Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is an autoimmune disease that results in insulin dependence due to failure
of secretion of the hormone insulin by beta cells in the pancreas. Type 1 diabetes usually manifests
in childhood, < 20 years of age – the reason for which it was formerly termed juvenile diabetes, and
is more prevalent in Caucasians then in any other ethnicity (Diabetes Basics, n.d.). The key to
proper management is early detection, patient education, and most importantly patient compliance.
The patient will commonly present with multiple symptoms, the most common are the 3 P's –
polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia. However, subjective symptoms may include reports of fatigue,
abdominal pain, nocturnal enuresis, weight loss, changes in ... Show more content on
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Another important aspect to diabetes management is activity and exercise, it is essential to glycemic
control that diabetics participate in regular exercise routines. The healthier the body the less likely
the patient is to develop complications secondary to diabetes. Lifestyle also plays a huge role,
diabetics that smoke and drink alcohol are also at a higher risk for complications. There are two
categories of insulin – long–acting and rapid–acting, both are administered subcutaneously by
injection and are measured in units. The long acting insulin – basal, detemir or glargine, has an onset
of 3–4 hours and a duration of 24 hours. It is released slowly resulting in a constant effect over time
(Insulin glargine, n.d.). Due to its long duration, long–acting insulin is generally administered every
twenty–four hours, but it may be divided into two doses and administered every 12 hours. The dose
is determined by the endocrinologist, or physician in charge of care, and is based on the patient's
needs. Rapid–acting insulin – bolus, aspart or lispro, has an onset of approximately 15 minutes with
a duration of 3–4 hours (insulin lispro, n.d.). Rapid–acting insulin is administered directly before
meals and dose varies according to blood glucose values and carbohydrate intake. Counting
carbohydrates is an
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Kristine Le. Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 . The Diabetes Quebec
Kristine Le
Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 The Diabetes Quebec Association states that in the past, "a diagnosis of
diabetes meant certain death". This was held true until a Canadian physician, Frederick Banting,
discovered the hormone insulin in 1921. He was able to isolate a unknown matter from the pancreas
of a dog and inject it into another dogs pancreas 's. This discovery enabled them to save the lives of
these diabetic dogs. Through trial and error Banting was able to perfect the purification of insulin in
order for it to be injected on a daily basis to compensate for the insulin not being produced by the
pancreas to control the blood sugar in hyperglycemic patients. Diabetes mellitus is an inability of the
body to catabolize glucose ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This disease does not favor one gender over the other, it effects males and females equally.
Currently, the origin of diabetes is a conundrum. Although, it is understood that the immune system
attacks the beta cells but it is not clear how or why it occurs. It is hypothesized that T1D maybe
hereditary and environmental factors contribute to the onset (5). Symptoms prevail in individuals
whom have the majority of their beta cells destroyed via a cellular mediated autoimmune response
(1). The insulin signaling cascade is initiated when insulin binds to insulin receptors located on the
cell 's surface. The insulin receptor has four subunits: two alpha subunits located on the outside of
the cell and two transmembrane beta subunits (3 & 4). When insulin binds to the alpha subunit
receptors, it transmits a signal across the plasma membrane and activates tyrosine residues that are
attached to the beta subunits. The activation of the tyrosine residues causes it to autophosphorolate
and then phosphorolate other proteins that also have tyrosine residues attached to them. These
phosphorylated proteins then move on to trigger cellular responses such as translocation of GLUT4
vesicule to the cell membrane. The vesicule becomes a transporter to allow glucose to come into the
cell so that it can continue on and be stored as glycogen (3). A beta cell–specific autoimmune
process is the beginning of the destruction of the beta cells that produce insulin.

Types Of Diabetes Mellitus : Insulin Dependent ( Type 1 )
Maggie Roman
MED 2056
Cohort FT31
Diabetes Mellitus
Mrs. Annabelle
June 29, 2015
The human body achieves homeostasis through the coordination of organs and different systems
throughout the body. In particular, the endocrine system plays a functional role in regulating the
body's physiological activities via chemical substances, known as hormones. The endocrine cells
secrete hormones in response to body signals in a negative feedback loop, which is a self–regulatory
response intended to re–establish equilibrium. A disruption or mutation in the physiological process
can result in overproduction or underproduction of hormones, which is the cause of most endocrine
disorders, such as diabetes mellitus. This research paper will ... Show more content on
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The classic signs and symptoms that patients of IDDM present with include: urinating frequently
(polyuria), frequent thirst (polydipsia), excessive hunger (polyphagia), fatigue, weight loss despite
eating more, blurry vision, or wounds with slow or difficulty healing (www.diabetes.org, 2015).
Rosdahl (2012) further adds, "When type 1 diabetes is diagnosed, the goal is to achieve metabolic
stabilization, restore body weight, and relieve symptoms of hyperglycemia" (p.1294).
In type 2 Non–Insulin–Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM), the onset is typically in adulthood
(30 years or older), but can present at any age. In NIDDM, the pancreas is still functional.
Therefore, insulin is still produced, however, the levels may not be within normal range. Rosdahl
(2012) states, "Clients with type 2 diabetes do not depend on insulin injections to sustain life, but
they may require insulin for adequate glucose control" (p. 1296). The etiology of NIDDM is
unknown, but an autoimmune process has been ruled out (Rosdahl, 2012). "More than 80% of
clients are overweight and do not always experience classic signs and symptoms" (Rosdahl, 2012,
p.1294). In addition to the three "polys", abdominal obesity, hypertension, elevated blood glucose,
insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia are several symptoms that a patient may present with NIDDM
(Rosdahl, 2012, p.1294). The muscle cells in obese people are less responsive to insulin and lack the
ability

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus ( T1dm )
INTRODUCTION
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is the most common metabolic disorder in which both genetic and
environmental factors are involved [1]. T1DM is considered a chronic immune–mediated disorder. It
was hypothesized that whilst children have a genetic predisposition to T1DM, there is likely to be an
environmental factor that triggers the development of T1DM. Possible triggers that have been
suggested include viral infection, vaccines, low levels of vitamin D and cow's milk, [2]. Oxidative
stress is one of the important pathways that have been involved in the etiopathogenesis of T1D [3].
Complications of T1DM could be due to the cellular metabolism leading to hyperglycemia and
excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Objectives
This study aimed to evaluate the association of glutathione S–transferase mu 1 (GST M1) and
glutathione S–transferase theta 1 (GST T1) polymorphisms with the development of T1DM and
disease– related risk factors.
PATIENTS AND METHODS
The study included 64 diabetic children with T1DM with a mean age of 11.7± 3.6 years; 26 boys
and 38 girls. They were enrolled from the attendants of pediatric genetic and endocrinology unit and
pediatric outpatient clinic of Menoufia university Hospitals, Egypt. The study was conducted in the
period from January 2015 to March 2016. Diagnosis of T1DM patients was based on the American
Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria [9]. Patients were followed up , regularly checked and
investigated accordingly for diabetic complications , their current treatment regimens. Cases
suffering from 2ry diabetes , or having chronic–related diseases , like hypothyroidism or
hyperthyroidism or hypoadrenalism were excluded.
Forty–one apparently healthy children of matched age and sex served as a control group. Written
informed consent was obtained from each child included in the study or their participant parents.
Ethical clearance was obtained for the research project. The study protocol conforms to the ethical
guidelines of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Data about the duration of
illness and onset of the disease in children with T1DM were taken. Body

A Brief Note On Diabetes And The Treatment Of Type 1...
Review Article
Introduction:
Type 1 diabetes, also known as insulin–dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition in which body
produces little to no insulin due to autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas. Patient
with Type 1 diabetes are mainly treated with subcutaneous insulin injection, along with dietary and
lifestyle modification. Purpose of this article is to evaluate the role of DPP–4 inhibitors in the
treatment of Type 1 diabetes mellitus. DPP–4 inhibitors inhibit the degradation of the incretin
hormones, which is responsible for release and synthesis of insulin from pancreatic beta cells and
also reduce glucagon secretion from pancreatic alpha cells.
Method/Result:
The literature search has been done using the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The primary outcome of the trial was to evaluate the change in insulin requirement and secondary
outcomes were risk of hypoglycemia and preservation of C–peptide secretion at the end of the year.
At the end of the year, the decrease in insulin requirement was 15.2±9.5 and 23.7±13.9 for group 1
and group 2 respectively, which shows the significant reduction of insulin requirement from
baseline. There were no statistical significant difference found for risk of hypoglycemia and
preservation of C–peptide secretion (p value 0.6828 vs 0.9368) at the end of the year. The
limitations of the trail were small sample size and short observation period. In the second trial, 20
adults with Type 1 diabetes were enrolled in a double–blind, randomized, crossover study for 8
weeks. Patients included in the trial were 18 to 70 years old, diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes, were
on insulin therapy and HbA1c between 8.5 and 12%. Patients were excluded from trail if they were
on metformin, pramlintide or a GLP–1 agonist, had known allergy to adhesives or DPP–4 inhibitors,
Cr > 0.1 mmol/L or a calculated CrCl < 50 ml/min. Patients were randomly assigned to sitagliptin
100 mg/day or placebo for 4 weeks and then crossed over. The outcomes of the trial were evaluated
using 2–h postprandial blood glucose and 24–h AUC changes in glucose levels from continuous
glucose monitoring, HbA1c, fructosamine and insulin dose.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus ( Or Juvenile Onset )
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus The aetiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (or juvenile onset) is a localised
auto immunity disease caused by type IV cell–mediated hypersensitivity. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes
(T cells) are responsible for the destruction of Beta (β) cells with in the islets of Langerhans of the
pancreases (Handorf, Sollinger, & Alam, 2015). Although reasons why are unknown, this is due to
T–Cell Receptors (TCR's) binding to self–antigens presented by class 1 Major Histocompatibility
Complex ((MHCs) Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) in humans) on the membrane of β cells aided
by binding cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4). CD4 a transmembrane glycoprotein present on T–cells
binds to a specific region of the MCH this is the first signal ... Show more content on
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DISC starts a caspase cascade were procaspase 8 is cleaved to caspase (cysteine–aspartic acid
protease) 8 which in turn cleaves procaspase 3 to the caspase 3. It is caspase 3 which fragments
proteins and activates caspase activated DNase (CAD) to fragment deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
within the cell by breaking down peptide bonds (Janeway, Travers, Walport, & Shlomchik, 2001).
Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes has shown to have an incident rate of 22.8/100,000 in children
under 15 while its peak age for diagnosis between 9 and 14 year of age and occurs rapidly over a
few weeks. Like its name suggest juvenile onset suggests 95.1% of people under 19 have type 1
when compared to type 2 diabetes furthermore makes up only 5–10% of all diabetes cases (Cass,
2015). As previously stated the mechanisms of why this auto immune disease occurs are unclear
however there are risk factors which increase your likelihood of developing the disease. Family
prevalence can increase your risk factor even though in 85% of cases there is no family history. With
2–4% increased change if your mother has the disease and 6–9% if your father has the condition.
This raises up to 30% if both parents have the condition linking genetics and environmental factors
to developing the disease, specifically being a heterozygote for the

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Essay
TYPE 1 DIABETES MELLITUS
Christine Flotteron
University of Tampa
Dr. Aguado Loi
ESC 360
10/8/17
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Introduction
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is one of the most renowned health complication that affects people in their
childhood stage. Its causal factor is a deficiency in the insulin levels of the human body. This
deficiency in insulin is accompanied by the destruction of pancreatic beta cells. People suffering
from this condition require insulin injection so that the amount of glucose levels in their bodies can
be regulated to the desired levels (World Health Organization, 1999). The risk factors for diabetes
have not been clearly defined but have been linked to the interaction of environmental factors and
genes. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Studies have indicated that the highest cases of the disease were found to be in Finland and Italy
while the lowest cases were recorded in South American countries such as Brazil and also in Asian
countries. Genetic factors have been linked to the prevalence of the disease due to geographical
differences but this is yet to be proven. There has been notable rise in the number of incidences of
the illness in children globally over recent years with a reported 65% increase in the number of
incidences in examined populations. The annual percentage increase was estimated to be 3%.
Diabetes has not been reported to be a sex dependent disease as it does not discriminate gender.
Both male and female children have the same vulnerability to the disease. However, the disease was
found to be age dependent as higher incidences were found to be prevalent among the age group 10–
14 years and low among the age group of 0–4 years. Caucasians have been reported to be at the
highest risk of developing the disease followed by Latinos (Frese, & Sandholzer, 2013)
Conclusion
Type 1 Diabetes mellitus is a condition that has negative implications on both the society and the
individuals who are affected. The cost of living becomes very high for people suffering from the
disease and lack of medication could eventually lead to loss of lives. It is therefore

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Research Paper
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnosis, Pediatric
Type 1 diabetes (type 1 diabetes mellitus) is a long–term (chronic) disease. It happens when the
body does not make enough of a hormone called insulin. Insulin lets sugars (glucose) go into the
cells in the body. This gives you energy. If the body cannot make enough insulin, sugars cannot
move into cells. This causes high blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
Your child's doctor will set personal treatment goals for your child. These goals will tell you how
high your child's blood sugar levels should be.
HOME CARE
Questions to Ask Your Child's Doctor
You may want to ask these questions:
○ Should my child and I talk with a diabetes educator?
○ Should my child join a support group for people

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus ( Iddm ) Essay
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, also known as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is destroys
pancreatic beta–cells, leading to partial or total loss of insulin production (Merger, et al 170). The
exact cause is not known, but the destruction is triggered as an autoimmune response which could
be due to the stressors from environment and genetics (Merger, et al 170). "Type 1 diabetes is a
chronic condition in which there is no cure, nor prevention at the current time" (Merger, et al 170).
Most individuals who present with type 1 diabetes do not have a known relative who had the
disease, and newborn screening programs for genetic risk makers have not yet been made universal
(Skyler and Camillo, 3). "Typically type 1 diabetes is diagnosed between 6 months and young
adulthood, but the disease can occur at any age" (Merger, et al 173). "Neo–natal diabetes is very
rare, however, the incidence of IDDM increases most between ages 0–4, (4.7% per year). An
incidence of 31 to 100,000 occurred in the 5 to 9 year olds, 50.6 in the 10 to 14 year olds and 50.6 in
the over 14 year olds per 100,000 and year" (Merger, et al 173). Recent research shows the male to
female ratio of IDDM incidence in children under 14 was 1:1, and the ratio is 1:7 in children over
the age of 14 (Merger, et al 173). The highest area of prevalence of IDDM is found in Finland with
64.2 per 100,000 per year in 2005, and the lowest incidence is from China and Venezuela with a rate
of 0.1 per 100,000 per year

The Pathophysiology Of Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 And 2
The Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 and 2 According to the National Diabetes
Statistics Report from The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2012, it revealed that 29.1
million of the American population has diabetes with 1.7 million new diagnoses each year. Diabetes
is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States and costs over 176 billion dollars per year.
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to the dysfunction of
the pancreas. The two most common categories of diabetes mellitus are type 1 and type 2 (Huether
& McCance, 2012). In order to understand the differences and similarities between type 1 and type
2, the pathophyisology, assessment findings, and treatments of each type will be examined.
Pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 diabetes is due to the autoimmune destruction
of beta–cells. Within the pancreas, one of the cell types in the islets of Langerhans is beta cells.
These beta cells are responsible for releasing insulin to regulate normal blood sugar levels. Although
the mechanisms of beta cell destruction are not completely clear, it is suspected that individuals with
type 1 have interferon–alpha expression due to a viral infection, which may cause the
hyperexpression of class 1 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules by beta cells
(Richardson, Morgan, & Foulis 2014). The class 1 MHC molecules are markers to help cytotoxic
CD8 T–cells to recognize and destroy

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Case Study
Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus have to rely on insulin therapy for the rest of their life.
Available via injection, insulin can be administered once or four times a day depending on the
patient's blood glucose conditions. It is essential for the patient to have routine physician checkups
every week after being recently diagnosed. During that meeting, the physician will study the results
of blood glucose tests and urine samples to check for abnormalities. Along with these checkups, diet
plays a critical role in maintaining healthy blood glucose levels and the patient will have to monitor
their dietary intake. The weekly testing and consultations will cease to fewer once the levels are
managed but it is essential to maintain precautions to monitor long term complications.
The patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus should be skilled in managing and recognizing their
medical state such as:
Hypoglycemic
Hpyerglycemic
Diet intake – carbohydrates
Adjusting intake of food when exercising
How to administer insulin
Insulin
Insulin will lower the sugar concentration in the blood ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This can pose big obstacles for younger patients who might be hesistant around needles. The
different types of insulin differ in terms of half life and rate of onset. The medical provider will
work along with the patient to find the appropriate dose and appropriate time of day for
administration of insulin. There are some forms of insulin in which mixing can occur but others with
that are contraindicated when combined with other insulins. It is imperative that the patient and
physician have a clear understanding of the drug's actions as well as when to take the medication.
Another important feature is knowing when and how to adjust the dose of insulin when there is a
sudden change in diet, before and after exercise, or on sick

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Case Study
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease that results in the body's destruction of
its own insulin producing β–cells of the pancreas (Simmons, 2015) which accounts for 5%–10% of
people living with T1DM (Porth, 2015) In order to understand T1DM, it is important to know that
the body metabolizes sugars and starches into the simple sugar glucose. Glucose is converted to
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the cells of our body which is the main source of energy. Insulin is
the hormone produced by the pancreas so sugar can more readily used by the cell from the
bloodstream. When your pancreas does not produce the hormone insulin anymore, the glucose in the
blood stream remains causing an individual with type 1 diabetes to have abnormally ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Having a care team to help you create a healthy food plan that has a positive role in blood glucose
management and insulin adjustments. It is easier for people with T1DM to become obese so proper
counseling is an adequate approach for a healthy lifestyle. Suggestions for a proper diet could be
carb counting, meal prepping, and education of the proper balance of proteins, carbohydrates and
fats. These suggestions can also help prevent other health issues that are common in people with
T1DM like heart disease and nerve damage (Diabetes Association, 2016). Exercise is extremely
important with management of diabetes but it is also important to keep in mind that over exerting
yourself could cause hyper/hypoglycemia or problems with blood pressure. People with T1DM
should check their blood glucose levels before and after working out in case you need to eat more
carbs or need to adjust your insulin intake. Dehydration can alter your blood glucose levels so it is
important to stay hydrated as well when exercising. Because people with T1DM may have or
develop nerve damage in their feet it is important to not over do any physical activity. Some
activities that are recommended are swimming, hiking, biking, and fast pace walking. Just like with
your diet, increasing physical activity will lower your risk of common health problems that are
easier for diabetics to develop including depression and obesity. (CDC,

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM)
Type one diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a genetic autoimmune metabolic condition that requires
diligent self–management and monitoring. Poorly managed or untreated T1DM can lead to serious
complications and even death.
Type 1 Diabetes occurs when the insulin producing beta cells also know as islet cells, produced in
the islet of langethan, are attacked in the pancreases resulting in little to no insulin production. This
leads to elevated levels of blood glucose (more than 8mmol/L) and if left uncontrolled multiple
complications arise (reference NPS MIDICE WISE).
Signs of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (also knows as juvenile diabetes) usually start to appear in early
life, typically in childhood or adolescence, but can occur at any age. Roughly 10–15% ... Show more
The lack of the hormone Insulin produced by the pancreas in diabetes inhibits the glucose transfer
across cell membranes for conversion to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This causes blood glucose
levels to rise and cells to source energy from stored fats (reference video from slide).This releases
chemical substances into the blood causing ketoacidosis, a serious complication of the disease and
cause symptoms of excessive thirst, urination, fatigue and sweet smelling breath due to ketone
bodies in the blood. Loss of consciousness or even death can be a result of the condition.(reference
effect of DM on health)
High blood glucose levels effect the circulatory system through damage of blood vessels caused by
fatty deposits adding to the development of atherosclerosis. The restricted blood causes diabtetic
neuropathy, desensitising extremities and increasing risks of infections and amputation. Risk of high
blood pressure is elevated and contributes to added risk of heart disease.
Excretory system is effected by Atherosclerosis causes microalbuminuria. As the kidneys lose ability
to filter waste effectively, and the stress of extra blood filtration amounts on the kidneys damage
progresses to macroalbuminuria and finally diabetic nephropathy. Regular evaluation is imperative
to avoid irreversible damage and failure of the kidneys (find referrnce and

A Brief Note On Diabetes Mellitus Type 1
Abstract Diabetes mellitus type 1 (type 1 DM) was first documented following recognizable reports
in the second half of 19th century. More common in children and young adults, it results from the
autoimmune annihilation of the beta cells that produce insulin in the pancreas. Consequently,
glucose and blood in the urine increase due to the absence of, or reduced amount, of insulin.
Symptoms include increased hunger, frequent urination, weight loss and increased thirst. Presently,
the cause remains unknown, but explanatory theories offered include being exposed to antigens and
genetic susceptibility. Diagnosis is done by checking for abnormalities in blood, such as high sugar
levels, and also glucose in urine. Administering insulin injections and providing care are critical for
patients' survival. Other ways of managing type 1 DM include maintaining the level of blood sugar
at the targeted range through planning means and exercise. When uncontrolled, type 1 DM can
result in retinopathy, kidney damage and nerve damage.
Diabetes Type 1 Occurring as a multisystem disease of the metabolism of proteins, fats and
carbohydrates due to the lack of insulin, type 1 diabetes (type 1 DM) has both anatomic and
biochemical consequences. The prevalence of type 1 DM is across all ages but usually seen more in
children and young adults around puberty. Out of the total population of persons with diabetes, only
five percent suffer this form. The body fails to produce insulin, which is

Case Study Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Question 1: Are college students who are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus during freshman
and sophomore years more likely to have difficulties coping than individuals diagnosed prior to
college attendance?
This question is relevant to existing research because it explores a possible health disparity based on
onset of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D). This question addresses a gap in the literature because
previous studies have addressed emotion and identity in relation to T1D in emerging adults, but
have not explicitly studied the impact of diagnosis during college compared to diagnosis prior to
college. This is significant for USF student health because surveying the coping mechanisms and
types of difficulties experienced by current

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting
from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both. The chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes is
associated with long term damage, dysfunction, and failure of various organs especially the eyes,
kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels. Type 1 DM once known as juvenile diabetes or Insulin
dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin.
Although type 1 diabetes can develop at any age, it typically appears during childhood or
adolescence (1).
Visfatin is an intracellular enzyme, known as nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase (Nampt) and
pre–B–cell colony–enhancing factor (PBEF–1). It is preferentially ... Show more content on
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Carotid artery stiffness and intima–media thickness measured by ultrasonography are correlated
with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases in patients with type 1 diabetes (10). Patients with
diabetes show a 2– to 10–fold risk for developing atherosclerotic lesions compared with the normal
population. In type 1diabetes mellitus, the presence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors may not
entirely explain this excess cardiovascular risk (11). Therefore, children with type 1 DM have the
risk of cardiovascular diseases that may appear later. Thus, defining factors responsible for
atherosclerosis is of great importance. The most significant changes in early subclinical period of
atherosclerotic disease are endothelial dysfunction and increase in intima–media thickness observed
in all arterial beds (12). Endothelial function of the macro– and microcirculation, which is usually
evaluated through the vasodilator response to endothelium–dependent vasodilators or physiological
stimuli, is characteristically impaired in patients with T1D (13). In patients with diabetes,
endothelial dysfunction appears to be a consistent finding; indeed, there is general agreement that
hyperglycemia and diabetes lead to an impairment of nitric oxide production and activity

Chronic Condition Of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
This report investigates children living with the Chronic condition of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
(T1DM). Chronic illness is a disease or condition that is persistent, with long term effects for an
individual. Chronic is applied, when a condition last for a duration of three months or greater.
According to the World Health Organisation (2017), Diabetes is one of the leading causes of
mortality in the world, representing 60% of all deaths, along with heart disease, stroke, cancer and
chronic respiratory diseases. T1DM can be frustrating for a child and stressful for the family. With
culturally appropriate support and education, diabetes can be well managed and improve quality of
life. In this report, a brief description of T1DM is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It becomes a learning experience for the whole family, as children have to learn about injections,
counting carbohydrates and monitoring blood sugar levels. Diabetes complications include
blindness, kidney failure, nerve damage, circulatory problems, heart disease and early death.
Therefore, well managed diabetes can reduce the development of these risk. However, Type 2
diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is on the rise due to the increase in child obesity within New Zealand.
T2DM is triggered by unhealthy lifestyles and children of Maori and pacific decent, which rates are
increasing (Diabetes youth New Zealand, 2016).
There are many health services in the community that offer support and education to those affected
with Diabetes. As Diabetes in Maori is rising, it is proven one in five New Zealanders are at risk
(Wood, 2013). In fact, numbers are that significant, many local iwi have established services Marae–
based that target Maori communities, by Maori for Maori. The incentive is for Maori to feel
comfortable within their own surroundings. The most common characteristics of the illness that
make it complex for children with type 1 diabetes if not well managed include; health disparities,
poor health literacy and those with poor socio–economic status. The recent Ministry of health
Diabetes health strategy, "Living well with Diabetes" (2015), identifies how the quality of services
have improved for those living with the long–term chronic

Diabetes Mellitus : Type 1 Diabetes
Alina Perez
HIMC 2630
Chris Bushaw
Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 Diabetes Research Paper
11/16/2014
Diabetes Mellitus also known as–Juvenile Onset Diabetes, Type 1 Diabetes, and Insulin Dependent
Diabetes. It is a chronic autoimmune disease described by high blood glucose levels due to insulin
levels being inadequate to maintain normal glucose levels. This research paper will discuss the
symptoms and signs, etiology, who it triggers, how it happen, and treatment for Type 1 Diabetes.
Symptoms and signs of Type 1 Diabetes are hyperglycemia, polydipsia, glycosuria, and diabetic
ketoacidosis. Hyperglycemia may lead to malaise, headaches, and weakness. As well as diabetes is
known to cause excessive thirst, also known as polydipsia. Glycosuria, sugar in the urea, causes
frequent urination. To sum up, severe dehydration, abdominal pain, rapid breathing, a fruity odor on
the breath, weight loss, drowsiness, and in more severe cases, coma are all caused by diabetic
ketoacidosis. Causes are questionable when talking about Type 1 dabetes.
Still questioning true causes –– viral and environmental trigger in genetically susceptible people to
cause an immune reaction, this is thought to be a cause of Type 1 diabetes, but the actual cause is
still unknown. Still being researched, scientists have identified genes, or gene regions, associated
with this disease; including HLA, Human Leukocyte Antigen. Type 1 diabetes starts by an
environmental or viral factor that possibly modifies a gene.

Application Of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Table of Contents
I. Introduction to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
a. What it is
b. Prevalence and demographics
c. Treatment
II. Cognitive Outcomes: Mood and Memory
a. Memory
i. Neural Basis of Memory ii. Cognitive Outcome of TIDM on Memory
III. Structural Brain Changes: MRI Studies
a. The Hippocampus
i. Purpose and Function of the Hippocampus ii. Previous studies on T1DM and Hippocampal
Volume iii. The Cognitive Effects of T1DM on Hippocampal Volume
b. Other Brain Areas
IV. Conclusion
a. Summary of the Current Literature Findings
b. Directions for Future Research
i. What is Still unknown about the clinical applications of T1DM and Memory ii. What is Still
unknown about the clinical applications of T1DM and Structural Brain Changes
V. References
I. Introduction to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
a. What is Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Jones, T. W., & Davis, E. A. (2003). Hypoglycemia in children with type 1 diabetes: current issues
and controversies. Pediatric Diabetes, 4(3), 143–150.
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a disease caused by the inability of the body to produce insulin.
As a result of the human defenses against autoimmune disorders, insulin–producing cells in the
body are identified as foreign and therefore targeted by immune cells for destruction. Insulin is a
hormone produced by the pancreas, which is responsible for regulating blood glucose levels through
the regulation of glucose uptake from blood into storage cells. High levels of blood

Case Study : The Emergency Room With Dka And New Onset...
Pharmacology Case Study of Mr. Z This paper will explore the history and hospital course of Mr. Z.,
a 23 year old Caucasian male who was admitted on October 11, 2016 to Massachusetts General
Hospital for treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and new onset type 1 diabetes mellitus. DKA
is an emergency situation that results in 100,000 hospitalizations in the US yearly, a 9% mortality
rate, and treatments of reportedly 1 billion dollars per year (Katsilambros, Kanaka–Gantenbein,
Liatis, Makrilakis, & Tentolouris, 2011). Presenting to the emergency room with DKA is the first
manifestation of type 1 diabetes in 30% of cases (Katsilambros et al., 2011). This paper will
examine Mr. Z.'s case presentation, pertinent medical history, diagnosis formulation, hospital
management, intensive review of his medications, and discussion. Case Presentation Mr. Z. is a
pleasant, 23 year old Caucasian male who presented to Massachusetts General Hospital emergency
room on October 11, 2016. Mr. Z had initial symptoms of headache for 3 weeks and difficulty
concentrating in school. Over the last two weeks he developed extreme blurred vision, polydipsia,
polyphagia, and polyuria which was increasing in severity. He also had an unintentional weight loss
of 10 pounds over the last three months. He was home for Yom Kippur when his father noticed after
fours of fasting that Mr. Z. was diaphoretic, short of breath, dizzy, pale, and was confused. 911 was
called and he was brought to the

Type 1 Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 insulin dependent diabetes mellitus is most commonly diagnosed in children and adolescents
but can sometimes be diagnosed in older age. It is defined as a chronic condition in which the
pancreas does not produce insulin which is needed to allow glucose, known as the bodies source of
fuel, to enter the cells. Type 1 diabetes does not have a cure but can be managed with proper
treatment of insulin therapy. Type 2 non–insulin dependent diabetes mellitus is commonly caused by
genetics, obesity, poor decisions in diet and exercise. It is defined as the bodies inability to break
down glucose by resisting insulin and affecting the maintenance of regulating glucose levels in the
body. Glucose does not move into the cells so it builds up in the bloodstream causing increased
blood sugar levels. Type 2 diabetes does not have a cure either but can be controlled with proper
diet, exercise and maintaining a healthy weight. If the previous interventions do not work then
patient may need medications and insulin therapy. The symptoms of type 1 diabetes are sudden with
onset and may include excessive thirst, frequent urination, bedwetting in children who previously
didn't wet the bed during the night, increased hunger, unintended weight loss, restlessness, and other
mood changes, fatigue and weakness, blurred vision, in females– a vaginal yeast infection. The
symptoms for type 2 diabetes may not be detected or may be absent making it difficult to diagnose.
Symptoms include

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Essay
Summary:
In humans, diabetes mellitus is one of the oldest disease. Diabetes is a disease in which the body is
unable to produce and respond to the insulin hormone properly which causes an elevated blood
glucose level and increased glucose level in urine. About 3000 years ago, it was first found in
Egyptian manuscript. The difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus was made in 1936.
The main focus in on type 2 diabetes mellitus. The type 2 diabetes mellitus can be because of many
factors including insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency or it can be by both. It can be
genetic and also because of environmental and behavioral risk factors including physical inactivity,
sedentary lifestyle, generous consumption of alcohol and smoking. Obesity is found to be the main
contributor in approximately 55% cases of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is more
common than the type 1.
When the food containing carbohydrates is eaten, the chemicals in small intestine break down the
sugar molecules called glucose. Next, the cell lining the small intestine absorb the glucose which
passes into the blood stream. When the blood reaches the pancreas, the beta cells ... Show more
As the insulin deficiency continues, the blood glucose level increases. In response to which kidney
filters the excess glucose out of the blood into the urine along with large amount of water. Unless the
large amount of water is consumed, the kidneys cannot keep up the demand of removing the glucose
from the blood stream and diluted it sufficiently in urine. As a result, the blood become much more
concentrated than the normal. This condition is called hyperosmolarity. Hyerosmolarity pulls water
out of the body tissues into the blood stream causing severe dehydration which may leads to
hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic syndrome. Neurological syndromes such as comma can

A Study On Bias And Selection Bias
Bias Although prospective cohort studies have fewer potential sources of bias and confounding than
retrospective studies, the study is still vulnerable to bias. The study is vulnerable to selection bias.
Selection bias occurs in a cohort study when the loss to follow–up is related to both the exposure
and outcome of interest. Loss to follow–up can arise in the study, if subjects can no longer be
located or when they no longer want to participate in a study. Loss to follow–up is problematic since
it can reduce the power of the study to detect associations that are truly present, and it can bias the
study results. Individuals in the study can be lost due to many reasons such as personal choice to opt
out of the study, death, or change in geographic location. Loss to follow–up did occurred in this
study. Of the 37,500 individuals, 2,700 participants were lost during follow–up. Due to loss to
follow, it can bias the results by causing the true measure of association to be either overestimated or
underestimated. To reduce loss to follow, is to obtain high participation rate. High participation rates
is not always feasible but most epidemiologists are satisfy with participation rates greater than 80%.
The participation rate of the study is 92.8%. Although the rate is higher than 80%, it is still
important to consider how this bias impacts the outcome. In addition, the study is vulnerable to
information bias. Information bias is an error that is due to systematic differences in

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Summary
This article "The Challenge of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus" is about treatments not only for Type 1 but
also for Type 2 diabetes. I picked this article because it explains various topics about Diabetes such
as clinical features and pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapy. It gave a detailed breakdown of the
process of what happens with the body that has diabetes, and what current and new treatments will
be available to these patients. Type 2 diabetes effects most of the body cells and systems. Because of
hyperglycemia, "people with diabetes have an increased risk of developing ischemic heart disease,
cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease with gangrene of lower limbs, chronic renal
disease, visual impairment, and even blindness, as

Types Of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Introduction:
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is a disease that occurs when insulin–producing beta cells of the pancreas
are damaged or are being destroyed (Mahan, Escott–Stump & Raymond, 2012). The gradual
destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas usually leads to complete insulin deficiency, which
ultimately manifests itself in the following symptoms at clinical onset: "high blood glucose
(hyperglycemia), frequent urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and a significant
amount of weight loss, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances and ketoacidosis", requiring
dependency of exogenous insulin in order to promote optimal glycemic control in order to prevent
further more severe complications; such as, ketoacidosis, microvascular diseases, macrovascular
diseases, neuropathy, or worse – Death (Mahan et al., 2012). Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus can result
from two existing forms: 1. Immune–mediated diabetes Mellitus, which is characterized by
autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas and an idiopathic (unknown cause)
commonly seen in ethnic groups of African or Asian descent (Mahan et al., 2012). Of all diagnosed
diabetes cases, prevalence of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus accounts for 5%–10%, and although onset
may present itself at any age, 70% of cases are diagnosed in young adults (younger than age 30),
with a peak in occurring incidences seen mostly in children and adolescents (Mahan et al., 2012).
"In the United States approximately 1 in every 400 to 500

Diabetes Insipidus Research Paper
Contrary to some beliefs, diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus are not in any related to each
other. They are two different conditions that are tied together by name similarities. Diabetes
insipidus is a fairly uncommon common with an occurrence rate of about 3 in 100,000 (Saborio et
al, 2000). Diabetes insipidus is condition that is characterized by extreme continuous thirst and
excretion of large volume of diluted urine with one symptom being independent of the other. The
quantity of water drunk has no effect on the concentration of urine that is produced; it still remains
diluted (Saborio et al, 2000). The main of cause of diabetes insipidus is a deficiency in the
antidiuretic hormone's (ADH) production or the response of the kidneys ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Type 2 Diabetes mellitus: This is characterized by the failure of the body cells to respond to the
insulin produced. It is non–insulin dependent diabetes mellitus because although the pancreas still
produces insulin, the body cells have somehow developed an insulin resistance (WHO, 2011).
Gestational Diabetes: This is often found in pregnant women who have never had an incidence of
high blood sugar or a history of diabetes. It is characterized by high levels of blood glucose during
pregnancy but normal blood glucose levels after pregnancy if controlled right (WHO,

Symptoms And Treatment Of Diabetes Mellitus Type 1
TERMINOLOGY
CLINICAL CLARIFICATION
A metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from decreased insulin secretion and
insulin receptor sensitivity. Chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes leads to microvascular and
macrovascular complications 1
CLASSIFICATION 1
Diabetes mellitus type 2
○ Accounts for 90–95% of cases of diabetes
○ Less common types of diabetes include: diabetes mellitus type 1, gestational diabetes, diabetes
due to genetic defects, drug–induced diabetes, endocrinopathy based diabetes, exocrine pancreas
based diabetes
DIAGNOSIS
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
History 1, 14
○ May be asymptomatic despite pathological and functional changes in target tissue; most cases are
diagnosed through routine screening or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
metabolic syndrome, non–alcoholic steatohepatitis)
– Sleep disorders (obstructive sleep apnea, chronic sleep deprivation, night shift work) in
conjunction with glucose intolerance
DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES
Primary diagnostic tools 1
○ Diagnosis is confirmed with one of the below tests in combination with clinical evidence of
diabetes OR one of the below tests repeated or in combination with a second test
– Fasting plasma glucose OR
– Oral glucose tolerance test OR
– Hemoglobin A1c
○ If patient is exhibits classic signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia (polyuria, polydipsia,
polyphagia, unexplained weight loss, weakness, blurred vision), a

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 And Type 2
According to The American Diabetes Association, "Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic
diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action,
or both. The chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes is associated with long–term damage, dysfunction,
and failure of various organs, especially the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels" (p.1).
There are two types of diabetes, type 1 and type 2. Insulin management is needed for type 1
diabetes, because it is an autoimmune disease. Diabetes Mellitus type 2 is controlled by a strict diet.
If the diet is not followed, then hypoglycemic proxies and insulin may be necessary to control a
steady blood sugar level (Burden M, 2003). The main symptoms of diabetes common in type 1 are,
lethargy, stupor, weight loss, breath which smells like acetone, kussmaul breathing
(hyperventilation), nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Signs and symptoms that associate with
both diabetes type 1 and 2 are, polydipsia, polyphagia, blurred vision, polyuria, and glycosuria. A
diagnostic test which supports the signs and symptoms of diabetes is the fasting plasma glucose.
This test diagnoses diabetes primarily during pregnancy. Diabetes is confirmed with a level of
greater than 126 mg/dl. The patient must remain NPO for at least 8 hours with the exception of
water. An oral glucose tolerance test or glucose challenge test is when a patient drinks a beverage
containing glucose. The levels being greater

Intensive Glucose Control Of Patients With Type 1 Diabetes...
Topic
Intensive glucose control of patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus to maintain blood glucose levels
(BGLs) near normal range
Introduction
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder which can occur from insufficient insulin secretion.
Insulin is a hormone which is secreted by the pancreas and regulates BGLs (Loghmani, 2005;
Nussey & Whitehead, 2001). Type 1 diabetes is also known as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
(IDDM). In this, the body produces no, or very little, insulin which can lead to chronic
hyperglycaemia. Thus the chances of microvascular, metabolic and infectious complications
increase, which can result in increased incidence of retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy,
cardiovascular diseases and cerebrovascular mortality (Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 [DM Type 1],
2014). It usually appears during childhood and adolescence but may occur at any age. The chances
of IDDM are equal among males and females and are more common in European people (Type 1
Diabetes Trial Net, n.d.). Mayo Clinic (2014) reports, that the people of Finland and Sardinia have
400 times higher chances of having IDDM than people of Venezuela.
World Health Organization [WHO] (2014) reports that nearly 347 million of the worldwide
population have diabetes mellitus and it is reported this may be the 7th main cause of death by 2030.
IDDM accounts for approximately 10% of all the diabetic population (WHO, 2014). Family history,
exposure to some viral infections such as mumps and coxsackie, as

History of Diabetis Mellitus
Years ago type 1 diabetes mellitus was better known as juvenile diabetes. Most people may
remember all the commercials supporting research from the famous Mary Taylor Moore. In recent
years juvenile diabetes was renames type 1 and type 2 in children since the disease process is the
same in both children and adults. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a significant health care concern among
youth and is currently the most prevalent childhood chronic illness. (Rachel M. Merkel, 2012) Type
1 diabetes is when the body does not produce insulin leading to a buildup of glucose in the blood.
Complication from Type 1 diabetes can be hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia or even diabetic
ketoacidosis. Diabetic ketoacidosis is the most commom cause of death in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They can be taught through therapeutic play. Therapeutic play involves having them practice the
procedure by using a toy such as a teddy bear. The nurse or parent can have the child practice taking
the toys blood glucose and giving insulin injections. By doing this it helps the child to feel as though
they are part of the procedure. It also helps the child learn how to do the procedure so when they are
ready they have the knowledge to perform it. How much insulin you take is based on your glucose
levels, this is monitored by a blood glucose test. In addition to insulin and blood glucose monitoring,
you also need to monitor your exercise and carbohydrate count. For a children and their parents this
can all be very overwhelming but rest assure you will never be alone in the process. A type 1
diabetes patient will have help from their doctor, managing their insulin dose, a dietitian helping
choose the right foods to eat and a diabetic counselor to help manage everyday life living with
diabetes. Part of treating type 1diabetes is teaching. This can be different in a child with diabetes
depending on their developmental levels. A child who is 3 is going to learn differently than a child
who is 8 or 15. A small child for example, is not going to understand what type 1 diabetes is and will
not understand why they have to get shots or poked in the finger every day. One way you can help
this child understand is to give them a

Type 1 diabetes mellitus has been shown to be the result of an autoimmune reaction to antigens of
the beta cells of the pancreas. With an inability to secrete insulin, the body cannot utilise blood
glucose and adaptions will occur in order to fuel the body's energy needs. This poster will discuss
the metabolic pathways that lead to hyperglycaemia and ketoacidosis in untreated diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease due to insulin deficiency. In patients with type 1 diabetes,
also called juvenile–onset diabetes, or insulin–dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), there is an
almost or total deficiency of insulin. This is the result of an autoimmune reaction to antigens of the
islet of Langerhans cells of the pancreas. The immune system attack and destroy the beta cells,
which loses its ability to synthesize the hormone insulin.
In normal health, the blood glucose level is maintained by the action of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
If the levels of ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid and β–hydroxybutyrate acid) are allowed to increase,
their acidic nature lowers the blood pH (low pH = high amount of acid) and hence the result is
diabetic ketoacidosis. The bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer prevents a large drop in blood pH, but
even a drop of 0.3 to 0.5 pH units is sufficient to decrease the sodium concentration. A decrease of
sodium ions in the interstitial fluid draws out potassium ions from the cells, which leads to impaired
brain function and coma. High levels of ketone bodies and glucose in the blood also draws water out
of cells. As glucose passes through the kidneys and into the urine, water follows and causes osmotic
diuresis, resulting in dehydration. The classical symptom in patients with poorly controlled diabetes
is the fruity smell on the breath. This is due to the volatile ketone body acetone. Other symptoms of
diabetic ketoacidosis is frequent urination, and increased thirst due to water

Differentiating Between Type 1 and 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Introduction
Diabetes Mellitus is a disease of the endocrine system primarily differentiated between type 1 and
type 2. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas is unable to produce insulin and was previously
seen in the younger generation which is no longer the case.1 Type 2 diabetes is the more prevalent
of the two types and involves elevated blood sugar levels due to the insufficient production of
insulin. Risk factors that make an individual higher risk for type 2 diabetes include increasing age,
obesity, family history, a sedentary lifestyle.1,2 Innovative drug therapies for type 2 diabetes remain
important for the treatment and reduction of the disease.
The prevalence of diabetes according to the CDC is 26 million Americans ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Other drugs with a similar mechanism of action include empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, ipragliflozin,
but these are not FDA approved. Since the sodium glucose transporter is located in the proximal part
of the kidney, and responsible for 90% of glucose reabsorption, the reabsorption is therefore
inhibited.2 This results in decreased blood glucose due to a decrease in glucose reabsorption and
increase in excretion.
Invokana is initially administered 100 mg by mouth every day before the first meal of the day. The
dose can be increased to 300 mg every day in patients tolerating the initial dose who have a GFR
greater than 60 mL/min/1.73m2 in need of additional glycemic control.3 Adverse effects that have
been noted with this medication include increased urination, yeast infections, and negative
gastrointestinal effects.4,6 Safety considerations include dehydration, vaginal yeast infections in
women and men, and it is not advised to take Invokana if you are allergic or have severe renal
impairment and/or are on dialysis.4 It is therefore imperative that patients are screened appropriately
before being placed on this medication, and that monitoring is performed in certain disease states,
particularly those involving renal disease.
Literature Evaluation
The first study by Lavalle–Gonzaled, Janus Zewicxz Davidson J and et al. was on the "Efficacy and
safety of Canagliflozin compared with placebo and Sitagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes on

Effects Of Diabetes Mellitus On The Body And Its Functioning
Diabetes
Age, percentages brief explanation symptoms Risk and environmental factors, different types rate
per.... graphs and tables explain the figures, reasons for increases and decreases
Diabetes mellitus is an inherited and/or acquired endocrine metabolic disease distinguished by high
blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) which occurs as a result of insufficient insulin levels and/or
resistance to its actions in the body. It is diagnosed by determining the fasting or random blood–
glucose concentration and sometimes by the oral glucose tolerance test.
In connection, insulin is a polypeptide hormone of complex structure found in the beta cells of the
pancreas which is recognised for its important role in the regulation of carbohydrate, fat and protein
metabolism. It controls blood glucose levels. As such, a decrease in insulin levels causes an increase
in glucose concentration in the blood which, ultimately, has a detrimental effect on the body and its
functioning. Diabetes mellitus is the fourth most prominent disease causing death in the U.S. largely
due to its diminishing of the cardiovascular system. More commonly referred to as type 1, IDDM is
scarcer of the two types, present in only around 15% of all diabetics. Although it is not specific to
one particular age group it is more often found in preadolescent children and stays with them
throughout their lives. Its name derives from the dependence and necessity of insulin to maintain the
functioning of the body and

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 : A Condition That Results From...
Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 is a condition that results from the autoimmune destruction of insulin
producing beta cells in the pancreas. This type of Diabetes Mellitus accounts for about 5% of cases
of diabetes. It affects males and females equally, and is usually diagnosed under the age of twenty. I
was diagnosed with Juvenile Diabetes when I was eleven. I had been experiencing the common
symptoms of extreme thirst, frequent urination, weight loss, and sugar cravings for a few weeks. I
was taken to see a family doctor who diagnosed me with mononucleosis, and recommended I take a
vitamin C supplement. Just over 24 hours later, I was experiencing hallucinations and loss of
consciousness, and I was rushed to the emergency room with a blood glucose level of over
800mg/dL. Diabetes has since been an important part of my life, and I have found that by
committing to "eating clean", exercising regularly, and monitoring my blood glucose and insulin
levels closely, I am able to keep my A1C at 6.0%. I am hoping to obtain a deeper understanding
about the onset of type 1 diabetes.
Although the cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown, a number of explanatory theories have been put
forward, including genetic susceptibility, a diabetogenic trigger, and/or exposure to an antigen. The
largest contribution to the pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes comes from a single locus called IDDM1
comes from several genes located in the Major histocompatibility complex on the 6p21.3
chromosome. This is believed

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus ( T1dm )
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) results from a defect in insulin secretion in the body. T1DM may
happen at any age and it is one of the most common chronic diseases of childhood and adolescents
(Misso, Egberts, Page, O'Connor, & Shaw, 2010). Long–term complications of T1DM include
retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and cardiovascular disease. There is no prevention or cure for
T1DM, and the treatment is a life–long insulin replacement regimen. Proper and accurate glycemic
control is critical to the management of this disease (Misso et al., 2010, Pankowska, Blazik,
Dziechciarz, Szypowska, & Szajewska, 2009). "Optimal metabolic control requires replacement
therapy that mimics the insulin profile seen in non–diabetic people as closely as ... Show more
Clinical guidelines are in place for directing treatment of T1DM with either CSII or MDI but there is
no clear support for either. This lack of definitive treatment plan prompted the authors of this paper
to explore this gap in literature. Earlier studies do not show benefits of CSII over MDI primarily
because they compared MDI programs to relatively early pumps. These pumps did not afford the
advances of technology seen today. Currently there is greater access to cutting–edge technology in
the form of smaller, more advanced pumps, hence providing for a more user–friendly experience.
There is a scarcity of literature regarding the comparison of newer pumps to MDIs (Fatourechi, et
al., 2010). Recent studies were identified and they indicate a preference for CSII therapy. The tools
used to measure the effectiveness of therapy were glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C), severe
hypoglycemic events, daily insulin requirement, and a quality of life survey. According to Misso et
al., (2010), "Both CSII and MDI are forms of intensified insulin treatment, however; due to its
continuous basal insulin substitution, CSII can better mimic a physiological situation."
Aim
The purpose of this paper is to assess and synthesize recent data to help identify the better treatment
therapy between CSII and MDIs. As mentioned earlier there is a lack of support for either regimen
from a practitioner standpoint. One could argue that medical practitioners prescribe insulin regimens
based on

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Pediatric
Type 1 diabetes (type 1 diabetes mellitus) is a long–term (chronic) disease. It happens when the
pacnreas does not make enough of a hormone called insulin. Normally, insulin moves sugars
(glucose) from food into tissue cells. This gives you energy. If your body cannot make insulin,
sugars cannot move into tissue cells. This causes high blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
Your child's doctor will set personal treatment goals for your child. The goal of treatment for most
children is to maintain these blood glucose levels:
Before meals (preprandial): 90–130 mg/dL.
At bedtime and overnight: 90–150 mg/dL.
HOME CARE
Knowing Your Child's Levels
Have your child's hemoglobin A1c level checked at least twice a year. A level of 7.5% or less is
recommended. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Check–or make sure that your child checks–his or her urine ketones when he or she is sick and as
told by your child's doctor.
Insulin
Have your child take insulin every day, as told by your child's doctor.
○ Make sure that your child does not run out of insulin. Plan ahead so your child always has insulin.
○ Adjust how much insulin your child takes based on how many carbs (carbohydrates) he or she
eats. Carbs can raise blood sugar levels, but they are part of a healthy diet. Carbs are in fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, dairy products, and legumes. Carbs are also in some foods that have sugar
added, such as soft drinks and donuts.
Eating and Diet
Make sure that your child:
○ Follows instructions from the doctor about what not to eat or drink.
○ Drinks enough fluid to keep his or her pee (urine) clear or pale

Type 1 Or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus During Pregnancy, Self
Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus During Pregnancy, Self Care
Caring for yourself during your pregnancy when you have type 1 or type 2 diabetes (diabetes
mellitus) means keeping your blood sugar (glucose) under control with a balance of:
Nutrition.
Exercise.
Lifestyle changes.
Insulin and other medicines, if necessary.
Support from your team of health care providers and others.
The following information explains what you need to know when managing your diabetes at home
during your pregnancy.
WHAT SHOULD I KNOW ABOUT MANAGING MY BLOOD GLUCOSE?
Check your blood glucose level every day as told by your health care provider.
Have your A1c (hemoglobin A1c) level checked at least two times a year.
Your health ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Always have a 15–gram rapid–acting carbohydrate snack with you to treat low blood glucose.
Family members and close friends should also know the symptoms and should understand how to
treat hypoglycemia, in case you are not able to treat yourself.
Tremors or shakes.
Decreased ability to concentrate.
Sweating.
Increased heart rate.
Headache.
Blurry vision.
Dry mouth.
Hunger.
Irritability.
Anxiety.
Restless sleep.
A change in speech.
A change in coordination.
Confusion.
Numbness or tingling around the mouth, lips, or tongue.
How do I treat hypoglycemia?

If you are alert and able to swallow safely, follow the 15:15 rule:
Take 15 grams of a rapid–acting carbohydrate. Rapid–acting options include:
○ 1 tube of glucose gel.
○ 3 glucose pills.
○ 6–8 pieces of hard candy.
○ 4 oz (120 mL) of fruit juice or regular soda.
Check your blood glucose level 15 minutes after you take the carbohydrate.
If the repeat blood glucose level is still at or below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), take 15 grams of a
carbohydrate again.
If your blood glucose level does not increase above 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) after 3 tries, seek
emergency medical care.
After your blood glucose level returns to normal, eat a meal or a snack within 1 hour.
How do I treat severe hypoglycemia?
Severe hypoglycemia is when your blood glucose level is at or below 54 mg/dL (3 mmol/L). Severe
hypoglycemia is an

Diabetes Mellitus : Type 1, Type 2, And Gestational Diabetes
Introduction Diabetes Mellitus, also known commonly as diabetes, is a chronic condition in which
the body doesn't produce or misuses insulin in the body. There are different classifications of
diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 is when the body does not produce any
insulin. It is usually diagnosed in children and young adults. Type 2 is when the body doesn't use
insulin properly and can develop in anyone and seen at any age. Both types require strict
management which can range from medications to diet. If it's not managed correctly, it can lead to a
diabetic coma or even death (Diabetes Basics, n.d.).
Definition of the disease According to the American Diabetes Association, Type 2 diabetes is insulin
resistant, or your body does not use insulin properly (Facts About Type 2, 2014). The body's
pancreas over produces insulin to make up for the misusage of it but overtime pancreas over works
and can't keep up with regulating normal blood glucose levels.
History of the Disease Diabetes mellitus was first discovered in 1910 by Sir Edward Albert Sharper–
Schafer after studying the pancreas. In 1949, insulin is discovered to help in the transporting process
of glucose into the cells and in the same year the insulin syringe is designed and approved. A year
later, the American Dietetic Association and the U.S. Public Health Service develop a meal planner
and food exchanges. Type 2 diabetes isn't recognize until 1959 when two doctors realize the some

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus And Mellitus
Introduction:
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is a disease that occurs when insulin–producing beta cells of the pancreas
are damaged or are being destroyed (Mahan, Escott–Stump & Raymond, 2012). The gradual
destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas usually leads to complete insulin deficiency, which
ultimately manifests itself in the following symptoms at clinical onset: "high blood glucose
(hyperglycemia), frequent urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and a significant
amount of weight loss, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances and ketoacidosis", requiring
dependency of exogenous insulin in order to promote optimal glycemic control in order to prevent
further more severe complications; such as, ketoacidosis, microvascular diseases, macrovascular
diseases, neuropathy, or worse – Death (Mahan et al., 2012). Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus can result
from two existing forms: 1. Immune–mediated diabetes Mellitus, which is characterized by
autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas and an idiopathic (unknown cause)
commonly seen in ethnic groups of African or Asian descent (Mahan et al., 2012). Of all diagnosed
diabetes cases, prevalence of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus cases account for 5%–10%, and although
onset may present itself at any age, 70% of cases are diagnosed in young adults (younger than age
30), with a peak in occurring incidences seen mostly in children and adolescents (Mahan et al.,
2012). "In the United States, approximately 1 in every 400

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

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