what is the time complexity for this code: For (int i = 1 to n) {j = i while(j Solution The time complexity of an algorithm quantifies the amount of time taken by an algorithm to run as a function of the length of the string representing the input. The time complexity of an algorithm is commonly expressed using big O notation, which excludes coefficients and lower order terms. When expressed this way, the time complexity is said to be described asymptotically, i.e., as the input size goes to infinity. For example, if the time required by an algorithm on all inputs of size n is at most 5n3 + 3n for any n (bigger than some n0), the asymptotic time complexity is O(n3). Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, where an elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm differ by at most a constant factor..

1. What services require auditors to be independent? How does an auditor decide whether to accept
or reject a client? What should the auditor consider?
Solution
IFAC’s Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants states: ‘Before accepting a new client
relationship, a professional accountant in public practice shall determine whether acceptance
would create any threats to compliance with the fundamental principles. Potential threats to
integrity or professional behaviour may be created from, for example, questionable issues
associated with the client (its owners, management or activities).’ This means that when
approached to take on a new client, the firm should investigate the potential client, its owners
and business activities in order to evaluate whether there are any questions over the integrity of
the potential client which create unacceptable risk. These investigative actions are usually
performed as ‘know your client/customer’ or ‘customer due diligence’ procedures, which are
also carried out in order to comply with anti-money laundering regulations.
Once a client has been accepted, the firm should consider the suitability of the specific
engagement it has been asked to perform. In particular there may be ethical threats which mean
that the engagement should not be accepted, in particular whether there are any threats to
objectivity. Potential threats could arise for example, if members of the audit firm hold shares in
the client or there are family relationships. If threats are discovered, it may not mean that the
client must be turned down, as safeguards could potentially reduce the threats to an acceptable
level.
IFAC’s Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants states: ‘Before accepting a new client
relationship, a professional accountant in public practice shall determine whether acceptance
would create any threats to compliance with the fundamental principles. Potential threats to
integrity or professional behaviour may be created from, for example, questionable issues
associated with the client (its owners, management or activities).’ This means that when
approached to take on a new client, the firm should investigate the potential client, its owners
and business activities in order to evaluate whether there are any questions over the integrity of
the potential client which create unacceptable risk. These investigative actions are usually
performed as ‘know your client/customer’ or ‘customer due diligence’ procedures, which are
also carried out in order to comply with anti-money laundering regulations.
Once a client has been accepted, the firm should consider the suitability of the specific
engagement it has been asked to perform. In particular there may be ethical threats which mean
that the engagement should not be accepted, in particular whether there are any threats to

2. objectivity. Potential threats could arise for example, if members of the audit firm hold shares in
the client or there are family relationships. If threats are discovered, it may not mean that the
client must be turned down, as safeguards could potentially reduce the threats to an acceptable
level.IFAC’s Code makes it clear that acceptance decisions are not to be treated as a one-off
matter. The Code states: ‘It is recommended that a professional accountant in public practice
periodically review acceptance decisions for recurring client engagements.’ Changes in the
circumstances of either the client, or the audit firm may mean that an engagement ceases to be
ethically or professionally acceptable or creates a heightened level of risk exposure. Therefore,
client continuance assessments are important and should be fully documented.
ISA (NZ) 210 Agreeing the terms of the audit engagement establishes the preconditions for
accepting an audit, which are:
an acceptable financial reporting framework has been used in the preparation of the financial
statementsthose charged with governance agree that they acknowledge and understand their
responsibilities.
If the preconditions for an audit are not present, the auditor must discuss the matter with those
charged with governance. Unless required by law or regulation to do so, the auditor must not
accept the engagement.
ISA (NZ) 220 Quality control for an audit of financial statements deals with those aspects of
engagement acceptance that are within the control of the auditor. The engagement partner must
be satisfied that appropriate procedures regarding the acceptance and continuance of client
relationships and audit engagements have been followed, and must determine that conclusions
reached in this regard are appropriate. PES 3 Quality control for firms that perform audits and
reviews of financial statements, and other assurance engagements requires the firm to obtain
information considered necessary in the circumstances before accepting an engagement with a
new client, and when deciding whether to continue an existing engagement.