Unit 2-The age of revolution

The Age of
Revolution
4th ESO
IES Rascanya
Josep Villarroya

Find out about:
- The American Revolution
- The French Revolution
- The Napoleonic Empire
- The Conservative Order
- Liberalism and nationalism
- The unification of Italy and Germany
Know how to:
- Analyse the role of women in the French
Revolution

The Age of Revolution
1- The American Revolution
1.1- The origins of
independence
The first English
settlers arrived on the
east coast of North
America (New
England) in the early
17th century. By the
mid-18th century,
they had formed the
Thirteen Colonies.

In ther northern colonies, the economy was based on
agriculture and trade. In the southern colonies, the main
activities was tobacco farming, and the work was done by
black slaves on plantations.

Britain wanted raw
materials from their
American colonies, but
they had no interest in
developing industry
there. They also held a
monopoly on trade,
which made trade
difficultt between the
Thirteen Colonies and
the other areas of
America. The economy
was therefore an
important source of
conflict: the colonies
saw the British Crown as
an obstacle to their
development.

There were also political
tensions. The Thirteen
Colonies were subject to the
authority of the king of
England, but they also
enjoyed considerable
autonomy. Colonial
assembies had significant
powers, such as collecting
certain taxes. Britain imposed
taxes on the settlers, but they
often did not pay. This was a
sign of protest, as the settlers
were not represented in the
British Parliament. «Not
taxations without
representation» became a
popular slogan.

Between 1764 and 1766, King Georges III tried to impose
new taxes on the colonies, but he colonies responded by
refusing to buy British products

In 1773, the British
parliament passed the
Tea Act, which gave the
English East India
Company a monopoly
on the sale of tea in the
colonies. This hurt
American traders, who
responded by attacking
British ships loaded with
tea in the Boston
harbour. This event is
known as the Boston
Tea Party and was
followed by the outbreak
of the American
Revolutionary War in
1775.

There were important political
changes. In 1776, Thomas
Jefferson wrote the Virginia
Declaration of Rights, which
outlined the principles of
national sovereignty, separation
of powers and suffrage.

On 4th July 1776, the
representatives oftheThirteen
Colonies met in the
Continental Congress of
Philadelphia. There, they
signed the Declaration of
Independence of the United
States of America.

1.2- The American
Revolutionary War
During the American
Revolutionary War, also
known as the American War
of Independence (1775-
1783), the American colonies
were supported by France and
Spain. The colonies, led by
General Georges
Washington, won decisive
victories at Saratoga and
Yorktown. Then Britain
recognised the United States
as an independent nation in
the Treaty of Versailles
(1783)

The United States Constitution was signed in 1787. It was the first
constitution in history, and established national sovereignty and the
separation of powers. Legislative power was held by two bodies: the
House of Representatives and the Senate. Their members were
chosen in free elections, although only white males could vote.
Executive power was held by a president, and judicial power was
held by independent judges.
In 1789 Georges Washington became the first president of the
United States.

2- The outbreak of the French
Revolution (1789-1792)
2.1- The failures of
the Old Regime
In France, the Old
Regime was
destroyed by the
French Revolution
(1789-1799), which
had its origins in the
failure of the
system:

- Social unrest. The Third
Estate, which paid taxes,
resented the privileged
estates that scarcely paid
taxes at all. The wealthy
bourgeoise was also
frustrated by its lack of
political power.

- The economy. A tax crisis
was caused by
overspending on the
American Revolutionary
War, as well as high
expenditure at the court.
Bad harvest caused rising
prices in the 1760s, which
led to widespread hunger
and social unrest.

- The Enlightenment. The political thought of the Enlightenment
encouraged people to question royal authority whe it was
considered unfair and inefficient.

2.2- The rise of the Third Estate
King Louis XVI's ministers
attempted to introduce financial
reforms, but theses were strongly
opposed. An Assembly of
Notables, consisting of leading
noblemen and ecclesiastics,
rejected reforms in 1787.
The king then called the Estates-
General, which was an assembly
of all three estates, in May 1789
at Versailles. People from all
three estates presented their
problems to the assembly in
Lists of Grievances (Cahiers
de Doléances)

In June, the
representatives of the
Third Estate formed a
National Assembly
because they considered
that they were the only
legitimate representatives
of the French people.
They met in an indoor
tennis court and took the
Tennis Court Oath to
stay together until France
had a constitution. After
that, they became known
as the National
Constituent Assembly.

2.3- The end of the Old Regime (1789-1791)
In July and August 1789, opposition to the Old Regime became
more radical. On 14th July 1789, the people of Paris attacked the
Bastille, a medieval fortress that had become a prison and a
symbol of absolutism. In rural areas, there was a climates of great
tension called the Great Fear, when peasants attacked the
nobles' castles.

Following the capture of
the Bastille, the National
Constituent Assembly
introduced a series of
measures that marked the
end of the Old Regime:
- On 4t
h August 1789, it
abolished feudal rights
such as the privileges of
the nobility and the taxes
(or tithe) paid to the
Church.

- A few days later, it
published the Declaration
of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen. This was a
statement of principles in
support of personal liberty,
equality before the law ant
the right of property.

- In September 1791,
France's first written
constitution ended royal
absolutism, estalishing a
constitutional monarchy.
Under the separation of
powers, legislative power
was held by the Assembly,
executive power by the
king, and judicial power
by independent courts.
Only adult males over the
age of 25, and with a
certain level of income,
could vote in elections.

2.4- Opposition to the constitutional monarchy (1791-1792)
A Legislative Assembly was formed in October 1791, and France
now had a constitucional monarchy. However, this assembly lasted for
less than a year, and failed to attract much support. Within France:
a) There was fierce opposition from the nobility and the clergy, who
did not want to give up their privileges. Many members of the formerly
privileged estates emigrated, and conspired against the Revolution
form abroad.

- In contrast, other groups believed
that the reforms did not go far
enough. These radical
revolutionaries were supported by
the sans-culottes.

Abroad, other European monarchs felt
threatened by the ideas of the French
Revolution. In 1792, Austria and Prussia
declared war on France.
France suffered some early defeats in the war,
and the king was widely blamed.
In August 1792, there was an insurrection: the
Tuileries palace was attacked, and the royal
family was taken prisoner.

3- The First French Republic (1792-1799)
3.1- The birth of the French
Republic (1792-1793)
Following the insurrection of August
1792, a National Convention
governed France from September
1792. This assembly was elected by
all adult males.
The Convention immediately
abolished the monarchy, and France
became a republic. This was later
called Year One of the French
republican calendar. Initially, the
Girondins, or moderate republicans,
controlled the assembly.

The Convention
judged and
condemned Louis
XVI for treason, and
he was executed by
guillotine in Jamuary
1793.
This produced a
horrified reaction
abroad and led to the
formation of the First
Coalition, in which
Britain and the Dutch
Republic joined the
other countries that
were already fightig
France.

Within France, there was a royalist, Catholic uprising in the Vendée
region in western France (1793-1796)
Heart patch of
the Vendean
royalist
insurgents. The
French motto
'Dieu, le Roi'
means 'God,
the King'.

3.2- The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
Believing that the revolution was in danger,
the radical revolutionaries (or Jacobins) used
suport form the sans-culottes to seize power
from the Girondins in June 1793. The Jacobin
leader Maximilien Robespierre assumed all
powers, and established a dictatorship.

The danger of foregin invasion and the internal threat from French
opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror, which was a
ten month period of violent repression. A revolutionary tribunal called
the Committee of Public Safety was established, led by Georges
Danton and Robespierre.

This tribunal tried
people who were
suspected of
opposing to the
Republic, even if
there was no proof
agains them. They
were sentenced to
death by the
guillotine, which
became a famous
symbol of the French
Revolution. Around
50,000 people were
executed, including
leaders of the
political groups,
nobles and
clergymen.

Robespierre
tried to ease the
economic crisis
by establishing
maximum
prices for basic
items. However,
he also limited
salaries, which
led to conflict
with the sans-
culottes. A new
calendar was
adopted, in
which the
names of the
months were
related to the
seasons.

Robespierre gradually lost support. In 1794, moderate revolutionaries
arrested Robespierre and his followers, who were then executed by
guillotine.

3.3- The Directory
(1795-1799)
Following the
execution of the
most radical
revolutionaries, a
new Constitution
(1795) established
limited suffrage
based on property
ownership. A
moderate
government was led
by a five-member
Directory while
legislative power was
held by two
chambers.

The new regime neve rhad very much support, and it faced challenges
on all sides:
- Radicals conspired against the government, The Conspiracy of the
Equals, led by Babeuf, was a plot to overthrow the government and
establish an egalitarian society.

- The royalists also led revolts and counter-revolutionary activities
with the aim of restoiring the Boubon dinasty.
- In Europe, France won a serie of victories against its enemies. The
French general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered most of Italy on behalf
of the Directory between 1796 and 1799. However, in 1799 France's
enemies, led by Britain, formed a Second Coalition that reconquered
many of the regions that France had occupied.

In November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte carriet out a coup d'état, A
Consulate was created, in which authority was supposed to be shared
between three consuls; but in fact Napoleon was now the real ruler of
France.

4- Europe under Napoleon
4.1- Reforms under Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte became First
Consul in 1799, and a new
constitution gave him the powers of a
dictator. In 1802, he became Consul
for Life.
Although Napoleon's arrival in power
marked the end of the French
revolution, some Napoleonic reforms
consolidated changes of the
revolutionary period:

- The Napoleonic Code
was a legal code that
prohibited certain
privileges, allowed
freedom of religion, and
simplified the range of
laws that had existed
before the Revolution.
- The Concordat of 1801
maintaned state control
over the Church and
confiscated church lands
were not returned.
However, the clergy was
allowed toi resume
religious worship.

4.2- The Napoleonic Empire
In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed
himself Emperor of the French.
Under his expansionist policy, France
was constantly at war with other
countries.
Although he was defeated by the
British at sea in the Battle of
Trafalgar (1805), Napoleon
conquered many parts of the
European continent in only a few
years. He won notables victories
against the Austrians in the Battle of
Austerlitz (1805) and against the
Prussians in the Battle of Jena
(1806)

Britain was now France's main
enemy, and the Continental
Blockade was an attempt to
stop British trade in Europe. The
Portuguese did not accept this,
so Napoleon invaded Portugal.
He also occupied Spain, which
led to the Spanish War of
Independence that began in
1808.
A turning point in the war came
in 1812, when Napoleon's forces
unsuccessfully invaded Russia,
and suffered terrible losses. A
coalition of Britain, Prussia,
Russia and Austria defeated him
in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.
He was defeated in Spain in the
same year.
Alexander I of Russia, Francis II of Austria
and Frederick William III of Prussia meet
after the battle.

Following allied advances, Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 and
went into exile. He returned to power for a hundred days, but
was defeated at Waterloo (1815), and deported to the remote
island of Saint Helena where he died in 1821.

5- The Conservative Order
5.1- The Conservative Order
From 1815, the European powers
attempted to create a new
Conservative Order, based on the
principles of tradition, order and
obedience to authority. These were
its mains characteristics:
- Monarchy. It was believed that
peace was onlu possible if a
legitimate monarch headed each
country. The monarchs of the Old
Regime returned to power as if the
French Revolution had never
happened.

- International collaboration. The great powers could intervene
in another country if a legitimate monarchy was in danger.
- Congresses. Regular contact between the great powers was
seen as a way to resolve international problems.

5.2- The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
The great European powers met at the
Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The
Austrian Foreign Minister Prince
Metternich played a leading role in their
attempts to guarantee lasting peace and
avoid new revolutions.

- France returned to
the frontiers it had
before the Revolution.
- States were
reinforced around
France as a protective
barrier against future
French expansion: the
New Kingdom of the
Netherlands acquired
the region that is
Belgium today.
- There were territorial
gains for Austria,
Prussia and Russia.

The Holy Alliance of
Prussia, Russia and
Austria was formed to
combat liberalism and
revolution. It was later
joined by Britain and
France.

6- The liberal and national revolutions
6.1- The challenge
to the Conservative
Order
A series of uprising
revolutions and wars
challenged the
Conservative Order
in 1820, 1830 and
1848. They were
strongly influenced
by the following
factors: liberalism
and national
movements.

Liberalism.
The Fench Revolution proved that it was possible to end royal
absolutism, and spread the ideals of 'Liberty, Equality and
Brotherhood' throughout Europe. According to liberalism, the
powers of a monarch needed to be restricted by a costitution that
respected the sovereignty of the people, and guaranteed
individual liberties.

National movements
National identities grew in many parts of Europe in response to
the Napoleonic invasion. After 1815, political boundaries did no
usually reflect people's language anc culture. There were
national movements in states, like the Ottoman and Austrian
empires, which ruled over many differents peoples.

6.2- The revolutions of 1820 and 1830
- Spain. There was a period of liberal government (1820-1830)
following a military uprising against the absolute monarchy of
Fernando VII.
- Greece. The Greeks revolted successfully against the Ottoman
Empire during the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829)

- France. In 1830, the
abolutist monarch
Charles X was deposed
and replaced by Louis
Philippe of Orleans, who
was more liberal.
- Belgium. An uprising in
the Kingdom of the
Ntherlands led to the
creation of the new state
of Belgium (1830-1831).
- Poland. There was an
uprising against the
Russian Empire in 1831,
but it was severely
repressed.

6.3- The revolutions of 1848
There were many attempted revolutions in Europe in 1848. The
bourgeoisie and workers of many countries supported liberal
reforms and democratic principles like universsal male suffrage
and freedom of the press, there were also attempts to establish
independent national states.

The following three countries were affected, but there were many
other revolutions or riots all across Europe:
- France. The monarchy of King Louis Phillipe had become
conservative and corrupt. In February, the king was deposed and
the Second French Republic was created. Napoleon's nephew
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president. However, he
became increasingly authoritarian and declared himself Emperor of
the Second French Empire in 1852

- Germany.
Demonstrations in
cities called for
German national unity
and liberal reforms
guaranteering

- The
Habsburg
Empire. There
were many
different
nationalities in
the territories
ruled by the
Austrian
Habsburgs,
and a national
movement in
Hungary
fought for
independence.

In the end, the liberal and national revolutions failed.
Neverthless, they achieved some important advances, such as
universal male suffrage in France and the abolition of
feudalisme in Prussia and Austria.

- Germany.
Demonstrations in
cities called for
German national
unity and liberal
reforms
guaranteering
- The Habsburg
Empire. There were
many different
nationalities in the
territories ruled by
the Austrian
Habsburgs, and a
national movement
in Hungary fought
for independence.

Unit 2-The age of revolution

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Unit 2-The age of revolution