosis: new challenges from an old bug
Kate Murphy BVSc (Hons) DSAM DipECVIM–CA MRCVS PGCert(HE)
Highcroft Veterinary Referrals, 615 Wells Road, Whitchurch, Bristol, BS149BE
Synopsis (200 words)
Article (3000 words maximum)
What is Leptospirosis?
Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection with worldwide distribution. It can affect most mammals
(Bharti and others 2003) but some species seem more susceptible, such as the dog and the human. It
is a spirochaete infection and the infecting organism was traditionally identified by serological
testing, however, modern methods using DNA hybridisation have been developed although many of
these only allow identification to the species level (Jung and others 2015). The two most common
serovars (L. canicola and L. icterohaemorrhagiae) have been the basis of leptospirosis vaccination in
dogs for many years. There is now serological evidence of exposure to a much wider range of
serovars including L. Grippotyphosa, L. Australis and L. Sejroe (Ellis 2010).
Why do we need to worry about Leptospirosis?
Leptospirosis is reported to be re–emerging disease worldwide (Goldstein 2010; Sykes et al. 2011;
Harkin 2009; Hartskeerl et al. 2011) and human cases are reported to be increasing (Harkin 2009;
Hartskeerl et al. 2011). In the UK, there were 10 cases of human infection reported in the second
quarter of 2015. Four cases were reported after travelling (Public Health England, 2015). Infection
in humans is typically acquired

Reduced Dosage Essay
INNOVATIONS IN DRUG DELIVERY: RAPID DISINTEGRATING TABLETS
INTRODUCTION
Innovation is the key word in the present era. As scientists are engrossed in development of newer
drug molecules, there has also been a continuous demand for the development of delivery forms for
these drugs. The main focus is on achieving reduced dosage and to make the drugs more cost
effective.
Despite the many dosage forms available in the market, the oral route remains the popular route of
choice for most consumers. Tablets, hard and soft gelatin capsules occupy a major share owing to
their numerous advantages in relation to patient compliance. Despite their popularity, there are
several drawbacks as well. An example of it is dysphagia where the patient is unable ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scherer Inc. This was one of the first patented tablet technology. It is produced by freeze drying the
drug in a gelatin matrix. The tablets are lightweight and fragile and must be packed in a special
blister packaging. The foil film should be peeled back to release the tablet the speciality of Zydis
formulation is that it disintegrates within 2–3 seconds after placing on the tongue. Bitter tste of the
drug is masked by the use of flavours and sweetening agents. Drug is absorbed from all the pre
gastric regions, viz. buccal, pharyngeal and gastric. However there are also some drawbacks. The
formulation is fragile hence it should be stored carefully. It has to be consumed within six months
after opening the secondary packaging which consists of a laminated foil and taken immediately
when the primary blister packaging is opened as the product is susceptible to

The Chemistry Of Diffusion Of Osmosis
Diffusion is the random movement of particles, caused by kinetic energy, from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. Once the two substances are in equilibrium,
diffusion still occurs. However, the substances stay in equilibrium, as the random movement is
equal across both sides. Osmosis is the diffusion of water, through a selectively permeable
membrane. A selectively permeable membrane is a membrane that allows certain molecules to pass
through itself, and is resistant to other molecules. Osmosis is a very important process by cells, with
uses such as the absorption of water. Many cells are placed in solutions with a similar solute–solvent
ratio, to prevent rapid intake or expulsion of water. Osmosis causes a change in turgor pressure, and
in osmotic pressure. Tugor pressure is the pressure exerted on the cytoplasm on the cell caused by
the intake or expulsion of water. Osmotic pressure is the pressure of the water If the turgor pressure
in a cell is too great, than the cell may explode. If the turgor pressure inside the cell is too low, the
cell will shrivel. Potatoes are vegetables that are grown under the surface of the dirt. Potatoes are
commonly cooked for consumption. Some common foods that are made from potatoes are; mashed
potatoes, french fries, and some kinds of chips. Potatoes are grown in one–hundred twenty five
countries. If eaten raw, potatoes can cause sickness as they may be poisonous. Potatoes are made

Essay on Effect of Ethanol on Beetroot Membrane
Biology Coursework
Hypothesis: To investigate the effect of different concentrations of ethanol on the permeability of
beetroot cell membranes.
Prediction: By exposing a membrane to a solvent, ethanol, it will increase its permeability. So the
higher the concentration of the solvent, the more permeable the membrane will be. But if the
concentration of the ethanol is beyond a certain limit, it may break down the cell membrane to the
point where there is in fact no overall effect as the ethanol would disturb the lipids in the membrane.
Therefore, more of the red pigment in the beetroot would leak as the lipids control the substances
that enter and leave the cell membrane.
However the ethanol might also impair particular ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When beetroot is sliced or cut, the cells are also sliced, causing the pigment to spill out. The thinner
the slices are, the larger the surface area, which would increase the rate of pigment leakage. But if
the membrane is destroyed and the phospholipid bilayer and are changed, more pigment, betacyanin
leaks by means of diffusion.
The basic structure of betacyanins
Betacyanin
Betalaines are the red pigments of beetroot. They are water–soluble and exist as internal salts in the
sap vacuoles of plant cells. Betalaines are made up of red betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins.
Betacyanines include about 90% of beetroot betalaines. The most important betacyanin is betain.
This makes up 75–95% of the total colouring found in the beetroot. Jm
Ethanol:
C2H5OH :
[pic]
Generally ethanol is an alcohol found in alcoholic drinks. At 100% concentration, it is pure and a
colourless liquid with a strong odour (due to weak Van der Wall forces :D. Ethanol is produced by
the fermentation of carbohydrates in yeast cells and is used frequently as a solvent.

Proteins which make up about 70% of cell membranes are affected by the pH of ethanol. Proteins
are made of amino–acids which can form hydrogen bonds with the many hydrogen atoms found in
the molecule.
The position of some of these hydrogen atoms formed change when the pH of a solution changes.
Therefore the shape of the protein molecule alters due to the change in pH.

Hiscology Of Bladder: Histology Of Gall Transgender
HISTOLOGY OF BILIARY SYSTEM
Histology of Gall bladder:
Figure (9): Histology of GB 1. Mucous membrane. 2. Mucosal folds. 3. Muscle coat. 4. Serous layer
(Krause, 2005).
(GB= Gallbladder)
The wall of the GB consists of mucosa, which is composed of simple columnar epithelium and
lamina propria, a layer of smooth muscles, well–developed per–muscular connective tissue layer
and serous membrane. The mucosa has abundant folds that are particularly evident in the empty GB.
The epithelial cells are rich in mitochondria and have their nuclei in their basal third; all these cells
are capable of secreting small amounts of mucous. Microvilli are frequent at the apical surface. Near
the CD, the epithelium invaginates into the lamina propria forming tubuloacinar glands with wide
lumens. Cells of these glands have characteristics of mucous secreting cells and are responsible for
the production of most of the mucous present in the bile (Singh, 2011).
The muscular layer is thin, with most of the smooth muscle cells arranged around the circumference
of the GB. A thick connective tissue layer binds the superior surface of the GB to the liver. The
opposite surface is covered by a serous layer and the peritoneum (Singh, 2011).
Histology of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All of them have a common structure. They have a mucosa surrounded by a wall made up of
connective tissue, in which some smooth muscle may be present. The mucosa is lined by a tall
columnar epithelium with a striated border. At its lower end the bile duct is joined by the main
pancreatic duct, the two usually forming a common hepato–pancreatic duct (or ampulla) that opens
into the duodenum at the summit of the major duodenal papilla. The mucosa of the hepato–
pancreatic duct is highly folded. These folds are believed to constitute a valvular mechanism that
prevents duodenal contents from entering the bile and pancreatic ducts (Krause,

Instrumentation For Electrophysiology Case Study Report
Instrumentation for Electrophysiology Case Study Report
EE312: Instrumentation & Microcontrollers
University of Strathclyde EEE Department
Name: Vladislav Morgen Degree: 3rd Year Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Registration
Number: 201205937
[1]
Abstract
This reports looks into the measurement techniques used in electrophysiology (patch clamp in
particular) and how those developed over the years. The difference between the intracellular (inside
the cell) and extracellular (outside the cell) measurements is highlighted and the examples of each
are given. The technology used to make the measurements is examined (including the commercial
examples of Q–Patch and IonFlux) and a microcontroller implementation is suggested. A
microcontroller can be used to amplify the signal and measure the current and capacitance of the
equivalent circuit to reduce the computational workload on the computer or it can simply be used as
a signal generator. The current research in the electrophysiology and the electrophysiology
measurement field was also looked at (using High Density Surface EMG for more applications,
using EMG and NIRS together to help diagnose and monitor Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy in
children).
Table of Contents

What Protective Effect Of Α -lipoic Acid ( La ) Against...
Abstract
Increased oxidative stress and apoptosis have been implicated in Methotrexate (MTX)– induced oral
mucositis that limits its clinical use. The present study was conducted to investigate the conceivable
protective effect of α–lipoic acid (LA) against MTX induced toxicity on both buccal and lingual
mucosae. Thirty adult male albino rats were divided into three groups; control treated with normal
saline, MTX–treated group subjected to single intraperitoneal injection of MTX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) and
LA treated group treated with daily intraperitoneal injection of LA (10 mg/kg, i.p.) for 5 weeks
before MTX injection (20 mg/kg, i.p.). Rats were then sacrificed under anesthesia then their buccal
and lingual mucosae were dissected out and processed for biochemical and histopathological
studies. Malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH) contents, catalase, superoxide
dismutase activity (SOD), integrity of nuclear DNA (nDNA) were estimated. Immunostaining was
used to determine Bax and PCNA localization. MTX–treated rats showed increased levels of MDA
and fragmentation of DNA in addition to reduction of GSH levels and activities of catalase and
SOD. Histological examination of MTX–treated rats demonstrated degenerative changes that
involved the surface epithelium and lamina propria of their buccal and lingual mucosae.
Immunohistochemical results of MTX–treated rats revealed strongly positive Bax and weakly
positive PCNA staining reactivity of the nuclei of the basal and

Physical Assessment : Symptoms And Treatment
Physical Assessment
Patient Initials: _RC__
Ht: 5'6"; Wt: 125.6lbs; BP: 118/54 right arm, sitting; P: 84 apical, regular; R: 24, unlabored O2 Sat:
97 on 2 Liters nc; Temp: 96.7, tympanic
General Appearance: Well dressed and groomed; no odor.
Mental Status: A&O to name, time, and circumstance; pleasant affect; no signs of distress; no
involuntary movement.
Skin: skin light beige with yellowish undertone; smooth. Reddish/pink scab on back of head and
anterior right hand; purple ecchymosis on anterior lower right arm; no tenderness; yellowish nails
with dirt under the nail; no clubbing; capillary refill <3 seconds; skin turgor: brisk recoil.
Head, Face, & Neck: Normochephalic, Midline Scalp: mobile, no tenderness, little flakes ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nose & Sinus: Nose midline, symmetrical nares patent, septum midline and intact, nasal mucosa
pink, moist, intact, a small amount of drainage from nose.
Throat & Mouth: Lips, pink, moist, intact with no cheilosis/cheilitis. 27 teeth, yellow and black,
poor repair, oral mucosa: pink, moist, intact; tongue: pink, rough, midline, no lesions, pleasant
breath odor; Pharynx and tonsils pink, moist with no exudate. Uvula midline.
Cardiac & Respiratory: Cardiac: light beige skin tone; nail beds pink; no clubbing; capillary refill
less than 3 seconds; no visible apical pulsations. PMI at 5th ICS and MCL, 1cm x 2cm; no thrills,
lifts, or heaves; brisk turgor recoil; no edema. S1 and S2 present; no splits or rubs; murmur is
present; pulse deficit of 13; no Carotid Bruits. Respiratory: Respiratory assessment: light beige skin
with yellowish undertone; red conjunctiva; pink lips; pink mucous membrane; no clubbing; nails
dirty with yellowish/pink undertone; AP: lat ratio 1:2. Anterior symmetrical expansions; lungs clear
throughout; shallow breaths; no tenderness; no masses; no adventitious sounds. Posterior
symmetrical expansions; no tenderness; no masses; tactile fremitus present and equal Bil. vibration
diminishes half of the way down; no CVA; no tenderness; occasional inspiratory wheezes; no
egophony.
Abdomen: flat contour; symmetrical; light beige skin tone; hair distribution

Natural Killer Cells Research Paper
The skin and mucous membranes provide a nonspecific first line of defense against invaders
entering through the skin or through openings into the body. The first line of defense features the
following mechanisms:
Skin is a physical and hostile barrier covered with oily and acidic (pH from 3 to 5) secretions from
sebaceous and sweat glands, respectively.
Antimicrobial proteins (such as lysozyme, which breaks down the cell walls of bacteria) are
contained in saliva, tears, and other secretions found on mucous membranes.
Cilia that line the respiratory tubes serve to sweep invaders away from the lungs.
Gastric juices of the stomach, by the action of hydrochloric acid or enzymes, kill most microbes.
Symbiotic bacteria found in the digestive tract ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Injured cells and nearby circulating cells release chemicals that initiate defensive actions and sound
an alarm to other defense mechanisms. These chemicals include histamine (mostly secreted by
basophils, white blood cells found in connective tissue), kinins, prostaglandins (PGs), and
complement proteins.
Vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels), stimulated by histamine and other chemicals, increases
blood supply to the damaged area. This causes redness and an increase in local temperature. The
increase in temperature stimulates white blood cells and makes the environment inhospitable to
pathogens.
Vascular permeability increases in response to alarm chemicals. As a result, white blood cells,
clotting factors, and body fluids move more quickly through blood vessel walls and into the injured
area. The increase in body fluids that results causes local edema (swelling). Edema may produce
pain if nearby nerve endings experience pressure. Pain may also occur when nerve endings are
exposed to bacterial toxins, kinins, and prostaglandins. (Aspirin reduces pain by inhibiting the
production of prostaglandins.)
Phagocytes arrive at the site of injury and engulf pathogens and damaged cells. Phagocytes find the
site of injury by chemotaxis, the movement of cells in response to chemical gradients (provided here
by alarm

Important Parts Of A Cell
Introduction
The body is made up of billions and billions of cells that make up tissues that make up organs,
which make up organ systems. Within those cells are organelles including but not limited to a
nucleus, organelles, and cytosol. Cells are one of the most basic units of our bodies. With that being
said, it is safe to say that cells are extremely important. There are many parts of a cell and many
ways that a cell works. One of the most important parts of a cell is the plasma membrane. The
plasma membrane is the outer surface of a cell, which is made up of things called phospholipids,
which form a phospholipid bilayer. This bilayer is made up of phospholipids (75%), cholesterol
(20%), and glycoproteins (5%). This bilayer is only possible due to the phospholipids being
amphipathic (polar and non polar parts). Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic (water
loving) head and 2 hydrophobic (water fearing) tails. The Plasma membrane separates the cell's
internal environment from its external environment. It also "plays a key role in communication
among cells and between cells and their external environment," (Tortora 60).
Many different proteins are located all throughout the plasma membrane. Some float around freely
and others are stationary in specific locations. For example, integral proteins extend all the way
through the lipid bilayer and go further into the interior of the cell. This makes them transmembrane
proteins due to the fact that they go all the way

The Effects Of Environmental Stress On Cell Membranes
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment was to indirectly study the effects of environmental stress on cell
membranes. Watercourses have been with discarding of domestic and manufacturing, for centuries.
Alarms have only escalated about the ecological alterations in the recent years of what would be the
consequences. Scientists have developed a thorough investigation in search of various man harmful
waste that is damaging the environment of watercourses.
The cell membranes are the utmost essential organelle that surrounds all living cells. Its purpose is
to control what goes in and out of the cells and is accountable for the various other properties of the
cells as well. The nucleus and other organelles also have membranes that are practically
indistinguishable. Membranes are organised in a mosaic arrangement, comprised of carbohydrates,
proteins and phospholipids. This can be seen in Figure 1. The objective of this indirect examination
is to study the causes of various solvents and conducts on live beetroot cells. The reason why
beetroot cells have been selected for this experiment is because they have a big membrane–bound
central vacuole, as seen in Figure 2. The red colour anthocyanin, which provides the beetroot its
bright colour is located in the vacuole. The cell membrane encloses the whole beetroot cell. The
anthocyanin cannot leak out if the membranes stay unharmed. The red colour can escape if the
membranes are hassled or broken.
Abstract:
Ethanol disrupts

Impressive Benefits Of Organic Sulfur
hat if I told you there is a "miracle mineral" that strengthens immunity, fights the effects of stress
and pain, increases energy levels, improves skin complexion, and provides allergy relief? Would
you be interested? If yes, then you are in the right place.
Did you know Organic Sulfur is the third most abundant mineral in the human body and is
absolutely essential for health? It is one of the basic building blocks of life and is essential in
maintaining our health.
Organic Sulfur Benefits – 23 Surprisingly Impressive Benefits
1. Organic Sulfur works like chelation therapy.
Organic sulfur is one of the most powerful and effective solutions for detoxifying the entire body
because it oxygenates your cells, alkalizes your blood and removes toxins and heavy metals that
lead to cellular malfunction and disease (Clark).
Organic sulfur can easily bind with most toxins to form a sulfate, such as mercury sulfate, lead
sulfate, barium sulfate, arsenic sulfate, aluminum sulfate, strontium sulfate, etc., By bonding with all
the toxic heavy metals, Organic Sulfur can safely chelate and remove these toxic metals from our
bodies. Sulfur does not bind to iodine, which is a good thing (Parcell).
2. It helps with allergies, asthma, and emphysema.
Sulfur helps all the cells in the body to work better and keep the system clean by binding to mucous
membranes and forming a natural block against allergens. Thus leading to a reduction or elimination
of allergies.
It helps alleviate emphysema

Diffusion Across Biological Membranes: a Simulation
Diffusion across Biological Membranes: A simulation
Introduction
Diffusion is the process by which collisions between molecules cause to spread apart. This
movement is described as movement from an area of greater concentration to an area of lower
concentration. Hence, diffusion continues until the molecules are equally distributed. This is to
ensure that molecules have reached a state of equilibrium. Diffusion occurs spontaneously, no
energy is involved.
In cells, Diffusion occurs through cell membrane which is selectively permeable. This means that
some molecules can pass through the membrane while other molecules cannot. Molecules that move
across the membrane through diffusion are either hydrophobic or small and uncharged. For ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The dialysis tube was submerged in a beaker filled with water. Both dialysis tubes were rinsed by
distilled H2O before placing them inside and left the cell model aside for one hour.
After one hour, the 3 inch dialysis tube which carried starch turned dark blue precipitant. S i i S i i S
i S i S S i i S i i S i S i S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
g i g i g i g i g g i g i g i g i g s s s s g i g i g i g i g g i g i g i g i g s s s s
g i g i g i s i s s i s i s i s i s s s s s g i g i g i s i s s i s i s i s i s s s s s
Initial Stage
Initial Stage H2O H2O Final Stage
Final Stage Figure 2, Diffusion of molecules before and after.
Figure 2, Diffusion of molecules before and after.
From figure 2, we can observe diffusion taking place.'S' represent starch, 'i' represents iodine and 'g'
represent glucose. As initially, 1 inch dialysis tube consists of iodine and glucose and 3 inch dialysis
tube consists of starch. However, after 1 hour, the iodine molecules got diffused into 3 inch dialysis
tube and also the water in the beaker turned slightly cloudy in the final stage.
Figure 3, the current location of each substance

Different Types Of Cell Found Within The Human Body
Whilst they are often disregarded and thought to be simple, cells within the human body are made
up of many microscopic parts. Too small to be seen with the naked eye, each cell has their own
unique function, (Biology, 2015). In broad terms, there are two very similar types of cell found
within the human body, (Australian Government, 2015). Although the cells are alike, it is relatively
easy to differentiate between the two. 'Prokaryotic' cells are cells that do not contain a nucleus or
any other membrane–bound organelle, whereas, 'Eukaryotic' cells are cells that do contain
membrane–bound organelles, such as a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells, unlike Prokaryotic cells can be
either single–celled or multi–celled, (Study, 2015).
Many different types of organelles exist within the cells of the human body, (Biology, 2015). Rough
and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria, Vacuoles, The Nucleus, and many more can be
found within the cell. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, or simply 'Rough ER" is studded with protein
builders known as 'Ribosomes' and is used within the human body to manufacture lysosomal
enzymes and secreted proteins. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum or 'Smooth ER' is characterised by
its lack of Ribosomes. Its uses within the body include lipid synthesis, calcium concentration and
drug detoxification, (Biology, 2015). Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cells
powerhouse as they provide all the necessary energy in the form of ATP that the cells need to do
their

Example Of Nursing Physical Assessment
The patient is a 45 year old man who had GI surgery 4 days ago. He is NPO, has a nasogastric tube,
and IV fluids of D51/2saline at 100 mL/hr. The nursing physical assessment includes the following:
alert and oriented; fine crackles; capillary refill within normal limits; moving all extremities,
complaining of abdominal pain, muscle aches, and "cottony" mouth; dry mucous membranes, bowel
sounds hypoactive, last BM four days ago; skin turgor is poor; 200 mL of dark green substance has
drained from NG tube in last 3 hours. Voiding dark amber urine without difficulty. Intake for last 24
hours is 2500mL. Output is 2000mL including urine and NG drainage. Febrile and diaphoretic; BP
130/80; pulse 88; urine specific gravity 1.035; serum ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pt.'s with NG tubes loose potassium through suctioning. Sodium of 140 is normal but on the higher
end which is indicative of dehydration. Chloride of 92 is a little low which is interesting because the
sodium is normal–high and usually chloride follows sodium. Mag of 1.4 is low maybe because of
low calcium.
4.) The physician is planning to place a percutaneous central line to infuse TPN. Which site is
recommend and why?
A percutaneous central line is entered into the patient's subclavian vein. Because TPN solution is
concentrated it is better to have CVC access in the subclavian vein so the solution has less distance
to travel to its destination. This reduces the risk of the line clotting or damaging the vein.
4b.) What are the nurse's responsibilities for placement of the central line?
The nurse is responsible for positioning the patient and should assess the patient throughout to see
how well he is tolerating it. If the patient is on a heart monitor, the nurse should monitor vital signs
and heart rate as the catheter is being put in for any fluctuations. Afterword's, the nurse should
assess for complications or adverse reactions like pneumothorax. Make the patient comfortable and
listen to bilateral breath sounds. Obtain a stat XRAY to verify correct placement.
The assessment includes: Date and time of procedure, name of provider, site of insertion, type of
fluid infusing in each lumen, blood

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Microencapsulation
MICROENCAPSULATION:
Novel drug delivery systems have numerous advantages over conventional multi dose therapy. In
developing novel drug delivery system considerable research work is focused on controlled release
and sustained release dosage forms. Now considerable efforts are being made to deliver the drug in
such a manner so as to get target benefits. One of such method is microencapsulation.
Microencapsulation is a process by which very tiny droplets or particles of liquid or solid material
are surrounded or coated with a continuous film of polymeric material. Microencapsulation is a
useful method to prolong, modify and delay drug release from pharmaceutical dosage forms and
reducing adverse effect. Microspheres form an important part of such novel drug ... Show more
Many drugs have been microencapsulated to reduce toxicity and GI irritation including ferrous
sulphate and KCl.
7. Microencapsulation has also been employed to change the site of absorption. This application has
been useful for those drugs which have the toxicity at lower pH.
Materials for microencapsulation:
Core material
The core material is the specific material to be coated, can be liquid or solid in nature. The
composition of the core material can be varied as the liquid core can include dispersed and/or
dissolved material. The solid core can be mixture of active constituents, stabilizers, diluents,
excipients and release–rate retardants or accelerators.
Coating materials
The selection of appropriate coating material decides the physical and chemical properties of the
resultant microcapsules/microspheres. The polymer should be capable of forming a film that is
cohesive with the core material. It should be chemically compatible, non–reactive with the core
material and provide the desired coating properties such as strength, flexibility, impermeability,
optical properties and stability. Generally hydrophilic polymers, hydrophobic polymers or
combination of both are used for the microencapsulation

The On Blood Brain Barrier
Blood Brain Barrier
One of the most important properties of BBB is that it separates the brain tissue from the blood
circulation of the CNS. By that it consists of three parts: the layer of endothelial cells connected
through tight junctions, basal membrane, and astrocytes and pericytes. Its main function is it only
select molecules to pass from the bloodstream into the fluid that bathes the brain, whereas vital
nutrients get in, toxins and pathogens are blocked. Formed by endothelial cells and epithelial cells
and contributing to the intercellular tight junction, BBB is the creation of a paracellular barrier for
ions, proteins and other solutes. The brain has to think a lot and do a lot of extracting necessary
ingredients such as oxygen and glucose in order for us to function and live and to do some activity
movements. Transporting proteins and drug delivery is one of those mechanism of the BBB in
which it allows important substances to pass through into the brain and spinal cord preventing a
blockage of certain materials into the CNS. In addition to endothelial cells, it depends on continuous
complexes of tight junctions that seals and prevent all but a few substances from squeezing between
barrier cells. A recent study stated that in order for substances to pass through the brain, specific
carrier mediated transport systems assist transport of nutrients such as glucose, galactose, small
peptides, and amines binds to specific membrane protein

Why Chloride Is Important For The Transport Of Negative...
Chloride channels are a structurally diverse superfamily of transmembrane proteins that facilitate
the transport of negative anions across the cell membrane. These channels are involved in a plethora
of physiological processes such as neurotransmission, excitation of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscle, salt transport, cell volume regulation, and acid production in internal and external
compartments. Families of these channels include the voltage–gated CLC family, calcium–activated
CaCC family, GABAA receptors, glycine receptors, and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator (CFTR). CFTR is an ATP–binding cassette (ABC) transporter that is
responsible for proper fluid transport across the epithelial membrane of various cells ... Show more
In the special case of CFTR, a single gene codes for 5 domains of the 1480 amino acid glycoprotein,
but homologous halves are linked by a unique regulatory domain (R) that acts as the binding site for
PKA giving the domain conformation of CFTR as TMD1–NBD1–R–NBD2–TMD2 (Gadsby et al.,
2006). For the movement of ions across the membrane, negatively charged ions, like chloride,
accrue near the positively charged ends of the 2 TMDs. The flow of these ions occurs down their
electrochemical gradient when the channel opens up (Linsdell, 2005). However, for this to occur,
PKA must first phosphorylate the R domain, to allow for the binding of ATP to the NBDs, nestled
within a Walker A motif. Once this occurs, the 2 NBDs dimerize causing a power stroke that brings
on the conformational change of the 2 TMDs and the opening of the chloride channel allowing for
the flow of ions. This conformational change is sustained until hydrolysis of one the ATPs occurs
(Furukawa–Hagiya et al., 2013). A graph showing the importance of PKA in CFTR opening and the
general mechanism of the channel opening can be observed in figure–1.
The nucleotide binding domain of CFTR contains many conserved motifs found in many other ABC
proteins. One of these motifs, the Walker A motif, is the catalytic binding site for ATP. A nearby
parallel β–sheet also contains a conserved motif, the Walker B motif. Another motif, important

Using Molecules Through A Semipermeable Membrane ( College...
George Shi Osmosis Lab Report
Abstract:
The purpose of this lab was to measure diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane
(College Entrance Examination Board, 2003). The bags, emerged in distilled water, with different
moles of sucrose mixed with water were measured by mass to see how much they had changed. The
water left in different amounts, during the thirty minutes the experiment was conducted, out of the
pores depending on the molarity of the sucrose inside the bags. The bags with the lower
concentrations of particles than its environment lost mass while the bags with equal concentrations
of particles stayed the same and the bags with higher concentrations of particles had increased mass.
Introduction:
Due to their constant motion, molecules have thermal energy and one results of this motion is
osmosis (Reece, Urry, Cain, Wassermann, Minorsky, and Jackson, 130). Osmosis occurs when
particles move through a selectively permeable membrane will not stop until the system it is in
reaches dynamic equilibrium, which is when the concentration of particles is equal throughout and
there is no net movement between the areas (Karp, 2013). In this experiment, the process of osmosis
was observed when different amounts of the same solute was placed in an environment of distilled
water. If the two solutions have the same solute concentration, the solutions are isotonic and no
osmosis will occur (Karp, 2013). If the solutions differ in concentration, the area

Importance Of Intracellular Bound Nucleus And Organelles...
Describe, using named examples and annotated diagrams where appropriate, membrane–bound
nucleus and organelles within eukaryotes cells; explain evolutionary advantages of intracellular
compartmentalization.
Living cells are the functional biological building blocks of animals. They come together to form
complex organic tissues, organs, and whole bodies, as well as some of these organisms themselves
existing in a unicellular form. Cells vary in size and dimension, with Eukaryotes ranging from
1x10–3m to 1x10–4m in length, whilst the smaller and less structurally complex Prokaryotes exist
between measurements of 1x10–4m to 1x10–7m in length. This size is contained by the cell
membrane; providing surface area, whilst the three–dimensional formations offer volume to the cell,
which comes from the structural sum of all constituents present in the cytoplasm.
Cells have evolved; they are small in order to benefit from a large surface area to volume ratio. An
increased surface area is very advantageous as it allows more sites for protein carriers to transport
nutrients into the cell, as well as encouraging more biochemical reactions on the surface, and across
the membrane. With both Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes having ability to transport multiple nutrients
and molecules into the cell, a range of reactions can take place within these cells. All the vital
catalysts, reactants and reagents required to make use of these transported substances are in the
cytoplasm of both types of

Ebola Epidemic : A Deadly Disease Caused By Five Different...
History The Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever is a deadly disease caused by five different strains of the
Ebola viruses. Whilst the Reston virus only causes illness in animals, the rest cause severe illness in
humans and animals (Stanford Edu, 2014). The Ebola virus was discovered in 1976 in the
Congolese rainforest in central Africa, by a young Belgian scientist named Peter Piot (BBC News,
2014). Piot discovered the first known strain of Ebola, known as Ebola – Sudan (SUDV). Ebola–
Sudan was discovered in the regions of Sudan and Zaire in Africa, with a mortality rate of 53%. A
few months late the second strain of Ebola emerged, known as Ebola – Zaire (EBOZ), and had a
high mortality rate of 88% (CNN, 2014). Throughout the years up until 2014 there have been over
10 Ebola epidemics that have killed more than 3,600 people, mainly in African countries (REF).
However, the 2014 Ebola epidemic is the largest in history, affecting multiple countries. As of
September, around 2,000 people had died from the disease, and as of early November there had
been nearly 5000 deaths (CDC, 2014). The Ebola Virus needs to be addressed as it is beginning to
spread to other countries, and with no cure this will result in alarming death rates (Prevention,
2014). The Centre of Disease Control and Prevention is predicting up to 21,000 cases by early next
year (Stanford edu, 2014). Figure 1: Timeline of Deaths due to the Ebola Virus Structure The
structure and pathogenesis of the Ebola virus is

To Study the Effect of Different Brands of Mouth Rinse on...
Practical Assessment Planning AIM甜菜根細胞中含有紅色素，這是儲存在細胞液泡和液泡
膜，以防止這種洩漏出來的細胞包圍它。 Beetroot cells contain a red pigment, which is stored
in the cell vacuole and a vacuole membrane to prevent this leaking out of the cell surrounds it. 最外
層的細胞周圍也由膜，這再次可使色素細胞內。 The outer of the cell is also surrounded by a
membrane, which again helps contain the pigment inside the cell. 在這個實驗中我的目標是找出
關係的漏從甜菜紅色素細胞和表面面積。 In this experiment I aim to find out the relationship
between the leakage of red pigment from a beetroot cell and the surface area. 要做到這一點成功，
我需要改變表面面積的甜菜根細胞，然後準確地測量，如果沒有多少染料租出。 To do this
successfully I will need to alter the surface area of the beetroot cells accurately and then measure if
any and how much dye is let out. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
變數，這將被改變，被稱為自變量。 The variables, which will be altered, are known as
independent variables. 變數，這將是衡量，被稱為因變量。 The variables, which will be
measure, are known as dependant variables. 在這個實驗中的自變量是表面面積，這將有所改
變。 In this experiment the independent variable is the surface area, which will be changed. 因變量
是洩漏的染料，這將是衡量找到兩者之間的關係。 The dependant variable is the leakage of
dye, which will be measured to find a relationship between the two. 也有其他因素在本實驗中，
這將需要進行控制，以防止它成為一個不公平的測試，它們是： – There are also other
variables in this experiment, which will need to be controlled to prevent it becoming an unfair test,
these are: – 溫度 – 由於這一事實，即膜是由蛋白質，溫度是一個非常重要的因素。
Temperature – Due to the fact that membranes are made of proteins, temperature is a very important
factor. 在溫度高於 50 ° C蛋白開始被摧毀，這將增加透氣性，因此雙方的細胞壁和液泡牆。
At temperatures above approximately 50°C proteins begin to get destroyed; this would therefore
increase the permeability of both the cell wall and the vacuole wall. 這將使我們無法分辨它是否
是改變表面積或溫度造成任何改變染料洩漏。 This would make it impossible for us to
distinguish as to whether it was the change in surface area or the temperature that caused any
change in dye leakage. 由於這個原因，用水將在室溫（23 °左右），將在同一天進行，讓沒有
任何差異保證金。 For this reason the water used will be at room temperature (23° approx) and
will be performed on the same day to allow no margin for any discrepancies. 時間 – 時間是一個重
要因素。 Time – Time is an important factor. 當離開甜菜根在試管中，必須確保它們在水中整
整20分鐘。 When leaving the beetroot in the test tubes it must be ensured

Fluid Concept Project Part 2
Fluid Concept Project Part 2
Shaneza Toro, SN
Scott and White College of Nursing
University of Mary Hardin–Baylor
Fluid Concept Project Part 2 Fluids and electrolytes are vital to human life. The concept of grasping
how they play a great role within the human body is complex and delicate; however, it is also
essential in determining what fluid does what and how exactly it effects the cells of the human body.
As Trakalo (2015) states, "water serves as a medium for metabolic reactions within cells; transports
nutrients, waste products, and other substances; acts as a lubricant; an insulator and shock absorber;
and regulates body temperature" (p.336). In this essay, the discussion will entail the major fluid
compartments of the body, the percentage of fluids contained in each compartment, active and
passive transport, osmosis and diffusion, filtration, hydrostatic and oncotic/osmotic pressure, a
description of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic fluids, the effects of fluid administration and the
classification of all major IV fluids and blood product tonicity.
Major Fluid Compartments and percentage of body fluids
First, it is essential to understand major fluid compartments in the body. There are two major fluid
compartments called: Intracellular fluid and Extracellular fluid. Both Intracellular and Extracellular
fluids are very vital to cell functioning. They contain solutes, which dissolve in liquid easily such as:
Oxygen, electrolytes and glucose and

Ernst Von Bergmann

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

More from Marcy Gilman

More from Marcy Gilman (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Ernst Von Bergmann