Surgical Oncologist

Surgical Oncologist
Surgery is the enucleation of the tumor and surrounding tissue from the body. Surgical oncologist is
a doctor who specializes in removing the tumor through surgery. Surgery is the oldest form of the
cancer therapy and the most widespread and effective type of treatment for many cancers today.
There are many ways to use surgery as treatment, but the most common ways are : – To remove the
cancer utterly
– To relive symptoms ( palliation)
– To remove part of the tumor( Debulking )
– To prevent or lessen the risk of having cancer
To remove the cancer utterly.
It is known as the most common type of cancer surgery that it is used to remove the tumor and some
normal tissue surrounding the tumor. This normal tissue is called a clear
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Clinical Trials And Thyroid Cancer
Clinical Trials and Thyroid Cancer: Thyroid cancer is often recurrent and difficult to treat. As a
result, patients have been taking part in clinical trials of new and innovative treatments. Clinical
trials are defined as carefully controlled research studies that are done with volunteer patients.
Differentiated thyroid cancer, as explained in a previous section, can be divided into papillary,
follicular, and Hürthle cell arising from follicular cells. The hallmark of follicular thyroid cells is the
active uptake of iodine from the bloodstream with organification (meaning the iodine has a
reasonably long residence time)18. Even with the most aggressive form of RAI treatment, some
patients do not achieve control of the tumor, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pryma and Mandel concluded that, "Numerous pathways have been shown to be aberrant in a
significant fraction of patients with iodine–refractory advanced thyroid cancer and several therapies
targeting these pathways have been tested or are actively being tested in clinical trials".16 (Figure
6). Figure 6 | Pathways for Clinical Trials Pryma and Mandel also examined radioiodine as a,
"prototypical theranostic agent permitting both imaging and therapy"18. The researchers are hopeful
that the therapeutic refinement of RAI treatment will permit decreased (or absent) dose (and
decreased toxicity) in the patients who are destined to do well, increased dose in the patients who
will benefit from treatment, and more appropriate discontinuation or modification of therapy in
those unlikely to benefit from single–agent radioiodine therapy18. It is important to note that in
clinical trials for patients with iodine–refractory disease, radioiodine is still highly effective in
patients with metastatic differentiated thyroid cancer and should still be used18. Overall, the future
of therapy in advanced differentiated thyroid cancer is likely to include multiagent treatment18.
Clinical trials and research have also focused in on patients with Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
(FAP). FAP is an autosomal dominant syndrome with a predisposition for colorectal cancer19.
Lifetime risk of thyroid

Guide To Living With An Ileostomy : Article Review
Guide to Living with an Ileostomy targets young to middle–aged adults that have bowel pathologies
and therefore, require surgery to create an ileotomy. More specifically, it targets young Canadian
adults aged between 20 to 50 years old, who require surgery for both inflamed bowel diseases such
as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, or for familial adenomatous polyposis, cancer, trauma or
birth defects. According to Bastable (2014) "health promotion is the most neglected aspect young
adulthood stage (20–40) & readiness to learn needs to be actively fostered through experiences the
nurse initiates based on individualized needs" (p.193). Bastable (2014) explains that in young
adults, teaching strategies must be directed at encouraging ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
For example, the authors stress the importance of drinking a lot of fluid prior to the surgery to
prevent dehydration. By giving a specific rational to each instruction, this increases adherence of the
reader.
Moreover, the instructional material uses complex terminology throughout the text, which indicates
the obvious target age categories are individuals with a higher level of educational background such
as, younger and middle–aged adults. In contrary, the material is not suitable for children under 16
years of age. Children learn best when instructional materials are presented in a storybook fashion
that pertains many visual cues or if teaching reflects the social cognitivism theory like Bandura's
(1961) Bobo doll theory.
Guide to Living with an Ileostomy (2007) mentions that "most Canadian provinces have health care
plans to help offset the cost of ostomy appliances and pouch systems" (The Canadian Association
for Enterostomal Therapy, 2007, p. 4). Thus, further highlighting the notion that this guide is
targeting middle–age adults of all socio–economical levels because for the most part, every
Canadian citizen has access to healthcare in Canada. Factors that influence health literacy levels
include; education, culture and language, living and working conditions, aging, early childhood
development Kanj & Mitic (2009). The article Health Literacy and Health Promotion: elaborates on
the notion that; "improving health literacy is a fundamental component to

Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Syndrome Essay
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Syndrome
Imagine having an almost 100% chance of developing colon cancer. That is what people are told
with Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) if they do not have their over 100 polyps, or growths,
removed. FAP is a genetic disorder where normal cells that line your large intestine can grow into
cancerous tumors. These tumors must be removed before they become cancerous. This disorder is
passed down from parents on the APC gene which is on your fifth chromosome. If the APC gene is
mutated you are more likely to develop these growths which lead to cancer in your lifetime. This
disorder has an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, which means if either parent has just one
dominant mutated APC gene you have a 50% chance of inheriting it. Symptoms of FAP do not just
include the growths in your colon. They can also include skin changes, osteomas or bone growths,
and extra or missing teeth. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis is typically diagnosed when a doctor
finds multiple polyps in your colon or large intestine. A person with more than 100 polyps is
considered to have FAP. A blood test is then done to look for the mutated APC gene. Since you have
an almost 100% chance of getting cancer from the growths the treatment is to have them ... Show
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The annual tests and polyp removals take time and money. There is also a constant fear that one of
the polyps may be missed and turn into cancer. Exercise can help keep your stress level down. In the
United States, it is estimated that 1 in 6,850 – 31,250 people will get FAP. A child who has a parent
with the mutation has a 50% chance of inheriting FAP since it is a dominant disorder. This is
definitely a negative mutation as it increases your chances of getting cancer in your lifetime. Many
people die from cancer each year. If you ever find out you have numerous colon growths, be sure to
have them checked out so see if you have Familial Adenomatous

Cancer Research Paper
Cancer: Silent Killer
By:
Wynne Michael David S. Gogo
Submitted to:
Ms. Katrina Q. Sundo
Abstract
Cancer nowadays is very widespread.
But what is cancer?
Cancer, known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all
involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming
malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant
parts of the body through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. Not all tumors are cancerous.
Benign tumors do not grow uncontrollably, do not invade neighboring tissues, and do not spread
throughout the body.
There are many ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Reviews of Related Literature
According to Olivia Newton–John "My cancer scare changed my life. I'm grateful for every new,
healthy day I have. It has helped me prioritize my life."
According to Joel Siegel "What cancer does is, it forces you to focus, to prioritize, and you learn
what's important. I mean, I don't sweat the small stuff. I used to get angry at cab drivers. It's not
worth it.... And when somebody says you have cancer, you realize it's all small stuff. And if it
weren't for the downside, everyone would want to have it. But there is a downside."
According to Melissa Bank "During chemo, you're more tired than you've ever been. It's like a cloud
passing over the sun, and suddenly you're out. But you also find that you're stronger than you've
ever been. You're clear. Your mortality is at optimal distance, not up so close that it obscures

everything else, but close enough to give you depth perception. Previously, it has taken you weeks,
months, or years to discover the meaning of an experience. Now it's instantaneous."
Methodology
I used survey method by giving them some questionnaires and tried to ask some patients having
cancer. I gave them some questions and let them answer the questionnaire. After that I had an actual
interview with some of the patients.
Findings
I. Biographic data
Name: Beth Gomez Address: Jones Avenue, Cebu City 6000 Cebu

Pathological Correlation Report- Jack 's Case
Clinico–pathological correlation report– Jack's case
Introduction
This report is of a 20 year old man who is normally fit and well and is currently studying law, plays
football for his university team but has noticed some changes in his health over the last couple of
months. These changes include: blood in his stool diarrhoea weight loss without conscious
intervention tiredness Several conditions can be related to the symptoms shown by our patient.
Making a differential diagnosis, we can be reassured that Jack is suffering from a lower GI bleed
with results from the per rectum examination confirming a colonic source. The cause of the bleed as
well as other symptoms displayed may be as a result of several conditions such as ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This condition is known as the familial adenomatous polyposis which one of the main precursors to
the development of colorectal cancer (P, 2013). This condition is inherited and is as a result of a
genetic mutation in the gene that codes for the APC protein (a tumour suppressor gene). It starts out
as a benign tumour but has the tendency to progress onto a malignant form as in the case of our
patient. (Flemming et al., 2012).
Biopsies from this site revealed the following results:
ImageThis histological view is showing an elevation in the number of cells and glands from the
mucosa in comparison to a normal person's colonic mucosa per unit area. However, the cells seem
to remain at the site of origin of proliferation (well circumscribed) without any evidence of
metastasis suggesting that the tumour is still in its benign form such as the FAP.
ImageA higher power view showing that the cells do not display any structural abnormality and the
tumour is seen to have well shaped glands which possess several nuclei, further proving that the
tumour is still in its benign stage.
Images from the second site:
ImageThis image is showing the appearance of colon cancer as seen via colonoscopy. Further proof
comes from the biopsy taken from this site shown below.
ImageThis is a histological view of the biopsy taken from the second site of Jack's colon. This

Erikson Last Stage Essay
In Erikson young adult stage is called intimacy vs. inferiority which where young adults build
strong friendships and loving relationships and inferiority is the fear to having relationships
(Feldman, 2014). This stage last to about the age thirty and Erikson believed that in this stage the
individual gives up on their need to help someone who is in needs more continue developing a
serious relationship with their future partner (Feldman, 2014). This is the last stage that will be
discussed because this it the stage Laurie is in right now. Laurie has developed strong long lasting
friendships over the year but more in the last few years. As mention above Laurie loves to help
others and after nursing school she start a non–profit called "You ... Show more content on
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As a Christian, Laurie believes that she should serve the Lord who called her to start this program.
She has a strong relationship with Jesus Christ and she believes that because of this her faith in him
as built her into the person she is today. Her relationship began with him in her teenager years but
continue to grow stronger in her young adult period. Being very spiritual helps a person to develop
and expresses him or herself (Muller, 2010). Laurie has develop many true friendship which, can be
shown recently due to Laurie was diagnosed with Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP), which is
really rare to have and was inherited from her father that causes colon cancer. Due to FAP
sometimes impact relationships, a marriage, employment, and social activities (Mireskandari, et al.,
2009). This could impact this development stages with relationships. With two emergency surgeries
she is recovering well with a supportive family and friends by her side with no impact at all. At this
time Laurie has not found sufficient other, but at this time it is not her focus. So for this stage, she is
successful with caring for others and having close relationships with others, but has not fished this
stage as of yet according to Erikson

Adrenocortical Carcinomas
TERMINOLOGY 1z CLINICAL CLARIFICATION Adrenocortical carcinomas are malignant
neoplasms originating from the epithelial cells of the adrenal gland. They can be hormone producing
or non–functioning CLASSIFICATION Adrenocortical carcinoma, non–Functioning Adrenocortical
carcinoma, cortisol producing Adrenocortical carcinoma, androgen producing Adrenocortical
carcinoma, aldosterone producing Adrenocortical carcinoma, producing multiple hormones
Malignant pheochromocytoma, metanephrine producing Staging (European Network for the Study
of Adrenal Tumors): o Stage 1:Tumor confined to adrenal gland, 5 em o Stage 2: Tumor confined to
adrenal gland, >5 em o Stage 3: Extension of tumor into surrounding tissues or involving regional ...
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– Due to the presence of internal hemorrhage, necrosis, and calcifications, these tumors tend to vary
in appearance with frequent heterogeneous enhancement. They are bilateral in 2% to 10% of cases.
– Metastases to the liver, lungs, or lymph nodes can be seen, and invasion of adjacent organs or
venous extension into the renal vein and/or inferior vena cava may be

Ethical Issues In Genetic Research
As the effects of genes on human physiology and disease are increasingly being examined in
laboratories and clinics across the world, the discussion surrounding informing the family members
of tested patients needs to be explored. Previous research has discovered that certain genetic
mutations can predict with a high degree of accuracy the rate of occurrence of disease not only in
the tested participant but in the family as a whole. One such genetic mutation is a change in the
Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC) gene and a corresponding increase in the rate of occurrence of
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP). Researchers need to address the question of whether or not
to inform the family members of a participant if one of these genes is discovered. In this paper, we
discuss whether the researchers have the ethical responsibility to inform the family of a tested
participant's APC status and the implications that will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These adenomatous colorectal polyps will eventually develop into colorectal cancer if a
prophylactic colostomy is not completed [2]. FAP affects both sexes equally with an incidence rate
of 1/8300 [3]. A mutation in the APC gene causes 60% of FAP [4]. In people with the APC mutation
there is an almost 100% chance colorectal cancer will appear by the age of forty years without
treatment [5]. FAP is an autosomal dominant syndrome, and thus the offspring of an affected parent
has a 50% risk of inheriting the defective APC gene [3]. With genetic testing of his parents, a child's
risk of developing late–stage cancer is significantly reduced due to the increased detection of early
stage polyps [6]. Due to this, the psychological, moral and ethical issues associated with genetic
testing and the subsequent reporting of the results to the family members of those tested must be
considered due to the ethical dilemmas this

What Are The Causes Of Desmoid Tumors
The most common causes linked to desmoid tumors are genetics. Parents pass on the inherited gene
called beta catenin to the offspring. Another form of this mutated genes causing this condition are
associated with familial adenomatous polyposis is an inherited form of colon cancer.
In some cases, the tumor does occur randomly with no association to genetics or other existing
health conditions. These forms are described as sporadic and generally don't spread to other parts of
the body, unlike an aggressive fibromatosis condition also referred to as desmoid tumors outside the
abdomen.
The high levels of hormones during pregnancy raise the risks desmoid tumors. In this stance, the
cause of the tumor is a result of the abdominal wall expanding to accommodate the developing
fetus. Other causes of these tumors during pregnancy are linked to the excessive amounts of
hormonal changes affecting the immune system allowing the development of tumors. ... Show more
Science shows and medical treats lifestyle conditions that contribute to desmoid tumors by reducing
excessive quantities of acid we ingest. Eating a healthier diet with fewer acidic foods and beverages
like alcohol, carbonated drinks and limiting our intake of coffee and teas can help to lessen the

Colon Cancer: A Lifestyle/Genetic Disease
The recognised colon cancer is a lifestyle/genetic disease is ultimately developed from the inner
lining of the bowel, followed by growths called polyps which can become invasive cancer if
undetected. The disease has become more familiar in Australia and occurs more commonly in
people over the age of 50. The symptoms are simple to pinpoint, so it is easy to diagnose the cancer
quickly and begin treatment. However, while the condition cannot be prevented it can be easily
reduced and strategies are available to stop the cancer in its tracks.
The people who are most at risk of getting colon cancer are the people past the age of 50, both men
and women. Statistics say that 14,957 cases were diagnosed (in 2012) and the risk of being
diagnosed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To do this, individuals must begin to look at the labels of products to find foods that are healthier
options. Family members should be informed of a healthy diet change so meals can be prepared in
the person's favour. The patient can exercise with friends 2 or 3 times a week for half an hour and
can engage in healthier meals together for example, going to a salad bar for lunch. Studies prove
that a positive change in diet and physical activity could reduce the risk of getting colon cancer by
up to 75%. Thus, changing to a healthier diet with less fat and red meat and exercising regularly can
reduce/prevent the risk of colon

Adolescence : Identity And Identity
Adolescence Period (12 to19)
The next stage was mention a little above dealing with identity. Erikson stage in adolescence is
identity vs. role confusion, this is where adolescence are trying to figure out who they are, what they
want to do with their life or they or confuse with the appropriate identity roles. Erikson explains this
stage that adolescence stumble trying to find the right identity by going through different roles till
they find the right one. Once the adolescence is successful, it helps them able to create a foundation
in the future development (Feldman, 2014). During this development stage it is very difficult due to
many transitions figuring out who you are, more peer pressure, and other influences that can impact
the individual. In this stage Laurie starting at twelve, went through many identity roles or styles with
her friends. She started with the country girl role into about eighth grade, then started to become
punk skater type individual this lasted to about tenth or eleventh grade till she finally realized it was
to time be professional. She then started to think about careers and one that stuck out to her was
nursing because she like helping people and taking care of people. She made goals to start the
technical program her senior year to graduate with her certified nurse assistance then go into the
military after she graduated high school. She succeed with the goals and was going into the military
till they put her on hold for six months in that

In-Vitro Fertilization Is Ethical Essay
The use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis, used during in vitro fertilization, for medical
screening and sex pre–selection is ethical so as long as it is done for the child's best interest and not
for superficial desires of the parents. Every year, around 3,945,875 babies are born in the United
States (NIH, 2017). Unfortunately, 12.1% of women ages 15–44 and 8% of men ages 25 to 44
struggle with infertility issues (CDC, 2016). It is also challenging for gay and lesbian couples to
become parents in which one is biologically related by using their gametes (Wittenstein, 2016).
Luckily, there are several medical advancements that help individuals become pregnant. A
controversial medical advancement that is commonly used is known as In–Vitro ... Show more
To others, there are a plethora of issues in IVF that constitute it as being unethical. Opponents
consider it unethical to "play God" and create life in an unnatural manner. They believe couples
should conceive on their own without the help of a medical procedure involving embryos. This is
due to their opposition to the destruction of embryos during or after the procedure. For example,
embryos are frozen in large groups and are disposed of if not used or remain frozen for numerous
years (Bliss, 2012). Others believe that people should simply adopt a child instead of going through
the expensive and risky procedure of IVF. However, these arguments are only the tip of the iceberg
of IVF being that there are several topics to be discussed. One of the most interesting topics within
IVF is that of "designer babies". Although predominantly permissible by law, the ethics of "designer
babies" encompasses whether or not it is moral to use PGD for preventive medical measures, sex
pre–selection, and the determination of a child's various traits. As stated above, the ethicality of the
procedures lie within the intention of pursuing

Cyclooxygenase Synthesis
While we acquire many benefits by using medications, there is always room for improvement and
reducing the side effects they cause. One of the most commonly used medications are nonsteroidal
anti–inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The way they work is by inhibiting a family of compounds
called prostaglandins. Prostaglandins have a wide range of functions they do for our body, such as
promoting inflammation and providing a layer of protection for our stomach from the acid
produced. Cyclooxygenase (COX) is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing the reaction which turns
arachidonic acid to prostaglandin. In our body, we have two types of COX enzymes, COX–1 and
COX–2. Both of these enzymes produce the prostaglandins that result in inflammation, but only ...
In developmental studies, DuP697 was shown to have equal affinity to the COX–1 and COX–2 ES
complex. However, an unexpected conformational change would occur to COX–2 which increased
inhibitor affinity by 80 folds. DuP697 does this through a slow, tight–binding mechanism that is
only seen with COX–2. This was a great surprise because it allowed for structural analogs of
DuP697 to be bioengineered which have higher selectivity towards COX–2. The pharmaceutical
company behind the bioengineering of DuP697 was G.D. Searle. After altering DuP697's structure,
researchers were able to increase the selective inhibition of COX–2 by substituting the
methylsulfonylphenyl to an arylsulfonamide. This new compound would now be known as
celecoxib. Once again, through X–ray crystallography, crystal structures showed that
arylsulfonamide greatly increased selective inhibition of COX–2. The original 80 fold selectivity of
DuP97 had now been increased to about a 1000 fold selectivity in

Colorectal Cancer Increasing Risk Factors
To start, one already has an increased chance of getting cancer if one already has a history of
colorectal, ovarian, endometrial, or breast cancer. Thus, due to her family's history of getting
colorectal cancer, Ms. Wilson should have already been more wary of colorectal cancer. Although
her race is not mentioned, the following races have highest occurring colon cancer rates from
highest to lowest: Black, White, Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaskan natives, and then
Hispanic. With the specificity of sex, women are less likely than men to contract colorectal cancer,
but do so at roughly the same incidence. In addition, being 61 years old gave her a 0.92% chance of
developing colorectal cancer after 10 years, 2.37% after 20 years, and 3.76 after 30 years [5]. In
regards to environmental factors, colon cancer shares many similarities with other forms of cancer.
For example, some environmental factors for colorectal cancer are diet, tobacco, and lack of
exercise.
In addition, there are several polyposis disorders, colorectal cancers that are passed on via errors or
mutations within the genetic code, that can also contribute to the development of colorectal cancer.
Examples of polyposis disorders are familial adenomatous polyposis, turcot syndrome, attenuated
familial adenomatous polyposis, and hyperplastic polyposis syndrome. On the other hand, non–
polyposis disorders, or inherited colorectal cancers that affects organs such as the reproductive tract,
digestive

Diagnosis : Impingement Syndrome, Right Shoulder
This is a 60–year–old male with a 4/16/2015 date of injury. A specific mechanism of injury has not
been described.
DIAGNOSIS: Impingement syndrome, right shoulder; full–thickness rotator cuff tear with
retraction, right shoulder; adhesive capsulites, right shoulder; post–op pain, right shoulder; Right
elbow strain/sprain; Right wrist strain/sprain; Right upper extremity overuse syndrome.
02/16/16 Progress Report noted that the pain is very severe in the right upper extremity at a 7–8/10–
scale level. She is using the Pulley to exercise shoulder, but it is making her shoulder hurt worse.
She is working with modified duties in a thrift store, but it requires her to do repetitive tasks such as
sorting and hanging items. She is having ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The request is for 1. Acupuncture 2x4 to Right shoulder
2. Medication: – Tramadol 50mg 1 tab TID as needed
3. – Celebrex 200mg #30 1 tab QD.
CONCLUSION:
Regarding Acupuncture 2x4 to Right shoulder; CA MTUS does not consistently and
overwhelmingly support the use of acupuncture in the management of shoulder injuries. However,
ODG states that among those shoulder indications found to have positive outcomes from
acupuncture were rotator cuff tendonitis, frozen shoulder, subacromial impingement syndrome, and
rehab following arthroscopic acromioplasty. Additionally, ODG supports an initial trial of 3 to 6
visits. The patient is s/p right shoulder arthroscopy with acromioplasty and rotator cuff repair on
08/13/15. Considering the continued upper extremity pain and limited ROM following surgery; the
medical necessity of acupuncture has been substantiated. However, the guidelines recommend an
initial trial of 3 to 6 visits. The request is for 8 sessions. Recommend modified certification of
Acupuncture 2X3.
Regarding Tramadol 50mg 1 tab TID as needed; CA MTUS criteria for the therapeutic trial of
opioids include setting goals; baseline pain and functional assessments; trial or failure of non–opioid
analgesics; discussion of risks and benefits of the use of controlled substances; obtaining a written
consent or pain agreement for chronic

Colon Cancer Essay
Colon Cancer
What is the disease?
Colon and rectal cancer develop in the digestive tract, which is also called the gastrointestinal, or
GI, tract. The digestive system processes food for energy and rids the body of solid waste matter
(fecal matter or stool). Colon cancer and rectal cancer have many features in common. Sometimes
they are referred to together as colorectal cancer.
Over 95% of colorectal cancers are ad enocarcinomas. These are cancers of the glandular cells that
line the inside of the colon and rectum. Other, less common type of tumors may also develop in the
colon and rectum. Carcinoid tumors develop from hormone–producing cells of the intestine.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors develop in the connective tissue ... Show more content on
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The small intestine continues breaking down the food and absorbs most of the nutrients. The liver
and the pancreas release bile and enzymes into the small bowel to aid in this process. The small
intestine joins the large intestine or large bowel, a muscular tube about five feet long. The first part
of the large bowel, called the colon continues to absorb water and mineral nutrients from the food
matter and serves as a storage place for waste matter. The waste matter left after this process goes
into the rectum, the final 6 inches, or so of the large bowel. From there, it passes out of the body
through the anus.
What are the casual factors for this disease? Colon cancer is expected to be responsible for about
47,700 deaths (23,100 men and 24,600 women) during 2000. About 8,600 people (4,700 men and
3,900 women) will die from rectal cancer during 2000. The death rate from colorectal cancer has
been going down for the past 20 years. This may be because there are fewer cases, more of the cases
are found early, and treatments have improved.
The 5–year relative survival rate is 90% for people whose colorectal cancer is found and treated in
an early stage, before it has spread. Nevertheless, only 37% of colorectal cancers are found at that
early stage. Once the cancer has spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes, the 5–year relative
survival rate goes down to 65%. For people whose colorectal cancer has spread to distant parts of
the body such as the

Persuasive Speech On Colon Cancer
Suggested Title: Are you sporting the blue colon cancer awareness pin?
Suggested Title: It's March so it is time to raise colon cancer awareness!
Suggested Title: The one cancer that is beatable but causes so many deaths!
This March you have every reason to spread the word about colon cancer; after all, the month has
been designated as the official colon cancer month since 2000. If you are wondering why exactly
this form of cancer deserves so much attention, here are a few figures that will highlight some
startling facts about this ailment.
Although considered one of the most treatable forms of malignant disorders, it remains the second
most fatal type of cancer in the country, among both men and women.
This year alone, nearly 137,000 people will get diagnosed with ... Show more content on
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What is colon cancer and can it be treated?
Over 1 million people across the country have battled colon cancer and have come out winners.
Their survival can squarely be attributed to regular screening and early diagnosis. Here is why–
Colon cancer is one among only two types of malignancy disorders that can be prevented with
screening, the other being cervical cancer.
Unlike other forms of cancer where the growths or tumors are malignant from stage one, colon
cancer starts with small polyp on the lining of either the rectum or the colon. Initially, these small
growths are seldom cancerous, which means that if removed in time, they would pose no risk at all.
It is only when a polyp is allowed to grow that there is an increased risk of it turning cancerous and
of the malignancy spreading to the surrounding tissue and eventually to the other organs. If the
polyp is diagnosed while it is benign, a simple surgery is all it takes to prevent colon

Thyroid Cancer: A Therapeutic Analysis
The general increase of cancer has a huge impact on the health care system, the cost of cancer in one
year in the USA is estimated to be around 200 billion United States dollars. 45% of the annual cost
is towards direct medical funds while the remaining 55% go towards indirect mortality costs
(American Cancer Society 2014). The costs of cancer are equally high in Canada as well. The
Canadian Cancer Society (2014) estimates that 45% of men and 41% of women will develop cancer
during their life time. In 2011, it was also calculated that 29.9 of overall deaths in Canada are due to
cancer. This alarming rate of deaths due to cancer comes with an equally alarming financial cost.
Even though it is stated in the Canadian Health Act that all drugs ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(2010) include all the general information about thyroid cancer in their research, such as the
treatments and types of thyroid cancer. Small lumps may be found on the thyroid which store extra
thyroid hormones, they are usually benign. It is possible for those smaller nodes to develop into
cancerous tumors, causing thyroid cancer. Papillary carcinoma is the most dominant form of thyroid
cancer with 80% of all thyroid cancer cases being of that type. Cancer that can move to the bones
and lungs of the patient is considered follicular carcinoma thyroid cancer. Other forms of thyroid
cancer do exist but in a very small percentage. Treatment for thyroid cancer varies between
chemotherapy, surgery and radiation. Surgery is commonly used to extract a part or all of the thyroid
gland. To confirm that all of the cancer has been extracted, radioactive iodine is given. Radioactive
iodine can eliminate all remaining cancer cells after surgery. Chemotherapy is a last resort when
other methods

Familial Polyposis
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a genetic disease that can be inherited. If a person has
FAP, they are likely to get colorectal cancer. If FAP is not treated, there is about a 100% chance you
will receive colorectal cancer. FAP produces growths with mucus on the inside walls of the colon
and rectum. The growths are called polyps. You can get between 100 and 1000 polyps in just 10
years. The genetic test that they run for FAP is a blood screening test for the adenomatous polyposis
coli (APC) gene. The blood test is for checking for a mutation in the APC gene. If the results are
positive, closely related family members should be tested too. You should also be tested if colon
cancer is hereditary, or if you have a history of more than ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
I would say if the person getting tested is over 18, they should be able to know what the test is about
and the results. If they are 18, they should be mature enough to understand that the genetic test is
not 100% accurate, but they need to be wary about your future.
If the child the parents are getting tested is adopted, the rules should differ. When a child goes up for
adoption, they should automatically get a genetic test for mutations in genes because they might not
know the child's family history. If the place of adoption does not test the child, it should be a
requirement to whoever adopts the kid to get it genetically tested before the parents can take the
child home.
This is just my opinion on what I would do about the issues relating genetic testing with the
American Society of Human Genetics. If you have an immediate family member with a genetic
disease or condition, you should have a blood screening test ran to possibly save you from getting
the same

Signet-Ring Cell Adenocarcinoma Case Summary
A Case of Signet Ring Cell Adenocarcinoma–Unique presentation with Concurrent Non–
gastrointestinal Malignancy.
Authors: Sandar Linn1, Hernan A. Lopez–Morra1, Sofia Nigar1, Juan Tejada1, Nami S Haeri1,Shah
Giashuddin2,Jonathan Chow2, Mahesh K. Krishniah1, Sury Anand1.
1 Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, the Brooklyn Hospital Center,
Brooklyn, NY.
2 Department of Pathology, the Brooklyn Hospital Center, Brooklyn, NY.
Abstract:
Background: Signet–ring cell adenocarcinoma (SRCC), the histological variant of ampullary
carcinoma, is an extremely uncommon malignancy. To our knowledge, this report is the first case of
SRCC with concurrent non–gastrointestinal malignancies.
Case Report: A 66 year old male with history of prostate cancer, anglioblastoma multiforme
presented with jaundice and abdominal pain. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
(ERCP) and Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS) suggested a duodenal tumor at ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
90% of SRCC take place in the stomach [1]. SRCC is extremely uncommon in the ampulla of Vater,
and only 32 previous cases have been described in the literature [3].
Because of its uncommon entity, the histological genesis of SRCC is still mysterious. While
previous authors suggested that the tumor came from the ectopic gastric mucosa located at the
ampullary region since most of SRCC are found in stomach [9, 10], others declared that SRCC
occurs from the gastric–type metaplastic epithelium [1] which appeared possibly due to the elevated
acidity since the metaplastic changes were are usually observed at the duodenal bulb in peptic ulcer
patients [10]. However, Our case did not support both theories like the other case because it did not
show any gastric mucosa around the tumor nor peptic ulcer found in EGD

Colorectal Cancer : Cancer And Cancer
Colorectal cancer, also called colon cancer, is a disease in which cancer cells form in the colon,
which is the upper five to six feet of the large bowel, or large intestine. Hereditary factors play a role
in colorectal cancer risk, but it can also be caused by outside factors. "Excluding skin cancer, it is
the third most common cancer diagnosed in both men and women in the United States" (American
Cancer Society). Colorectal cancer has been known since ancient times, and it is becoming less fatal
as research becomes more advanced. Great efforts have been put forth for investigation. Some
studies have been performed on organisms such as yeast and bacteria, such as one in 1993,
conducted by Dr. Bert Vogelstein, MD, led to the discovery of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
FAP is caused by mutations on the APC (adenomatous polyposis coli) gene, a tumor suppressor
gene on chromosome 5 that occurs in an autosomal dominant pattern. The ACP gene controls cell
growth, so a mutation on that gene develops polyps in the colon that when left untreated, will
develop into colon cancer and can only be prevented by removing the colon. FAP is very rare,
associated with less than 1 percent of colon cancers . Familial adenomatous polyposis can also be a
result of mutations on the MUTYH gene (U.S. Library of Medicine 2013). Then, it is inherited in an
autosomal recessive pattern, where both copies of the gene in each cell are mutated. Both parents
may carry a single copy of the gene without showing symptoms. HNPCC, or Lynch syndrome, is a
result of mutations in the genes that repair DNA. Lynch syndrome is inherited in an autosomal
dominant pattern, so a single copy of the mutation will increase cancer risk. Most cases of Lynch
Syndrome are caused by mutations in two genes, MLH1 and MSH2. Both FAP and HNPCC have a
50% chance of offspring inheritance, and are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. A mutated,
inherited gene that is related to HNPCC causes an 80% chance of developing colorectal cancer
(U.S. Library of Medicine 2013). So even when an HNPCC–related gene is inherited, there is not a
definite future of colon cancer.

Allelic Variation in BRCA Genes Could Be the Key to...
Allelic Variation in BRCA Genes Could Be the Key to Understanding Familial Breast Cancer
Introduction
Breast cancer is an uncontrollable division of cells within the breast tissue that affects about 12% of
women in their lifetime. Cancer can be caused by sporadic mutations influenced by environment or
by genetic disposition. Several genes play a role in cell division: Oncogenes are responsible for
directing mitosis, and tumor suppression genes prevent the expression of genes involved in cell
division. Mutations that occur in either gene can lead to carcinogenic tumor growth and immortal
cell lines. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumor suppression genes known as caretakers that are
responsible for maintaining the cell genome during cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A quantitative allelic imbalance assay was developed to determine differences in gene expression
from individual BRCA1/2 alleles. Allele–specific assays quantify gene expression specific to the
allele being tested. For the BRCA1 gene, two individuals homozygous for the BRCA1–c.4308T/T
or BRCA1–c.4308C/C polymorphism were tested. Complementary DNA (cDNA) was created from
reverse–transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR) using RNAs extracted from blood
lymphocytes. RT–PCR uses reverse transcriptase to form an RNA/cDNA heteroduplex that is then
amplified by normal polymerase chain reaction techniques to produce a large quantity of cDNA.
Ratios of the cDNA from the two alleles were mixed for use in real–time PCR (qPCR). qPCR uses
fluorescent probes that anneal to the cDNA during PCR. These probes contain a reporter and a
quencher; the reporter fluoresces when separated from the quencher, allowing a computer to
measure the number of cycles needed for the fluorescence to exceed background levels (cycle
threshold or CT). Using the ratios of cDNAs and ∆CT, a linear regression was computed to form an
allelic expression standard curve that can be used to evaluate allelic imbalance. These same methods
were repeated with BRCA2 with two individuals homozygous for the BRCA2–c.3396A/A or
BRCA2–c.3396G/G allele. The allelic imbalance assay developed was now used with specific
single–nucleotide polymorphisms in BRCA1

Genetic And Genomic Education And Practice In Nursing
Genetic and Genomic Education and Practice in Nursing
The Human Genome Project launched in 1990 and marked the start of an evolutionary change in
healthcare. Medicine has made great advancements following the completion of the Human
Genome Project (HGP) in 2003. In addition to these advancements, the scope of practice for nurses'
is continuously changing and expanding. There is a growing emphasis on genetic literacy in the
nursing profession. In the era of personalized medicine, registered nurses are now expected to be
knowledgeable and skilled in genetics and genomics, regardless of academic preparation. The
American Nurses Association (ANA) and the International Society of Nursing Genetics (ISONG)
have published collaborative resources defining ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The goal of obtaining the genetic family history is to identify the potential risks for serious health
conditions. Early identification of health risk's can allow for a more individualized and focused
nursing care plan, including lifestyle behavior modifications. The following are two brief examples
that demonstrate the significance of gathering a detailed family history, matched with genetic
knowledge:
A nurse learns that a patient's parent died at a young age from colon cancer. The nurse would
recognize that the patient and any siblings are at risk for familial adenomatous polyposis, a familial
cancer syndrome (Lea, Skirton, Read , & Williams, 2011).
A patient is scheduled for surgery. The nurse knows surgery presents several immediate health risks.
It would be important to question if there is any personal or family history of malignant
hyperthermia (MH). Malignant hypothermia is a potentially fatal inheritable condition that a patient
can present with following general anesthesia (Quigley,

Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)
There are all kinds of tumor markers of colon cancer, the classification is different. Some classic
markers such as CA242, CA199, CA72–4, and CEA have been applied to clinical studies, and Some
classic markers ,such as TGF,have the potential to serve as markers for colon cancer Clinical
application. CEA Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) was first described more than four decades ago,
Its main application is mostly in gastrointestinal cancers,especially in colorectal malignancy.CEA is
a glycoprotein consisting of 60% carbohydrate and a molecular mass of 180–200 kD and the
carbohydrate is composed of mannose, galactose, Nacetylglucosamine, fucose, and sialic acid
[4].CEA is attached to the cell membrane by a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchor

Familial Genetic Testing
Familial adenomatous polyposis detection and effects of early predictive genetic testing Familial
adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal dominant disease caused by mutation in the
adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) suppressor gene on the long arm of chromosome 5 (Kennedy,
Potter, Moir, & El–Youssef, 2014). Patients diagnosed with FAP had more than a hundred
adenomatous polyps in their large intestine. FAP is dominantly inherited and is close to 100%
penetrant (Hegde, Ferber, Mao, Samowitz, & Ganguly, 2014). Therefore, it is essential to have
knowledge of the disease in advance in order to have sufficient medical preparation and family
planning before the onset of the disease. Genetic screening blood test is used to diagnose familial
adenomatous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For familial adenomatous polyposis, predictive genetic testing is generally offered to child 10 years
old or older who had a family history of familial adenomatous polyposis; however, some people
might opt to have the test at an even younger age. Caga–anan et al. stated that children with FAP can
benefit from medical screening and preventive measures through predictive genetic testing (2012).
Early detection of an APC mutation would change medical management of children. There had been
reported cases where children develop polyps before the age of 10 (Jerkic et al., 2005). Crawford
and Lucassen (2009) reported a case when a child was tested for a familial APC mutation at the age
of 9 months. In this case, the main motivation for testing at the very young age was to enable better
family planning. Depending on the carrier status in the first child the couple would make
reproductive choices about further children, motivated by the feeling to have a duty to stop the
predisposition from being transmitted to future generations. Kattentidt–Mouravieva et al. (2014)
evaluated 13 children who were tested for FAP at the age younger than 10 years; 7 were mutation–
carriers and 6 were non–carriers. Parents of these children were re–contacted and open–ended semi–
structured interviewed. None of the contacted parents regretted

Colon Cancer Essay
Colon Cancer
Disease Name: Colon Cancer
Chromosome Number: #2
Locus Designation: 2p16
In the summer of 1993 researchers discovered a gene, known as MSH2, is lacking within colon
cells. The MSH2 genes main function is to detect and correct small mutations that occur during cell
division. The cause of colon cancer arises when this gene does not provide this protection to colon
cells. This lack of protection causes multiple mutations within the colon cells until they become
cancerous.
Only about 6% of all colorectal cancer is said to be hereditary. Sporadic, or non hereditary
colorectal cancer, makes up the other 94%. Hereditary colorectal cancer is made up of two
syndromes– HNPCC (Hereditary Non Polyposis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In codon 1309 there was a 5 base pair deletion found within exon 15. This mutation in codon 1309
leads to development of colonic polyps, thus leading to earlier malignant transformation. The
defective genes job to identify and repair somatic mutations in DNA during cell division was later
referred to as microsatellite instability. It was identified in a number of genes through screenings of
blood tests. This microsatellite instability lead in some cases to loss of imprinting, but further
research is need to determine if this loss of imprinting in healthy people will lead to the
development in cancer. A study done in 1997 revealed that the microsatellite instability in genes
p53, RAS, and APC fit 85% of colon carcinomas, many of which were aneuploidy and all sequential
mutations of those genes. The rest were deficient in DNA mis– match repair genes which tended to
have near diploid genotypes. This study was tested with cultures, it is now being tested with clinical
specimens.
Lots of research has been done since the MSH2 gene was found in 1993. Now with advancements in
technology researchers are finding more accurate and through ways of determining and analyzing
the causes of colon cancer. Ever year more and more genes are being found that lead to the
development of colon cancer. In 1997, researchers in Yeshiva University found another mis– match
repair gene that leads to colon cancer. Researchers found a germline MSH6 mutation in a

Colon Cancer Risk Factor : Genetics
Colon Cancer Risk Factor: Genetics
Ayva Rodriguez
Felician College
BIO
307
Dr. Gaby Fahmy
November 05, 2014 Abstract
In the United States, colorectal cancer affecting both men and women ranks high as a deadly cancer
to individuals older than 50 years old. It was estimated in 2011 that 135,260 people diagnosed with
colorectal cancer and 51,783 deaths. With an improved preventative measure of an early detection
of precancerous lesions such as polyps, the prevalence of colorectal cancer and deaths will be
decreased. There are several risk factors known to increase an individuals' possibility of developing
this disease. Most malignant neoplasms develop from adenomatous polyps if left untreated. The
inactivation of APC gene caused the acceleration of the cell progression. Classical familial
adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and attenuated familial adenomatous polyposis (AFAP) both
inherited disorder that was caused by the APC gene mutation that resulted in the development of
premalignant lesion and became invasive adenocarcinoma.
Colon Cancer Risk Factor: Genetics
In the United States, colorectal cancer affecting both men and women ranks high as a fatal cancer in
individuals older than 50 years old (Gould & Dyer, 2011, p. 426). It was estimated in 2011 that
135,260 people diagnosed with colorectal cancer and 51,783 deaths ("Statistics," 2014). With an
improved preventive measure of an early detection of precancerous lesions such as polyps, the
prevalence of colorectal

Compare and Contrast Tumor Suppressor Genes and...
Compare and contrast tumour suppressor genes and proto–oncogenes. Discuss an example of how
recent advances in our understanding of these genes have led to the development of a novel therapy
that is being used in the treatment of human cancer.
Cancer known in medicine as a malignant neoplasm is one of the biggest killers worldwide. In 2007,
cancer caused roughly 13% (7.9 million) of the planet's deaths (Jemal, 2011). This will more greatly
affect an aging society such as ours in years to come, and yet it is already the foremost cause of
death in the developed world. The main reason cancer causes so many fatalities the body's inability
to mount an effective response to the failure of DNA replication within the body. This results in a
mass ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mutations (for most cancers) must appear in both tumour suppressing genes and oncogenes for
cancers to form. The tumour suppressing genes and oncogenes act in complementary fashion to one
another; one pulls forward, and the other pushes back ensuring that the cell cycle occurs in a
controlled manner (Sherr, 2004).
Oncogenes were discovered in the 1960s, when it was discovered that some animal cancers such as
lymphomas were caused by viruses. Some of these viruses were notable due to the simplicity of
their RNA genome. These viruses only had three distinct transcription units, involved in the
replication of the virus (coat proteins and reverse transcriptase etc.), and an extra gene. This was an
oncogene. When oncogenes are properly functioning they are termed proto–oncogenes (Todd R,
1999). Their normal function is to control cell proliferation. These function in growth signalling
pathways, and conversely to tumour suppressing cells are activated through a gain in function rather
than a loss of it. This occurs in two ways, by producing more of a product, or producing a subtly
different product, as a result of a mutation similar to tumour suppressor genes (Croce, 2008).
Oncogenes play a particularly strong role in the development of breast cancers. Often the normal
ERBB2 and other related genes are amplified in late stage neuroblastomas and rhabdomyosarcomas.
ERBB2 encodes HER2 which is a member of the epidermal growth factor

The Treatment Of Colon Cancer
"Colon cancer, which is also called rectal cancer. Colon cancer is a potentially, abnormal growth of
the colon, a long muscular tube that is a part of pupr digestive system." Scientist found the earliest
person who got cancer who used to lived in the Dakhleh Oasis, which is a country of egypt, during
the Ptolemaic period. Colon is an important part of our gastrointestinal tract, which include mouth,
esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, colon, rectum, and anus. These organs connect
together and form a system that digests food, and excretes waste. If colon is destroyed by tumor, it
will cause the whole system to break off entirely. A family history or genetics problems are
important risk of getting colon cancer. If there is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This also may cause cancers of the liver, thyroid gland, and brain. Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colon
Cancer (HNPCC) is more dangerous, this kind of inherited syndromes particularly cause colon
cancer. It's difficult to cure, and it results the formation of potentially cancer polyps before 20 years
old. Turcot's syndrome links the formation of cancerous colorectal polyps with an aggressive form
of brain cancer. Gardner's syndrome, similar to Turcot's, cause cancerous colorectal polyps and
other organ cancers. Peutz–Jeghers syndrome and Cowden's syndrome are two genetic disorders
that cause a polyp to form in the colon. Both disease may also increase the risk for developing colon
cancer later in life. Fortunately, most of these syndromes are rare, if any of your family member is
diagnosed with one of these syndromes, it puts you in a higher risk.
Initially, the symptoms are mild on colon cancer. People can felling "just not right" Early on, you
may feel fine. A routine physical exam may lead doctors suspect the presence of a colon cancer. Be
aware of these sudden changes and talk with your doctor. Don't delay the discussion, or it will lead
you into a dangerous situation. Be careful of the following symptoms, these are the early signs of
colon cancer. Rectal bleeding. Passing bright red or dark blood is an important warning symptom of
colon cancer. You may notice this sign on the toilet paper, the blood mixed

Familial Polyposis
Familial adenomatous polyposis detection and effects of early predictive genetic testing
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal dominant polyposis syndrome classically
characterized by mutation in the APC gene on the long arm of chromosome 5. Patients are
diagnosed with FAP had hundreds of thousands of adenomatous polyps in the large intestine
(Poovorawan et al., 2012). Truncating germline mutation in the APC gene are responsible for 70–
90% of FAP cases (Russo et al., 2014). FAP is dominantly inherited and is close to 100% penetrant.
Therefore, it is essential to have knowledge of the disease in advance in order to have sufficient
medical preparation.
APC mutations were found in 80% (95% CI 71%–87%) of individuals with more ... Show more
Direct sequencing was performed by First BASE Laboratories Sdn Bhd (Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia).
APC gene mutation analysis: The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences were compared
with reference sequences of the APC gene available at the NCBI (National Center for
Biotechnology Information) GenBank database using the BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search
Tool) program (http://blast.ncbi.nlm.

The High Cost of Genetic Engineering Essay
The High Cost of Genetic Engineering
Genetic research on human embryos, in correlation with the human genome, is the key to gene
therapy, genetic diagnosis, and even to genetically engineered human beings. Knowing which gene
controls what trait and causes what genetic disease will arm doctors with a powerful tool to treat
their patients at the molecular level. On the other hand, this allows people to possibly manipulate
genes to enhance specific traits or create the perfect baby. Genetic research on human embryos has
two implications. A practical one in therapeutic research (to detect, and hopefully correct gene
flaws), and then the potentiality of allowing parents to decide how their child should look (or in an
extreme word, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Eugenics was and is thought to improve society and help eradicate diseases. There are two uses of
eugenics: positive and negative. Positive eugenics is increasing the procreation of those with traits
considered "desirable or beneficial" (Davis, 1981 and Saetz, 1985). Negative eugenics is stopping
the procreation of those with undesirable traits through sterilization, birth control, abortion or
counseling (Davis, 1981 and Saetz, 1985). Eugenics is thought to rid the world's population of "bad"
or "diseased" genes (Saetz, 1985. This practice, however, leads to intense discrimination against
those with low status, low IQ, etc (Davis, 1981).
The history of eugenics shows the ugly turn which genetics can take. The most prevalent example is
that of the Nazi regime and its policy of killing off Jews and Gypsies, who were thought to be
inferior (Saetz, 1985). Nazi and US compulsory sterilization laws, which sterilized the feeble
minded, schizophrenic, epileptic, depressed, etc., is also another example (Saetz, 1985). 410,600
people were sterilized in Nazi Germany alone (Saetz, 1985). The birth control movement also
embodied a sense of eugenics, making it a privilege for the rich and a duty for the poor. Marget
Sanger, a birth control activist, was quoted saying, "The chief issue of birth control

Colorectal Cancer : Cancer And Cancer
Cancer occurs when abnormal cells in the body uncontrollably replicate forming a malignant tumor
that invades nearby tissues. It has the capability to affect any part of the body and spread to tissues
throughout the body. There are many different types of cancers including rectal cancer, colon cancer,
breast cancer, lung cancer, and skin cancer. Rectal cancer is a disease in which cancer cells develop
and form in the tissues of the rectum. Rectal cancer is typically classified with colon cancer where
they are collectively called colorectal cancer. According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer–related deaths in the United
States and the third most common cancer in men and in women (CDC, 2014). Colorectal cancer is
the third most commonly cancer diagnosed in men and second in females worldwide (Jemal, 2011).
Certain ethnicities such as blacks have an increased chance of having colorectal cancer compared to
whites and other races. Colorectal cancer also has a higher incidence in men versus in women. It has
been noted that about 90 percent of colorectal cancers are diagnosed in patients who are at the age
of 50 and older. Two–thirds of these patients that were diagnosed were older than 65 years old.
(Haggstrom, 2013). Some of the risk factors of colorectal cancer include environmental factors and
genetic component, high fat, low–fiber diet, diet high in red meats, family history of colorectal
cancer, male

Essay On Sunitinib
Ravaud et al. [16] to determine the efficacy of sunitinib in refractory advanced TCs. A response rate
of 8 % in DTC patients and 13 % in MTC patients. Furthermore, 67 % of DTC patients and 87 % of
MTC patients showed disease stabilization. In a second phase II trial, Cohen et al. [17] reported a 13
% RR and a 68 % stable disease rate in patients with DTC. In MTC patients, responses were
observed in 43 and 83 % of patients presented stable disease. Preliminary analysis from a third
phase II trial showed PR or stable disease for at least 12 weeks in 17 % of DTC and 38 % in MTC
patients [18]. Imatinib is a TKI that garnered much attention for its highly favorable effect on
chronic myeloid leukemia and has inhibitory action against PDGFR–a and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
[23], 35 patients with metastatic and progressive MTC; five patients attained PR with median PFS
and OS 9.4 and 19.9 months, respectively. There was one death potentially treatment–related.
Vandetanib is a multi–targeted TKI with potent activity against RET, EGFR and VEGFR with
potent anti–angiogenic effects [24]. It had received FDA approval for treatment of advanced MTC
in 2012 based on the phase III RCT lead by Wells et al. [25], which showed a promising therapeutic
efficacy. In these trial, 331 patients with advanced MTC were randomly assigned to vandetanib
versus placebo with crossover was allowed after progression in the placebo arm. PFS was
significantly superior in vandetanib arm versus placebo arm with HR of 0.35. Also, a statistically
significant higher RR and better disease control rate were observed in vandetanib arm versus
placebo arm (45 vs. 13 %). Initially, no overall survival benefit was seen, and this may be due to
cross over from placebo to vandetanib arm upon disease progression. The AEs were generally
tolerable, but 12 % of patients stopped the drug due to intolerability. The most common AEs were
diarrhea (56 %), skin rash ([50 %), nausea and vomiting (47 %), hypertension (10 %) and QTc
prolongation in 8 % of cases (see Table 1). Cabozantinib is a TKI with activity against VEGFR 1–3,
MET and RET. It had received regulatory approval for first–line treatment of advanced MTC after a
phase III international

Genetic Testing and Screening Essay
Many things are changing at an extremely rapid rate in our society. The new advances in the areas of
science and biotechnology are raising many ethical and moral dilemmas for everyone. No one will
be left unaffected. Everyone will have to make a decision and take a stand on these issues. I will
discuss advancements of genetic screening and testing. The first step to any ethical problem is to
understand the topic. It is difficult to formulate accurate ideas without knowledge about the topic, so
first I will provide a little background information on genetic screening. I will then point out some
of the areas of controversy associated with genetic screening, and finally I will discuss my view on
the topic.
Genetic screening can be used to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In some ways genetic screening will become similar to a fortuneteller – a scientific fortuneteller.
This new information will have some obvious benefits. We will now be able to predict if we will be
susceptible to a certain disease and consequently take more preventative measures against that
disease. Treatment for some genetic diseases may also become available and we will be able to treat
that disease. With our new technology, we may be able to treat problems in utero before a child is
even born. This new information may seem like a great benefit up front, but there are many areas of
ethical and moral concern that need to be addressed. What kind of decisions is this new information
going to call on us to make? Who will have access to this information?
One of the main concerns to genetic screening is that it will lead to new forms of discrimination.
This new discrimination could arise in a number of areas. One area that worries many groups is
discrimination in the workplace based on genetic predisposition. Could or would employers use
genetic information when hiring employees? Munson points out a specific case when this may
happen. Ten percent of the population has a variant form of a gene, which produces AHH (amyl
hydrocarbon hydroxylase) an enzyme that breaks down hydrocarbons in pollutants. The variant
form of the gene produces the enzyme in excessive amounts that react with hydrocarbons and
produce carcinogenic substances. These people would

Colon Cancer Research Paper
Cancer is something that not only affects the person diagnosed with it, but also the people who
know them. When my grandmother got colon cancer in 2008, the family was distraught with the
news and didn't know how to react. After she had died from cancer in 2009, I wasn't aware of
exactly what kind of cancer she had and how the severity was. I didn't even know what each of the
stages meant. After I found out what kind of cancer she had, I still wasn't sure how it was caused,
what kind of effects it had, what kind of treatments she had, and if there was any way it could've
been prevented. Although there isn't a precise reason as to what causes colon cancer, there are
several risk factors. Two of those risk factors are genetic mutations which are familial adenomatous
polyposis and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Familial adenomatous polyposis is an
uncommon disorder which makes thousands of polyps develop along the lining of your colon ...
For stage zero colon cancer patients, the cancer cells haven't spread past the inner lining of the colon
so surgery is the only thing needed. The surgery is usually done by polypectomy if the tumor is
small enough; if not, a colon resection, or colectomy is needed. By stage one of colon cancer, the
cells have spread throughout many layers of the colon, but not through the colon's walls so surgery
would only be needed to take out the part of the colon that has cancer or any lymph nodes. Stage
two and three treatments include more colectomy and chemotherapy and possibly radiation
treatments depending on how many cancer cells were removed. For stage four of colon cancer, there
is a small chance that surgery could remove the cancer cells since it could spread to the liver, lungs,
the lining of the abdominal cavity, or other lymph nodes. If the cancer is too widespread, then
colectomy or diverting colostomy might be

Oesophageal Cancer Essay
1.1.0 Cancer, a global health problem
Cancer is an important global health issue which affects millions of people annually and burdens
national health systems. Despite modest reductions in the incidence of certain cancer types, overall
the prevalence of cancer is increasing worldwide (1). It has been estimated that approximately 14.1
million people were diagnosed with cancer, in 2012 (2). The increase in cancer incidence is
attributed to various causes such as the increase in population age as well as daily life habits which
include obesity, poor diet, smoking and alcohol consumption (1).
Oesophageal cancer is the eighth most common cancer and the sixth highest cause of cancer–related
mortality. Oesophageal cancer results in high fatality rates, with a calculated 400,200 deaths out of
455,800 cases in 2012 (3). The five–year survival rate for oesophageal cancer is shockingly low at
12–15% (4). The poor survival is thought to be due to late diagnosis of the disease, invasiveness of
surgery and a lack of targeted therapies. Importantly, oesophageal cancer ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The Lauren classification separates gastric cancer into two histological types; intestinal and diffuse
(8). Oesophageal cancer is either oesophageal squamous carcinoma which is the most extensive type
of oesophageal cancer in Asia or oesophageal adenocarcinoma which comprises the majority of
oesophageal cancer cases in the UK and Europe (9). A recent study published in Nature Medicine in
2015, used high–throughput sequencing to characterise gastric cancer subtypes and devise a genetic
categorisation system; tumour protein 53 (TP53) active and inactive, microsatellite–unstable and
mesenchymal–like diffuse tumours (10) . Classification of subtypes of cancer by molecular profiling
should further understanding of tumour evolution and genomic heterogeneity, and may inform
clinical decision making

Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
Throughout the years, geneticists have made ground breaking discoveries, in regards to thousands of
inherited diseases. They have identified numerous mutations within the human genome that have
given rise to treatments and cures for multiple genetic diseases, one of which is Familial
Adenomatous Polyposis, also known as FAP. According to Half, Brocovich, and Rozen (2009)1,
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis is characterized by the development of many tens of thousands
adenomas in the rectum and colon during the second decade of life. Familial Adenomatous
Polyposis is inherited as an autosomal dominant disease, which is the reason why there is a
relatively equal occurrence rate in males and females. FAP results from a germline mutation in the
adenomatous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Severe Familial Adenomatous Polyposis or Classical FAP is characterized by the formation of over
100 adenomas in the rectum and colon. (Ellis, 2008). Individuals with this form of the genetic
disease will experience an earlier occurrence of tumors. According to Ellis (2008), adenomatous
polyps are present in 15% of FAP individuals by the age of 10 years old, 50% by the age of 15 years
old, and 75% by the age of 20 years old. Individuals who are aware of their APC gene mutation,
should begin colonoscopy screenings as early as possible, preferably beginning at age 15. Since this
disease is autosomal dominant, individuals who have a family history of FAP would need get tested
for the APC mutation through blood samples, and then would proceed with colonoscopy screenings.
Unfortunately, individuals with the severe or classical type of Familial Adenomatous Polyposis will
almost 100% develop colorectal malignancy if left untreated by the age of 39. (Ellis, 2008). Ellis
(2008) also presented that 7% of individuals would develop colorectal cancer by the age of 21.
Individuals who experience severe FAP are at an increased risk of developing extra–colonic
attributes such as, retinal hyperpigmentation, desmoid tumors, and even thyroid tumors. Retinal
Hyperpigmentation or CHRPE (congenital hypertrophy of the retinal pigment epithelium) has be
found to be associated

Vorinostat Case Study
disequilibrium between acetylation and deacetylation leading to apoptosis of the transformed
neoplastic cells. In addition, these inhibitors have also been shown in vitro to induce
redifferentiation of cancer cells by restoring the function of the sodium–iodine symporter (NIS), and
thus, they may restore the iodine uptake by the refractory TCs
[30]. Vorinostat, a small molecule inhibitor of HDAC, has been studied in small phase I and II trials
in patients with refractory DTCs; however, the results were clinically disappointing as the RR was
0, 56 % of patients had stable disease for only 6 months, and TG did not correlate with tumor
response. Its effect on RAI uptake was not tested in this study [31, 32].
Other drugs
Anti–proliferation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In another study including more patients, increases in radioiodine uptake after[6 weeks of
pretreatment with up to 8 mg of rosiglitazone were observed in 26 % of the patients. However, post–
therapy decreases in TG levels were only noted in
17 % of cases [37]. But it is not clear if this redifferentiation of the tumor will improve the outcome
for patients with refractory TCs.
Lithium
The effect of RAI with lithium carbonate was studied in 12 patients with metastatic DTC. Despite
an increased uptake of RAI in seven patients, no beneficial effect of RAI with lithium was observed
on the clinical course as assessed by
TG measurements and radiographically [38].
Thalidomide
Thalidomide and its derivative lenalidomide were studied in progressive MTC and DTC but without
significant effect
[39].
Bortezomib
It (proteasome inhibitor) has been shown to have an effect on the growth in ATC cell lines alone and
in combination with other drugs [40].
Combretastatin A4 phosphate (CA4P)
It is a tubulin–binding compound. It is a vascular disrupting agent, resulting in reduced central
blood flow to the tumor.
In a phase I study, a single patient with ATC had a durable
CR of more than 9 years with CA4P monotherapy [41].
Preliminary data from a subsequent phase II study in 26
ATC patients failed to obtain any objective responses,

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