Factors affecting cultivation

Factors Affecting Cultivation
By
Dr Gana Manjusha Kondepudi
Associate Professor
Vignan Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology
VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY

Factors
affecting
Cultivation
Climatic or
External
factors
Other
factors
Biotic
factors
Edaphic or
Soil factors

Altitude
Wind
Temperature
Day length &
Radiation
Characteristics
Rainfall &
Irrigation
Systems
Humidity
Distance from
Sea

Edaphic or soil
factors
Types of Soil and
soil fertility

Biotic Factors
Fertilizers
Seed
Treatment
Preparation
of land for
sowing layout
Plant
hormones
Types of
Planting of
Seedlings

Other factors
Pests and pest
control

Altitude
•Altitude is a very important factor in
cultivation of medicinal plants.
•Tea, cinchona and eucalyptus are
cultivated favour-ably at an altitude
of 1,000–2,000 metres.
•Cinnamon and cardamom are grown
at a height of 500–1000 metres,
while senna can be cultivated at sea
level.

Wind
•Increases the transpiration.
•Wind is useful in
disseminating seeds, fruits of
plants having some kind of
appendages.
•Very strong and dry wind is
dangerous to plant
specifically to the young
seedlings.

Temperature
• Temperature is a crucial factor
controlling the growth, metabolism
and there by the yield of secondary
metabolites of plants.
•Even though each species has
become adapted to its own natural
environment, they are able to exist in
a considerable range of temperature.
•Many plants will grow better in
temperate regions during summer,
but they lack in resistance to
withstand frost in winter.

Rainfall
•Different regions of earth
receive different quantities of
rainfall depending upon
geographical features.
•Majority of the plants need
sufficient amount of rainfall for
the growth.
•The xerophytic plants like aloe,
acacia and others require less
rainfall or moisture in the soil.
Irrigation
•When the moisture level in the
soil is below 10-15%, the
medicinal plants are irrigated for
their proper growth.
Humidity
•affects cultivation of plants.
•Saffron needs only cold climate
and pyrethrum requires dry
weather for cultivation.

Day – length and radiation characteristics
•lights play an important role in photosynthesis. Light in some plants
determines the content of constituents.
•It has been proved that even the length of the day has an effect
over the metabolites production.
•The plants that are kept in long day conditions may contain more or
less amount of constituents when compared to the plants kept in
short day.
•For example peppermint has produced menthone, menthol and
traces of menthofuran in long day conditions and only menthofuran
in short day condition.

•The developments of plants vary much in both the
amount and intensity of the light they require.
•The wild grown plants would meet the required
conditions and so they grow but during cultivation we
have to fulfill the requirements of plants.
•The day light was found to increase the amount of
alkaloids in belladonna, stramonium, cinchona, etc.
•Even the type of radiation too has an effect over the
development and metabolites of plants.

Distance from sea
At the seashore the
climate is equitable
which is more suitable
for some plants. E.g.
coconut, clove, Black
pepper, nutmeg etc.

Seed treatment
• The seed is treated for different purposes before sowing. E.g. the seed is
treated with pesticide or fungicide with proper dose to avoid pests or diseases in
the growth period.
•Some seeds are soaked in cold or hot water for a day or two for facilitate the
easy germination of seeds. E.g. castor seeds and other slow germinating seeds.
•Alternatively testa is partially removed by grindstone or by pounding seeds with
coarse sand e.g. Indian senna.
•Sometimes seeds are soaked in sulphuric acid e.g. henbane seeds.
•Sometimes a chemical treatment is given with stimulants like gibberellins,
cytokinins, ethylene, thiourea, potassium nitrate or sodium hypochlorite.
Gibberellic acid (GA3) promotes germination of some type of dormant seeds and
stimulates the seedling growth.
•Many freshly harvested dormant seeds germinate better after soaking in
potassium nitrate solution.
•Thiourea is used for those seeds which do not germinate in dark or at high
temperatures.

Preparation of land for sowing-
layout
•According to the crop or the
seedlings of the plants the specific
layout is followed. E.g. sugarcane
requires ridges and furrows at
120cms.
•Big trees are planted by seed or
seedlings at a specific distance
between two rows and between
two plants of the same row
according to the plants.
Types of planting of seedlings
•According to the land, soil type,
season, variety of crude drugs is
plantation.
•The different methods are used for
seedling such as mixed cropping,
alternate row sowing, strip
cropping, broad-costing and chain
cropping, multi-tier agricultural
system of planting.

Soil
•Each and every plant species have its own soil and nutritive requirements.
•The three important basic characteristics of soils are their physical, chemical
and microbiological properties.
•Soil provides mechanical support, water and essential foods for the
development of plants.
•Soil consists of air, water, mineral matters and organic matters.
•Variations in particle size result in different soils ranging from clay, sand and
gravel. Particle size influences the water holding capacity of soil.
•The type and amount of minerals plays a vital role in plant cultivation.
Calcium favours the growth of certain plants whereas with some plants it
does not produce any effects.
The plants are able to determine their own soil pH range for their growth;
microbes should be taken in to consideration which grows well in certain pH.
Nitrogen containing soil has a great momentum in raising the production of
alkaloids in some plants.

Soil fertility: The capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients in
quantities and proportions required and to provide a suitable
medium for plant growth is known soil fertility. If cropping is
done without fortification of soil with plant nutrients, soil
fertility gets lost.

It is the mineral matter
which makes a lot of
difference in various forms
of soil.
Mineral matter may be
coarse gravel, coarse sand
or in the form of finest
particles of clay and silt.
Clay soil consists of finest
particles which provides the soil
adhesive and cohesive properties
and also holds plant nutrients with
the result that nutrients are not
lost through leaching.
Air and water give rise to pores
while purified and decayed plant
and animal parts constitute the
organic matter.

Any type of soil are
containing less than 0.5 of
organic matter is described
as poor.
If more than 1.5 to 5% of
organic matter is present,
it is described as rich soil.
A soil good for plant
growth should have half of
the pores spaces filled
with water and the rest
with air, since good
aeration is essential for
root development

The pH of soil decides
favorable growth of plants
and presence of micro-
organisms.
The maximum
availability of plant
nutrients is in between the
pH range of 6.5 to 7.5.
To bring the pH to
neutral, acidic soils can be
limed or alkaline soils can
be reclaimed by
application of gypsum.
Acidic soils are not
suitable for leguminous
plants due to poor
development of nodular
bacteria.

Therefore, groundnut,
sunflower seeds, cotton
and rice grow better in
alkaline soils only.
Acidic pH is
disadvantageous as it
solublizes more iron.
Some of the plants like
tobacco, cinchona, tea and
potato grow well only in acidic
soils.
In alkaline soils, phosphorus
is converted to insoluble forms
of calcium phosphate and so it
cannot be made available to
aforementioned plants.

Fertilizers and Manures
Plant also needs food for their growth and development. What
plants need basically for their growth are the carbon dioxide,
sun-rays, water and mineral matter from the soil.
Thus, it is seen that with limited number of chemical
elements, plants build up fruits, grains, fibres, etc. and
synthesize fixed and volatile oils, glycosides, alkaloids, sugar and
many more chemicals.

Chemical fertilizers
 Plants are need of 16 nutrient elements for synthesizing various
compounds.
Some of them are known as primary nutrients nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium.
Magnesium, calcium and sulphur are required in small
quantities and hence they are known as secondary nutrients.
Trace elements like copper, manganese, iron, boron,
molybdenum and zinc are also necessary for plant growth.
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine are provided to plants
from water and air.
 Every element has to perform some specific function in growth
and development of plants. Its deficiency is also characterized by
certain symptoms.

Manures
Farm yard manure(FYM), poultry
manures, and karanj seed cakes vermi
compost etc. are manures.
 Oil cake and compost normally
consist of 3 to 6% of nitrogen, 2%
phosphates and potash 1 to 1.5%
potash.
They are made easily available to
plants.
Bone meal, fishmeal, biogas slurry,
blood meal and press mud are the
other forms of organic fertilizers.
Bio-fertilizers
These consist of different
types of micro-organisms or
lower organisms which fix the
atmospheric nitrogen in soil and
plants can use them for their
day to day use.
 Thus, they are symbiotic. E.g.
Rhizobium, Azotobactor,
Azosperillium and Blue-green
algae.

Pests and Pests Control
Pests are undesired plant or animal species that causes a great
damage to the plants. There are different types of pests; they are
microbes, insects, non insect pests and weeds.

Microbes
They include fungi, bacteria and viruses. Armillaria Root Rot
(Oak Root Fungus) is a disease caused by fungi Armillaria
mellea (Marasmiaceae) and in this the infected plant become
nonproductive and very frequently dies within two to four years.
Plants develop weak, shorter shoots as they are infected by
the pathogen.
Dark, root-like structures (rhizomorphs), grow into the soil
after symptoms develop on plants. The fungus is favoured by soil
that is continually damp.

Powdery mildew is another disease caused by fungus Uncinula
necato on leaves, where chlorotic spots appear on the upper
surface of leaf.
On fruit the pathogen appears as white, powdery masses that
may colonize the entire berry surface.
Summer Bunch Rot is a disease in which masses of black,
brown, or green spores develop on the surface of infected
berries caused by a variety microbes like Aspergillus niger,
Alternaria tenuis, Botrytis cinerea, Cladosporium herbarum,
Rhizopus arrhizus, Penicillium sp., and others.

Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst. Belonging to
family Fomitopsidaceae causes a diseases known as red-belted
fungus.
Several other fungi attacks the medicinal plants, like Pythium
pinosurn causes pythium rhizome rot, Septoria digitalis causing
leaf spot, little leaf disease by Phyphthora cinnamomi Rands
(Pythiaceae), etc.

Crown gall disease caused by Agrobacterium
tumefaciens (Rhizobiaceae).
Galls may be produced on canes, trunks, roots, and cordons
and may grow to several inches in diameter.
Internally galls are soft and have the appearance of
disorganized tissue.
 The pathogen can be transmitted by any agent that contacts
the contaminated material. Galls commonly develop where
plants have been injured during cultivation or pruning.
 Xylella fastidiosa is a bacterium causes Pierce’s Disease, in
this leaves become slightly yellow or red along margins and
eventually leaf margins dry or die.

Many viruses are also reported to cause necrosis of leaves,
petioles and stems, they are tobacco mosaic virus, mosaic virus,
cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco ring spot virus, yellow vein
mosaic, etc.
Controlling techniques: Chemical fumigation of the soil,
fungicide, bactericide, pruning, proper water and fertilizer
management, good sanitation, heat treatment of planting stock,
cut and remove the infected parts, genetically manipulating the
plants for producing plants to resist fungi and bacteria are
practices that are used to prevent or minimize the effects
produced by microbes.

Insects
Ants, they are of different varieties, Argentine ant: Linepithema
humile, Gray ants: Formica aerata and Formica
perpilosa, Pavement ant: Tetramorium caespitum., Southern fire
ant: Solenopsis xyloni, Thief ant: Solenopsis molesta, they
spoil the soil by making nest and they feed honey dew secreted
in plants.

Branch and Twig Borer (Melalgus confertus) burrow into the
canes through the base of the bud or into the crotch formed by
the shoot and spur. Feeding is often deep enough to completely
conceal the adult in the hole. When shoots reach a length of 10–
12 inches, a strong wind can cause the infected parts to twist
and break.
The click beetle (Limonius canus) can feed on buds.
Cutworms (Peridroma saucia) (Amathes c-nigrum) (Orthndes
rufula) injures the buds and so the buds may not develop.
Leafhoppers (Erythroneura elegantuhi) (Erythroneum
variabilis) remove the contents of leaf cells, leaving behind
empty cells that appear as pale yellow spots.

Oak twig pruners (Anelaphiis spp. Linsley) are known as shoot,
twig and root insects that affects the above mentioned parts.
Controlling techniques: Tilling the soil will also affects the
nesting sites of ants and help to reduce their populations,
collection and destruction of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults of
insects, trapping the insects, insecticides, creating a situation to
compete among males for mating with females, cutworms can
be prevented by natural enemies like, predaceous or parasitic
insects, mammals, parasitic nematodes, pathogens, birds, and
reptiles,

Non insect pests
They are divided in to vertebrates and invertebrates. Ver-tebrates that
disrupt the plants are monkeys, rats, birds, squirrels, etc. Non vertebrates
are, Webspinning Spider Mites (Tetranychuspacificus) (Eotetranychus
willamettei) (Tetrany-chus urticae) causes discoloration in leaves and yellow
spots. Nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) (Xiphinema
americanutri) (Criconemella xenoplax) produces giant cell formation, dis-
turbs the uptake of nutrients and water, and interferes with plant growth,
crabs, snails are the other few invertebrates that causes trouble to the
plant.
Controlling techniques: Construction of concrete ware houses, traps,
biological methods, rodenticides, etc.

Weeds
Weeds reduce growth and yields of plants by competing for
water, nutrients, and sunlight.
 Weed control enhances the establishment of new plants and
improves the growth and yield of established plants.
The skilled persons have many weed management tools
available to achieve these objectives; however, the methods of
using these tools vary from year to year and from place to place.

Soil characteristics are important to weed management. Soil
texture and organic matter influence the weed species that are
present, the number and timing of cultivations required, and the
activity of herbicides.
Annual species, such as puncturevine, crabgrass, horseweed,
and Panicum spp., or perennials like johnsongrass, nutsedge,
and bermudagrass are more prevalent on light-textured soil
while perenni-als such as curly dock, field bindweed, and
dallisgrass are more common on heavier-textured soils.

Less pre emergent herbicide is required for weed control on
sandy, light soils, but residual control may be shorter than on
clay or clay loam soils.
Use low rates of herbicide on sandy soils or those low in
organic matter.
Clay soils are slower to dry for effective cultivation than sandy
loam soils; thus, more frequent cultivation is practiced on lighter
soils than heavy soils.

Few common weeds are, Bermudagrass, It is a vigorous
spring- and summer-growing perennial. It grows from seed but
its extensive system of rhizomes and stolons can also be spread
during cultivation
Dallisgrass, It is a common perennial weed that can be highly
competitive in newly planted plants; in established plants area it
competes for soil moisture and nutrients. Dallisgrass seedlings
germinate in spring and summer, and form new plants on short
rhizomes that developed from the original root system.
other weeds are pigweeds Amaranthus spp. pineapple-
weed Chamomilla suaveolens, nightshades Solanum spp., etc.

Apart from these, Parasitic and Epiphytic Plants like dodder
(Cuscuta spp. L.), mistletoe (Phoradendron spp. Nutt.), American
squawroot (Conopholis americana), etc., too affects the growth
of plants,
Controlling techniques: Use of low rates of
herbicides: Herbicides are traditionally discussed as two groups:
those that are active against germinating weed seeds
(preemergent herbicides) and those that are active on growing
plants (postemergent herbicides). Some herbicides have both
pre-and postemergent activity. Herbicides vary in their ability to
control different weed species.

Pre emergent herbicides are active in the soil against
germinating weed seedlings.
 These herbicides are applied to bare soil and are leached into
the soil with rain or irrigation where they affect germinating
weed seeds.
If herbicides remain on the soil surface without incorporation,
some will degrade rapidly from sunlight.
Weeds that emerge while the herbicide is on the surface,
before it is activated by rain or irrigation, will not be controlled.
Post emergent herbicides are applied to control weeds already
growing in the vineyard.

They can be combined with pre emergent herbicides or
applied as spot treatments during the growing season.
In newly planted plants, selective post emergent herbicides
are available for the control of most annual and perennial
grasses, but not broadleaf weeds.
Frequent wetting of the soil promotes more rapid herbicide
degradation in the soil. Herbicide degradation is generally faster
in moist, warm soils than in dry, cold soils.

GENERAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
Mechanical method
It employs manual
labour along with
different devices for
collection and
destruction of pest.
The simple techniques
used are hand-picking,
pruning, burning and
trapping of pests.

Agricultural method
It covers advanced plant
breeding techniques
capable of inducing genetic
manipulations in
production of pest
resistant species.

Biological method
This method is practiced
by combating the pests,
mostly the insects with
other living organisms. If
this method is properly
designed, it may emerge as
an effective, safe and
economic method of pest
control.

Chemical method
The control of pests is brought
about with the use of chemical
pesticides including insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides,
rodenticides and acaricides.
The pesticides are applied to
vegetative parts for protective or
eradicate activity in the form of
spray, aerosol, solution,
suspensions and fine dust

I. Rodenticides: strychnine, red squill, arsenic trioxide
II. Insecticides: D.D.T., pyrethroids, rotenoids, carbamates,
methoxychlor, parathion, Malathion etc.
III. Acaricides: chlorobenzolate
IV. Fungicides: Antibiotics, chlorophenols, quaternary
ammonium compounds etc.
V. Herbicides: 2, 4- dichlorophenoxy acetic acid, sulphuric acid

THANK YOU

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