Royal Absolutism I. Elements of Absolutism · Divine Right of Kings Theory: similar to the "Mandate of Heaven" concept from the Zhou Dynasty in China;  the monarch was supposedly divinely appointed by God, thus the monarch was responsible to no one but God Himself;  allowed for unlimited power for the monarch--a blank check for power · Regulation of Religious Groups:  monarch strongly believed in the promotion of one state church; often believed that policies of religious toleration were signs of weakness, thus religious minorities were either persecuted or expelled from the nation · Civil liberties: there were no such things as individual freedoms and liberties in continental Europe until after the 18th century Enlightenment · Legislative bodies: if a nation had a legislative body, the absolute monarch did his best to ignore or avoid summoning the legislature into session; the absolute monarch did not want to share powers with anyone, including a legislature, thus there were no avenues for the lower classes to become involved in the political process and have a voice in government · Nobility: the nobility became the target of the monarchy--the absolute monarch wanted to keep the nobility as far away from politics and political power, and made every attempt to control their every move · Fiscal policies: the absolute monarch made every attempt to control every and all fiscal policies, including the power of taxation; also relied heavily on the economic theory of mercantilism; this tight control is broken in the 18th century with the rise of capitalism and free market economies · Rise of modern bureaucracies:  these bodies were generally staffed by the growing middle class--the monarch did not want the nobility involved; these bodies grew rapidly throughout the 17th century and were quite extensive by the 18th century and eventually needed huge reforms to end corruption · Modern Armies: the absolute monarchs were concerned with raising and maintaining large and professionally trained armies; in the 17th century modern uniforms were developed and the use of regimental flags became important;  these large armies eventually became a significant section in the national budgets · Secret Police: these feared and hated people became the eyes and ears of the absolute monarch; they were a separate part of the civilian government and spied on all classes of citizens;  they remained part of European governments well into the 20th century Versailles in the early 18th Century II. Louis XIV (1643-1715) · In addition to his nickname, "The Sun King," Louis was also known as "The Gift From God;" he was born 23 years into his parents' marriage--they had concluded that they would remain childless · His father died when he was five, and his mother and Cardinal Mazarin ruled as his regents · Grew up hating the nobility because of the political intrigues that surrounded the court; became very secretive and trusted few people--his standard reply to direct questions:" ...

1. Royal Absolutism
I. Elements of Absolutism
· Divine Right of Kings Theory: similar to the "Mandate of
Heaven" concept from the Zhou Dynasty in China; the monarch
was supposedly divinely appointed by God, thus the monarch
was responsible to no one but God Himself; allowed for
unlimited power for the monarch--a blank check for power
· Regulation of Religious Groups: monarch strongly believed in
the promotion of one state church; often believed that policies
of religious toleration were signs of weakness, thus religious
minorities were either persecuted or expelled from the nation
· Civil liberties: there were no such things as individual
freedoms and liberties in continental Europe until after the 18th
century Enlightenment
· Legislative bodies: if a nation had a legislative body, the
absolute monarch did his best to ignore or avoid summoning the
legislature into session; the absolute monarch did not want to
share powers with anyone, including a legislature, thus there
were no avenues for the lower classes to become involved in the
political process and have a voice in government
· Nobility: the nobility became the target of the monarchy--the
absolute monarch wanted to keep the nobility as far away from
politics and political power, and made every attempt to control
their every move
· Fiscal policies: the absolute monarch made every attempt to
control every and all fiscal policies, including the power of
taxation; also relied heavily on the economic theory of
mercantilism; this tight control is broken in the 18th century
with the rise of capitalism and free market economies
· Rise of modern bureaucracies: these bodies were generally
staffed by the growing middle class--the monarch did not want
the nobility involved; these bodies grew rapidly throughout the
17th century and were quite extensive by the 18th century and

2. eventually needed huge reforms to end corruption
· Modern Armies: the absolute monarchs were concerned with
raising and maintaining large and professionally trained armies;
in the 17th century modern uniforms were developed and the
use of regimental flags became important; these large armies
eventually became a significant section in the national budgets
· Secret Police: these feared and hated people became the eyes
and ears of the absolute monarch; they were a separate part of
the civilian government and spied on all classes of citizens;
they remained part of European governments well into the 20th
century
Versailles in the early 18th Century
II. Louis XIV (1643-1715)
· In addition to his nickname, "The Sun King," Louis was also
known as "The Gift From God;" he was born 23 years into his
parents' marriage--they had concluded that they would remain
childless
· His father died when he was five, and his mother and Cardinal
Mazarin ruled as his regents
· Grew up hating the nobility because of the political intrigues
that surrounded the court; became very secretive and trusted
few people--his standard reply to direct questions:"We shall
see!"
· Grew up to be 6'5" and a rather handsome young man;
launched a new fashion trend for 17th century men--shoulder-
length hair for men became a symbol of virility; most men could
not grow their hair so long, thus wig-making became a lucrative
business for the next 150 years
· Developed a sophisticated and cosmopolitan court; during his
reign, the French language came to replace Latin as the
language of culture and business; his court became the model
for all of western Europe
· Built the Versailles complex as a lavish playground to keep
the nobility busy and out of his political structure; required that
the nobility live at Versailles for 10 months out of the year; his
secret police censored all of the mail coming in and going out

3. of Versailles
· Jean Baptiste Colbert, the minister of finance, was one of the
few people Louis trusted; France experienced an economic
Golden Age while Colbert was alive--Louis made several bad
financial decisions after Colbert died and led to long-term
financial causes of the French Revolution
· In 1685 Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes which had granted
religious toleration to the Hugenots (French Calvinists); this led
to a mass exodus of a significant section of the skilled labor in
France--Colbert would have never advised Louis to make such a
decision
· Louis was responsible for building the modern French Army,
and used it extensively throughout his long reign; he fought
nearly every nation in western Europe and by 1701 several
nations were tired of fighting and formed an alliance against
Louis
· Louis was forced to end his fighting in 1714; the wars were
ended with the Peace of Utrecht which set the tone for 18th
century European diplomacy
· Beginning in 1715 and continuing for the next 199 years, the
goal in European diplomacy became "The Balance of Power;"
Europeans were concerned that one nation could become too
powerful and dominant, so they began forming alliances that
would keep the diplomatic scales balanced
III. Peter the Great (1689-1725)
· Peter, the third leader of the Romanov dynasty, was never
expected to become the tsar of Russia; he was the first child of
his father's, Tsar Alexis I, second marriage--Peter had two older
half brothers and his life was carefree for the first four years;
· Tsar Alexis died when Peter was four, and Peter's older half
brother became Tsar; five years passed but unfortunately Tsar
Feodor died without an heir
· A bloody rebellion and political crisis developed when Peter's
older half sister, Sophia, spread rumors that Peter's mother had

4. killed Sophia's younger brother, Ivan
· The young Peter watched as several of his relatives were
slaughtered in Red Square; the mob hysteria subsided when
Peter's mother took him and his half brother out on a balcony,
proving that the young Ivan was very much alive
· Peter became a co-Tsar with Ivan (who suffered from mental
handicaps and could never rule alone) and Sophia was named as
the regent
· Though Peter had the title of tsar, he spent very little time in
Moscow over the next six years; he came to hate Moscow due to
the violence he witnessed as a child and came to regard the city
as a backward and medieval
· Peter spent his adolescence in a suburb of Moscow were all of
the foreign merchant and tradesmen lived; grew to love western
European culture and came to regard Russia as a primitive
nation in desperate need of modernization
· Peter also spent a significant amount of time playing war
games; as the co-Tsar of Russia he had access to the weapon
arsenals and thus he and his young friends used real weapons in
their games--he gained incredible military knowledge as a
young person that he later put to use as Tsar
· He grew up to be 6'8" and physically towered over his court
· In 1689 Peter took full political power from Sophia and began
to rule Russia independently
· He soon realized how much crucial political knowledge he
lacked as Tsar, so he planned a large-scale educational tour of
W. Europe; His Grand Embassy, the European tour lasted for 18
months and he traveled to all of the major European capital
cities
· Peter spent over half of his time in the Netherlands where he
personally learned to build a ship and earned the title,
"Shipwright"
· He was on his way to Vienna when he learned that Sophia had
initiated another rebellion and headed back to Russia to end the
rebellion
· Sophia was banished to a convent and 1200 rebels were

5. tortured and killed--several were hanged and their bodies left
outside of Sophia's window; during this rebellion Peter also
divorced his first wife, Eudoxia and sent her to another convent
for the rest of her life
· Peter wanted to expand into the Baltic Sea region, so he
launched the Great Northern War with Sweden and ultimately
conquered the land that became his new capital city, St.
Petersburg
· Peter is hailed as the Great Modernizer who Westernized
Russia; one of his more visible changes was to force the men in
his court to shave their beards and dress like Western European
men
· Peter also reformed Russia in several ways
· Importation of Western though
· Primary educational reform
· Creation of the Table of Ranks--forerunner to the modern civil
service--was used for both the military and civil government--
means of upward mobility for the lower classes
· Created Russia's modern bureaucracy
· Imported skilled foreign labor--even toyed with the idea of
making Dutch the official language of Russia!
· Created Russia's modern Army and Navy
· Developed new tax collection system
· Developed mining and industry
· Annexed huge sections of new territory for the Russian empire
· Russia unfortunately experienced a dynastic crisis at his
death--he had no living male heirs--10 years before his death
his only living son, Alexis attempted to leave Russia; Peter
stopped him and accused him of treason; Alexis was tortured
and ultimately executed--thus Peter ultimately set the stage for
a shaky political situation that lasted for nearly 15 years until
one of his daughter, Elizabeth took the throne
Constitutionalism and England
I. Development of a constitutional monarchy

6. · England developed the world's first modern constitutional
monarchy in the late medieval period and set England on a
vastly different political road than the other nations of
continental Europe
· Magna Carta--the Great Charter, became the basis of
England's constitution; King John II was forced to sign the
document in 1215, and thus limited royal power was established
in England; called for 1) no taxation without representation, 2)
justice could not be sold or denied to freed men, 3) no one
could be imprisoned without a trial, 4) property could not be
taken without just compensation and 5) long-term basis of
individual freedoms
· Parliament--first met in 1295 and was originally comprised of
just nobility; within a century, the House of Commons was
added and gave voice and political participation to England's
lower classes
II. The Stuart Dynasty
· With the death of Elizabeth I and her lack of children,
Parliament named Elizabeth's Scottish cousin, King James as
the new king of England--he became the founder of the Stuart
dynasty
· James I(1603-1625)
· He was the only child of Mary, Queen of Scots and became the
King of Scotland at 13 months; he grew up as a Protestant and
married Anne of Denmark
· He came across as a proud and arrogant man; he was a strong
supporter of the Divine Right of Kings theory and wrote two
books arguing in favor of the theory--he believed that 1) God
had made kings to be higher beings than the average mortal
man, 2) Kings should have sole power to write the laws, and 3)
Parliament should be ignored and summoned as infrequently as
possible
· Including the significant debt that James inherited from
Elizabeth, he spent huge amounts of money on clothing, art and

7. decorations for his palaces and created 200 new landed titles
and gave them financial perks
· Eventually angered the Puritan sector of the population with
his bisexual lifestyle; as one person commented, "Elizabeth was
King, now James is Queen!"
· James openly flaunted his relationship with George Villiers--
made him the first duke of Buckingham and virtually turned his
foreign policy over to George
· Villiers negotiated the engagement of Charles, Prince of
Wales to the Catholic French Princess, Henrietta Maria
· James died in 1625 from a stroke and is buried in Westminster
Abbey between two of his male favorites
· Charles I (1625-1649)
· He was the frail, sickly second son of James who could not
walk or talk until he was three; became the Prince of Wales at
12 when his older brother died
· He was a quiet, intellectual who inherited his father's love of
art--his collections rivaled his fathers
· Married Henrietta Maria of France and eventually had a
successful marriage with her--had 9 children together--he was a
family man, the opposite of his father
· Read his father's writings and took them to heart; by 1629 he
determined to rule without Parliament and did not summon them
for 11 years
· Tried to implement levies to raise money because of his
exploding levels of debt
· Eventually forced to call Parliament in 1640 ( he tried to
disband them but they kept meeting) and they officially met for
20 years--The Long Parliament
· The Long Parliament was primarily comprised of Puritans: 1)
abolished Charles sources of revenues, 2) began drafting the
Triennial Act (monarch would have to summon Parliament at a
minimum of every three years), 3) deposed the Archbishop of
Canterbury and 4) passed taxes to raise of Parliamentary army
· English Civil War broke out in 1642, primarily between
Parliament and the King (the Roundheads vs. the Royalists); the

8. war was fought sporadically from 1642-1646 and in 1648-1649
· Charles was captured and tried by Parliament for treason; he
refused to answer their charges--said they had no right to try
their king; the trial lasted for 9 days and Charles was sentenced
to death; he was beheaded on Jan. 30, 1649, thus ending the
English Civil War
· For the next 11 years, England had no king--instead they had a
Lord Protector; Oliver Cromwell served as the only Lord
Protector in English history
· With the death of Oliver Cromwell, Parliament decided to
restore the monarchy and invited Charles I's son--Charles II to
return to England and restore the Stuart dynasty
· Charles II (1660-1685)
· He was a shrewd and cautious man--he learned from his
father's mistakes
· In addition to the Stuart perpetual growing debt his reign
included the Great Plague of London in 1665 when close to
10,000 died and the Great Fire of London in 1666--13,000
homes were destroyed and 87 churches were burned
· In attempt to solve some of the money problems, Charles
entered into a secret treaty (Treaty of Dover) with his cousin,
Louis XIV in 1670: Louis would give Charles £ 160,000 per
year in exchange for 1) English troops for Louis' perpetual
wars, and 2) Charles would officially convert to Catholicism
· England learned of the treaty in 1678 and hostility began to
grow
· Charles' wife, Catherine of Portugal, was unable to produce a
living heir (Charles kept 7 known mistresses very busy and
through them had 14 illegitimate children!) so Parliament
decided the line of succession would continue through his
brother and his children
· Charles suffered a stroke in 1685 and was confirmed into the
Catholic Church on his death bed; he was succeeded by his
brother, James
· James II (1685-1688)
· James was by far the least popular of the Stuarts; one of his

9. biographers described him as "stogy, dull and stupid"
· Like his father and grandfather, he strongly believed in
absolute government and made his thoughts known to the public
· His first wife gave him two daughter, Mary and Anne;
Parliament officially named them as his heirs because they had
been raised Protestant
· James had secretly converted to Catholicism in 1668 and kept
the secret until 1676
· Parliament realized that their king was a Catholic, but kept
close watch on him
· With the death of his first wife, James remarried a young
Italian Catholic girl, but she suffered one miscarriage after
another
· James believed his ultimate triumph came on the June 10,
1688 with the birth of James Francis Edward
· Parliament feared that James would insist that the boy be
named as his heir, so sent an invitation to James' elder daughter
Mary and her husband, William Duke of Orange to come and
reign in England
William and MaryIII. The Glorious Revolution (1688)
· England's bloodless revolution that began in June 1688 by
sending James II, his wife and infant son into exile
· By December 1688 all English forces had surrendered and
Mary II and William III were proclaimed the monarchs of
England
· A Bill of Rights was added to the English Constitution in 1689
and included the following clauses: 1) No royal interference
with the law, 2) taxation was controlled solely by Parliament, 3)
freedom to petition the monarch without fear of retribution, 4)
freedom of the people to own weapons for their defense, 5) no
royal interference in the elections of members of Parliament, 6)
freedom of speech and debate, and 7) no excessive bail or cruel
and unusual punishments
· Many of the freedoms in the English Bill of Rights were
included in the writing of the American Bill of Rights one

10. century later
The Scientific Revolution
Origins of the Scientific Revolution
· First began in the closing years of the Renaissance in the
fields of astronomy and physics
· Gained momentum from the successful challenge to authority
demonstrated in the Protestant Reformation
· Freedom of inquiry was not only tolerated, but encouraged by
Protestant educators
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
· Known as the "Father of the Scientific Method" and as "The
Father of Empiricism"
· Educated at Cambridge; served in Parliament, became
Attorney General under Elizabeth I and ultimately the Lord
Chancellor for James I
· Called for government support of science and technology
· Argued for the use of inductive reasoning
· A very prolific writer, he authored Novum Organum along
with numerous other philosophical essays
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
· Frenchman who was educated in law and mathematics; studied
optics as a personal hobby
· Supported Bacon's call for the scientific method
· Became the first European intellectual to explore man's
rational skills--led to his famous quote "I think, therefore I am"
· Like Bacon, he was also a prolific writer and focused on
works of philosophy and analytical geometry
Galilei Galileo (1564-1642)

11. · Italian scientist who was educated in mathematics and
medicine
· Became a math professor at the age of 25
· Became interested in astronomy and built his own telescope;
with his telescope he sighted 1) several new stars, 2) observed
the surface of the moon, 3) studied the moons of Jupiter
· Also studied physics and produced some of the earliest works
on the concept of inertia
· Came to support the heliocentric theory and was condemned
by the Inquisition for his belief in 1616
· Eventually tried and condemned for heresy (due to his position
on the heliocentric theory); the Pope intervened and his life was
spared
· Spent the final 9 years of his life in house arrest
William Harvey (1578-1657)
· English physician trained at Oxford and in Italy; became the
court physician for both James I and Charles I
· Made huge advances in research on the circulatory system--
became the leading 17th century scholar in anatomy and
physiology
· His research inspired the next generation in research in
physiology, chemistry and physics
· Unfortunately during the English Civil War in the 1640s, due
to his position as court physician, a mob trashed his home and
lab and destroyed a significant section of his research
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
· A middle-class Englishman who studied at Cambridge; came
to regard Copernicus and Descartes as his heroes
· He majored in mathematics and physics, but had side interests
in religion, history, astronomy and optics
· Became a math professor at Cambridge and in 1687
published, Principia, his leading mathematical work
· With his interest in optics, he eventually developed Newton's
Theory of Color
· Remembered in the scientific community for his Newtonian

12. Synthesis where he utilized the works of previous generations
of scientists and finalized the laws of gravitation and motion
· In his later years he served one term in Parliament and as the
Master of the Mint
· Knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 for his considerable
intellectual contributions
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
· New rising social group--the scientific community
· Rise of the scientific methodology in several disciplines
· Improvements in navigation and industrial technology
· Greatest era of scientific achievements since the Hellenistic
World
· Set the stages for the Enlightenment and the Industrial
Revolution
The European Enlightenment
Central Themes
1. Commitment to Scientific Methodology
2. Celebration of Human intellect and strong commitment to
education
3. Commitment to progress--very hopeful for the future of
humankind
The Philosophes
· French for "philosopher," earliest members emerged as a
reaction against Louis XIV and royal absolutism
· Thought of themselves as "thinkers" and "critics"--believed
that humans had been bogged in ignorance for many centuries
· Believed that the Catholic church and autocratic government
were the blame for holding people back from progress
· Became the ultimate social and intellectual movement on both
sides of the Atlantic in the 18th century
The Leading Contributors
· John Locke (1632-1704)

13. · Came from a middle-class Puritan English family; studied
medicine and philosophy at Oxford--huge fan of Bacon and
Descartes
· Served as private physician to the Lord Chancellor of England
and became interested in political theory
· Fled to the Netherlands during the reign of James II and
returned home with William and Mary in 1688
· Helped to draft the English Bill of Rights in 1689
· Wrote A Treatise of Civil Government in 1690 and argued 1)
that all persons are created equal, 2) all persons are due 3
natural rights--life, liberty and property, 3) made a strong
argument for a constitutional monarchy--lower classes have a
voice in government, and 4) believed government was
legitimate as long as it protected citizens and their natural
rights--people had the right to rebel when a government crossed
the line and became a tyranny
· Also authored An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, an
essay still discussed by modern educators; argued that all
humans are born like a blank slate (Tabla raisa), that people
have no innate principles, rather all ideas are developed from
experience
· Influenced most of the Enlightenment writers of the 18th
century and impacted most of America's founding fathers
· Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755
· Came from an aristocratic French family; became even
wealthier with his marriage;
· Became known for his political satires; because of rigid
French censorship any political writing that criticized or
critiqued the government had to be presented as fiction and
alternative forms of literature
· Developed an interest in political history and analysis
· In 1748 he published The Spirit of the Laws, a study of
historical and contemporary political structures and argued: 1)
Republics were the best form of government, 2) supported
Constitutionalism because government was limited by law and

14. common people could have a voice in government, 3) believed
in separation of powers, and 4) for the rule of law and
preservation of civil liberties
· Heavily influenced America's founding fathers, especially
James Madison and the other contributors to the U.S.
Constitution
· Voltaire (1694-1778)
· Born into middle-class French family; his birth name was
Francois-Marie Arouet--in 1718 he selected "Voltaire" as his
pen-name and that name is how he is remembered in history
· One of the most prolific writers of the Enlightenment--wrote
plays, epic poetry and political and philosophical essays
· Became pen-pals with several monarchs and influential figures
in all levels of society
· Came to be an early champion of freedom of speech--lesson
learned from verbally insulting a member of French nobility and
serving a year in prison; he did not learn his lesson and insulted
a second aristocrat, this second offense gave him two years of
exile in Great Britain
· Came to support constitutional monarchies from his time spent
in Great Britain
· Disagreed with France's state church and came to be a
champion of religious freedom
· His writings were widely read on both sides of the Atlantic
· Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
· Serves as a transitional intellectual figure--member of both the
Enlightenment and early leading figure of Romanticism
· Came from a poor and dysfunctional Swiss family; though
primarily self-educated he possessed a brilliant mind
· In 1762 he wrote The Social Contract, his most significant
political essay; clearly Rousseau had read Locke's writings and

15. were impacted by them; he argued: 1) that an unwritten, but
understood contract existed between a monarch and the people,
2) that a representative government was necessary in order for
the common people to have a voice in government, 3) for a
direct democracy because the people, not the monarch, are
sovereign, and 4) it was the people's duty to rebel when the
government violated their rights
· The Social Contract was read on both sides of the Atlantic and
impacted the growing revolutionary movement of the 1760s in
the American colonies
The Enlightened Despots
· Frederick the Great (1740-1786)
· Born the eldest son and heir of Frederick I of Prussia; grew up
loving music, art and the French language--nearly everything
his militaristic father hated
· Cultivated and hid from his father a secret library of 3000
works of poetry, Greek and Roman classics and French
philosophy; he spoke 6 languages and understood two more
· Played the flute at a professional level and composed 100
sonatas for the flute and 4 symphonies
· Came to the throne in 1740 and used his father's war machine
against Austria and grabbed the wealthy region of Silesia; a
decade later he took on most of western Europe in the Seven
Years' War--by the end of his reign he had doubled the size of
Prussia
· Reforms: 1) supported new Prussian industries, 2) developed
new tax collection system, 3) modernized the Prussian
bureaucracy, 4) educational reform--developed some of the best
schools in Europe, 4) except for the Jews, practiced religious
toleration, 5) abolished most forms of torture, and 6) issued a
new standardized currency
· Outlived most of his contemporaries--known as "Old Fritz"

16. · Catherine the Great (1762-1796)
· Born into a minor Prussian family, her mother was a distant
cousin of Empress Elizabeth of Russia; Elizabeth had no
children and designated her nephew Peter as her heir and began
searching for a suitable wife for him
· At 14 Catherine was invited to Russia to meet Peter; the
Empress chose Catherine to be Peter's wife--an ill-fated
relationship, due to Peter's mental instabilities and personality
issues
· Catherine immersed herself in studying the Russian language
and reading as much of Enlightenment literature as possible--
considered to be a very educated woman
· Eventually had a son Paul--his father was most likely
Catherine's Polish lover--with the death of the Empress in 1762,
the Russian Romanovs ceased to exist--the Romanovs who ruled
until 1918 were a mixture of Prussian and Polish descent
· With the death of Elizabeth in 1762, Peter took the throne and
managed to alienate the Russian people almost immediately
with his polices
· With the help of the current lover (Gregorii Orlov) and his
brothers, Catherine launched a coup in June 1762, deposed Peter
and seized control of the government--she claimed that she was
serving as a regent only until Paul came of age, but she never
relinquished the throne until her death--Paul virtually hated her
for most of his life
· For the first 11 years she attempted to implement numerous
enlightened reforms: 1) opened hospitals, orphanages and
schools, 2) except for the Jews she practiced religious
toleration, 3) encouraged freedom of the press, 4) new
codification of Russian laws, 5) abolished most forms of torture
and capital punishment, and 6) allowed for lower classes to
have a voice in local government
· Her reforms were halted in 1773 with the Pugachev Rebellion-
-one of the best organized peasant rebellions in European
history; took her armies a year to end the rebellion; the

17. rebellion scared her and she began to turn away from
Enlightened principles
· For her any thoughts of the Enlightenment ended during the
French Rebellion and the execution of the royal family
· Along with her reforms Catherine should be remembered for
1) gaining more territory for Russian than any of her
predecessors or successors, and 2) culturally she completed
Peter the Great's westernization of Russia
Significance of the Enlightenment
· Produced 150 years of revolutions on both sides of the
Atlantic
· Brought an end to absolute forms of government in most of
Europe
· Supported the rise of individual freedoms and liberties around
the world
· Led to the development of several constitutional monarchies
and republics
In your opinion which member of the Scientific Revolution
contributed the most to the world of science? How has this
person impacted the modern world?
In your opinion, which enlightened despot (Frederick the Great
or Catherine the Great) utilized more of the principles of the
Enlightenment in his/her reign? Why and how so?
XYZ Company, INC.
Balance Sheet
For Year Ending December 31, 20XX
ASSETS
Current Assets

18. Cash 10,525
Accounts Receivable 27,000
Inventory 30,000
Prepaid Expenses 2,000
Total Current Assets 69,525
Fixed Assets
Property—net of depreciation 215,000
Equipment—net of depreciation 80,000
Vehicles—net of depreciation 5,000
Total Fixed Assets 300,000
Total Assets 369,525
LIABILITIES
Current Liabilities
Revolving lines of credit 20,000
Accounts Payable 5,000
Current Portion of Long-term Debt 15,000
Total Current Liabilities 40,000
Long-term Liabilities

19. Long-term debt and capital leases 45,500
Loans payable to stockholders 60,500
Total Long-term Liabilities 106,000
Total Liabilities 146,000
Stockholders Equity
Common stock 1,000
Additional Paid-in Capital 25,000
Retained Earnings (Cum from prior years) 53,190
Retained Earnings (From current P&L) 144,335
Total Stockholders Equity 223,525
Total Liabilities and Stockholders Equity 369,525
Islamic World
I. Origins
· In the lifetime of Muhammad, the founder of the Islamic faith,
his followers occupied the cities of Mecca and Media in Arabia
· Because of his lack of sons, upon the death of Muhammad, a
split developed among his followers: 1) the majority supported
one of Muhammad's closest friends, Abu Bakr, and 2) the
minority supported, Ali ibn Abi Talib, one of Muhammad's
sons-in-law
· The supporters of Abu Bakr eventually became the Sunni, the
single largest section of modern Islam; the followers of Ali ibn
Abi Talib became the Sh'ia, the radical minority of modern

20. Islam
· Abu Bakr led an extremely successful military campaign
against the Byzantine Empire and conquered all of N. Africa,
Palestine and Spain
· The Islamic army's push into Europe, however, was checked in
732 at the Battle of Tours by Charles Martel
· After 732, the focus of Islamic imperialism became eastward
and the old Persian empire
· The Abbasid Empire emerged in 750 A.D., centered in
Baghdad, and led an amazing intellectual Golden Age
· Mustansiriya University, one the oldest in the world, was
established in Baghdad in 1227 as the center of the Islamic
Golden Age
· The Abbasid Empire was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258
II. Ottoman Empire
· Emerged at the end of 13th century in the eastern sections of
the declining Byzantine Empire, and became the first major
non-Arabic Islamic culture
· Defeated the Serbs in 1378 and began pushing northward into
the Balkans
· Utilized the janissary corps extensively in the Balkans and
large sections of Bosnia converted to Islam; this difference in
religion became one of the long term causes of the genocide of
the Bosnians by the Serbs in the 1990s
· By the 15th century the ultimate goal of the Ottomans was to
capture the city of Constantinople--a gold-plated city at the
junction of 7 major trade routes
· Once the city had been captured in May 1453 the goal was to
push farther into Europe
· The Ottoman Empire reached its military and cultural zenith
under Suleiman I (the Magnificent)--he was hated by western
Europeans and the Russians
· In 1529 he laid siege to Vienna; Charles V and all of Europe
sighed in relief when it failed and the Turks retreated in defeat
· Suleiman pushed northward and eastward, and the Ottomans

21. kept pressure on the Russians well into the 19th century
· With the death of Suleiman, the Ottoman Empire began a slow
and painful decline, earning the 19th century nickname, "The
Sick Man of Europe"
· With the advent of WWI the Ottomans sided with the Central
Powers--the losing side; at the conclusion of WWI the Ottoman
Empire was divided into several modern Islamic nations
III. Safavid Empire
· The Safavid Empire emerged two centuries later than the
Ottoman, and represented the eastern section of the old Abbasid
Empire
· Unlike the Sunni Ottomans, the Safavids embraced the Shi'ite
sect of Islam
· While the Ottoman culture focused on the Turkish language
and culture, the Safavid culture centered on the ancient Persian
culture and language
· Unlike the forward-thinking and modern Ottoman culture, the
Safavids looked to feudalism and established an older,
traditional society
· The Safavid dynasty was one of the most brief in Islamic
history--it ended by the end of the 18th century
· Though Safavid dynasty has been dead for 300 years, many of
its cultural goals live on in the current leadership of modern
Iran; with the fundamentalist revolution in 1979, time reverted
to the 16th and 17th centuries and the triumph of a Shiite
society
· Time will only tell which faction of Islam will ultimately
prevail and if the goal of the Shiites to establish a world-wide
Shi'a society will actually occur
West African Slave Trade
I. Origins
· Can be traced to the 8th century A.D. with the arrival of

22. Islamic settlements of N. Africa
· Muslim traders began purchasing African prisoners-of-war
from African nations in W. Africa
· Muslims discovered that slavery was one of the most lucrative
of all international trade
· Muslim slave trade declined with the Crusades of the 11th and
12th centuries
· Portuguese were the first Europeans to realize the potential of
a slave trade in the 15th century
· Portuguese continued the Muslim practice of purchasing
African prisoners of war
· Note: African Slave Trade could have never existed had not
several West African nations served as the middlemen and sold
their prisoners of war to the Europeans; the modern nation of
Ghana was one of the key African nations in the sale of
Africans to Europeans
· Europeans had no need for a large-scale labor supply until the
advent of the plantation system in the Spanish section of W.
Hemisphere
· In order to sooth their consciences Europeans developed the
concept of White Supremacy and argued that Africans were sub-
human and were inferior in intellectual and cultural issues
II. Church Support of Slavery
· Countless slave owners attempted to appeal to the Holy
Scriptures to justify their actions
· Many appealed to the Mosaic Law for justification; the Laws
of Moses, however, allow only for 7 years of bondage and a
slave was permitted to go free--Moses clearly stipulated that
lifetime and perpetual slavery was not permitted
· King Solomon was the first Jewish monarch to institute
lifetime and perpetual slavery due to his massive building
projects--clearly in violation to God's law
· Other slave owners looked to St. Paul and his injunction for
"Servants to obey Masters." In reality, in the book of Philemon,

23. St. Paul clearly sided with Onesimus, the runaway slave;
apparently Philemon later granted freedom to Onesimus
III. Dominant Nations of the African Slave Trade
· Three European nations dominated the African Slave Trade
from the 16th-19th Centuries
· 1) Portugal: made 30,000 voyages and transported 4.7 million
slaves (used smaller ships than later counterparts)
· 2) The Netherlands: made 3,000 voyages and transported
500,000 slaves
· 3) Great Britain: made 13,000 voyages and transported 2.9
million slaves
· Other European nations participated on a lesser scale
· Overall total voyages: 54, 200; number of slaves transported:
11 million
· These statistics are based on the records--it's anyone's guess
how many unrecorded/illegal voyages were made
IV. Sugar, Coffee, and Slaves
· The majority of African slaves that ended in the W.
Hemisphere came from central and southern Africa
· After being held in slave dungeons for up to two months they
embarked on the Transatlantic voyage
· "The Middle Passage," life on a slave ship was 30-60 days of a
never ending nightmare
· Slaves were chained together in sets of 10--because of the fear
of rebellions, they were not allowed on the decks until the ship
reached the high seas
· 95% of all slaves entering the W. Hemisphere were processed
in the Caribbean
· 40.6% of the slaves remained in the Caribbean to work the
sugar plantations--these slaves had a 2-4 year life expectancy
· 35.3% of the slaves were transported to Brazil to work the

24. coffee plantations--this was the deadliest region--these slaves
had a 1 year life expectancy
· 20% went to the other regions of Spanish Central and South
America
· British N. America only received 4.4% of the African slaves
The Moghul Empire
· Like the word Muslim (or Moslem) the term Moghul has
multiple spellings--Mugal or Mogul--all are used by different
scholars around the world
· The Moghuls were the most multi-cultural dynasty in East
Asian history--the Moghuls were from Central Asia and
represented a mixed culture based on Mongol, Persian and
Afghan traditions
· Unlike earlier dynasties in Indian history, the Moghuls were
extremely different from the people they ruled, and
implemented very little of traditional Indian customs into their
culture
· The Moghuls were contemporaries of the Safavid Empire and
mirrored them in longevity and in religion
· While most of the Indian culture remained loyal to the Hindu
religion, a significant Islamic culture developed in the
northwestern section of the empire--setting the stage for the
religious and cultural tensions between modern Pakistan and
India
· Emperors Babur and Akbar made the most positive
contributions to Moghul history and are remembered fairly
favorably today in Indian history; Aurengzeb (1659-1707),
however, has become one of the most hated Mogul leaders due
to his anti-Hindu policies
· While the Taj Mahal is recoginzed as India's greatest cultural
treasure and most visited tourist attraction, the Taj Mahal
represents the Islamic era in which it was built rather than
traditional Indian architecture
· With India's rapid industrialization in the second half of the
20th century, the Taj Mahal is experiencing rapid decline from

25. industrial pollution--major steps need to be taken to keep this
cultural treasure from obvious deterioration
· The Moghul Dynasty ultimately collapsed in the 19th century
due to growing British interference and colonization of India
Early Modern China
I. Ming Dynasty
· The Ming Dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty established
after the defeat of two centuries of Mongol domination
· Like the previous Chinese dynasty, the T'ang, the Ming
regained control of an empire that extended to Russia and India
and maintained extended trading relationships around the world
· During the 15th century the Ming enjoyed a brief period of
naval superiority--if only that strength would have continued,
the story of European colonialism would be quite different!
· During the Ming dynasty feudalism began to decline and
foundations for capitalism were established
· The Ming exported an amazing diverse list of good around the
world; at the top of the list was the beautiful blue and white
porcelains that were copied by the Dutch and dominated
European markets in the 17th and 18th centuries
· The Ming also created the Forbidden City, Chinese counterpart
to Versailles, became the home to the Chinese emperors for the
final five centuries of Chinese history
· The Ming Dynasty collapsed due to a series of natural
disasters and from internal corruption of the bureaucracy and
the inner circle of the emperor
II. Manchu Dynasty
· The Manchu (Ch'ing or Qing) Dynasty followed the Ming and
ultimately became the final dynasty of Chinese imperial history
· It was during the reign of the Manchu that China experienced
a population surge which made it the most populous empire in

26. the world
· The Manchu was able to maintain the political boundaries
established by the Ming by enlarging and modernizing their
military base--one of the largest in the world at that time
· The Manchu reached their zenith in the 18th century, an era
known as "The Golden Age of the Three Emperors"; by the
beginning of the 19th century the quality of Chinese leadership
seriously declined
· During this final dynasty the Chinese experienced one final
cultural Golden age in the arts and literature
· The Manchu experienced their political decline in the 19th
century; like the Ming, internal corruption, political
factionalism and the Opium Wars weakened the Manchu
· The Manchu Dynasty ended in 1911 with the successful
revolution led by Sun Yet-sen
How did the arrival of European explorers and Christian
missionaries alter the course of history in East Asia? Did these
Europeans cause positive or negative changes?
Several historians refer to Sulieman I (Suleyman) as "the Great"
or "the Magnificent." In your opinion, does Sulieman deserve
these titles? Why or why not?
European Renaissance, 1350-1550
I. Origins: Why Italy?
· Italy had many advantages that its northern European
counterparts did not share.
· By 1350 Italy had the most advanced urban societies in
Europe, as well as the highest number of urban centers.
· Unlike the nobility in northern European countries who lived
in rural manors and castles, Italian aristocrats lived in urban
centers and became fully involved in urban affairs.
· Italian cities were also the homes to a large and wealthy class
who were involved in either banking or international trade.

27. · Due to the demand of the upper classes, Italy had the largest
group of educators and tutors living in one area of Europe,
resulting in the best educated middle and upper classes in
Europe.
· The Italians led the renewal of interest in the Greek and
Roman literary classics resulting in a growing secular culture.
· The Italians revived Roman art and architecture as a means of
rivaling the Gothic architecture in northern Europe.
II. Humanism developed in the 14th century as a reaction
against medieval scholasticism.
· The Renaissance humanists returned to the classical literature
of the Greeks and Romans. Echoing the themes of the ancient
writer, these new humanists promoted a shift away from
religious themes and embraced secular topics, and embraced the
concepts personal independence and individual expression.
Many of the topics explored by the humanists led directly to
the Scientific Revolution and the European Enlightenment.
Francesco Petrarch
· Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) Known as the "Father of
Humanism," Petrarch was a deeply committed Christian and a
prolific writer. He was well educated and traveled throughout
Europe and the Mediterranean World. As an author he wrote
biographies, literary treatises and poetry, and his poetical
sonnets later influenced William Shakespeare. While he re-
introduced the writings of Virgil and Horace, he is also
responsible for resurrecting the writing of numerous ancient
Greek authors.
Lorenzo Valla
· Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) Originally from Rome, Valla was a
humanist, educator and gifted linguist. Leading his religious
writings was his Notes on the New Testament--one of the
earliest modern commentaries on the writings of St. Paul. His
greatest literary contribution, however, was developing the field
of textual criticism by studying Greek and Latin texts from
several historical era. His most famous piece of textual
criticism was demonstrating that the Donation of Constantine

28. was a medieval hoax--the Vatican had claimed that Emperor
Constantine the Great of the 4th Century had given the central
section of the Italian to the Catholic Church; Valla proved that
the Donation of Constantine had actually been written during
the Middle Ages and was thus a forgery.
Niccolo Machiavelli
· Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) A humanist and the greatest
political philosopher of the Italian Renaissance, he is
considered as one of the founders of modern political science.
In 1512, he took part of an unsuccessful bid to overthrow the
government of Florence; he lost his position as a diplomat and
spent the rest of his life in embittered exile. During his exile he
wrote numerous pieces of political theory, including his most
remembered and studied work was The Prince. Even though
Machiavelli praised constitutionalism, equality and some
personal liberties, in The Prince he argued that a monarch
should have the power to exercise deceit and occasional brute
force to maintain control.
III. Culture: The Arts focused on secular themes and topics
from classical Greece and Rome. The three greatest artists
emerged after 1500.
Raphael Sanzio
· Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) He was one of the few great
masters who did not come from Florence. Born in the small
town of Urbino, he later moved to Rome. One of the greatest
artists of the Renaissance, he painted both religious and secular
pieces. One of his most famous secular works, The School of
Athens is a composite of all of the towering intellectuals from
the Golden Age of Athens. A master portrait painter, he also
produced numerous versions of the Madonna and Christ child.
Leonardo da Vinci
· Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) One of the two "Renaissance
men," da Vinci struggled for most of his life to overcome his

29. background. The illegitimate son of a lawyer and peasant
woman in Florence, Italy, he was a painter, architect, musician,
mathematician, engineer and inventor. He was determined to
prove that his natural and artistic abilities was equal to the
formal learning of his social superiors. He commented, "I am
fully conscious that, not being a literary man, certain
presumptuous persons will think they may reasonably blame me,
alleging that I am not a man of letters." By the time he was
twenty-five, he set up his own artist's shop and gained the
patronage of the Medici family. His greatest weakness was
starting too many projects simultaneously and failing to
complete many of them. The Medici family, angered with his
inability to meet deadlines, eventually withdrew their support.
After 1499 he gained the patronage of Francis I of France and
worked there until his death. Like his rival, Michelangelo, da
Vinci studied anatomy (he was able to secure the corpses of
prisoners from the local prison) and was able to paint the human
body in minute detail. His two greatest paintings, The Mona
Lisa and The Last Supper reveal his marvelous skills.
Michelangelo Buonarroti
· Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) The second
"Renaissance man," he was a painter, sculptor, architect and
poet. More so than his contemporaries, Michelangelo focused
on the male figure in his paintings and sculptures.
Consequently his statue David has been hailed as the greatest
male nude statue of the Renaissance and his frescoes in the
Sistine Chapel are primarily comprised of male figures. An
interesting progression in his work is his attention to facial
expressions and corresponding emotions--his earlier works
appear to be serene, while in his later pieces, the subjects
demonstrate fear and anger.
IV. Northern Renaissance was greatly restricted by the Church
and was not as secular. Humanism in the North was propelled
by two men.
Desiderius Erasmus

30. · Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536) Known as the "Prince of
Humanists," he was the best known humanist of the sixteenth
century. He was the illegitimate son of a priest and was forced
by relatives to live at a monastery until he reached adulthood.
In spite of the repressive environment he gained a superior
education.He was a prolific writer and wrote numerous religious
works, including his religious satire, In Praise of Folly. While
he lived during the early years of the Reformation and shared
many of the concerns of the Protestant reformers, he believed
that the Church should be reformed from within.
Sir Thomas More
· Sir Thomas More (1487-1535) English humanist and politician
who served on the Privy Council and ultimately as the Lord
Chancellor of England. More was pious and a deeply committed
Christian. His most famous writing was a Latin
novel, Utopia, in which a traveler visits the perfect society
where there was universal education for both genders, religious
toleration, communal land ownership and pacifism. Scholars
suggest that Utopia was the mirror opposite to 16th century
England, but More's ultimate goal for England. More's strong
religious convictions ultimately cost him his career and his life
when he refused to support Henry VIII's separation from the
Catholic church and his subsequent divorce of Catherine of
Aragon and re-marriage to Anne Boleyn. More was arrested in
1535, tried for treason and executed at the Tower of London.
V. Scientific Achievement laid the foundations for the
Scientific Revolution
Nicholas Copernicus
· Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) A deeply committed
Christian he came from eastern Prussia (modern Poland) and
became fluent in five languages. He studied at universities in
both Prussia and Italy and focused on philosophy, law and
astronomy. Of these fields he devoted most of his time and
attention to astronomy. His work in astronomy caught the
attention of Pope Paul III, who requested that Copernicus help

31. reform the Julian calendar. Copernicus, however, responded
that the field of astronomy needed to be reformed. His greatest
contribution to the modern world was resurrecting the
heliocentric theory in On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres.
He realized that he walked a thin line with the church and
could face possible heresy charges for his work. He kept his
research quiet for twelve years until 1542 before publishing his
work. He died a few months later before any charges of heresy
could be levied against him. Four decades after his death some
of his research was incorporated into the new calendar proposed
by Pope Gregory XIII--the basis of the calendar we currently
use in the western world.
Johann Kepler
· Johann Kepler (1571-1630) A German mathematician and
astronomer, at the age of six he observed a comet and a lunar
eclipse. Struggling with a vision impediment and crippled
hands due to a severe episode of smallpox as a child, Kepler
taught mathematics and astronomy for several years. As an
astronomer he proved the validity of Copernicus' heliocentric
theory through mathematical equations and improved defined
his three laws of planetary motion
Galilei Galileo
· Galilei Galileo (1564-1642) Italian scientist who was educated
in mathematics and medicine and became a math professor at
the age of 25. He became interested in astronomy and built his
own telescope; with his telescope he sighted 1) several new
stars, 2) observed the surface of the moon, 3) studied the moons
of Jupiter. Galileo also studied physics and produced some of
the earliest works on the concept of inertia. He came to support
the heliocentric theory and was condemned by the Inquisition
for his belief in 1616. He was eventually tried and condemned
for heresy (due to his position on the heliocentric theory); the
Pope intervened and his life was spared. Galileo spent the final
nine years of his life in house arrest.
VI. Significance of the Renaissance
· Development of a new secular culture

32. · Rise of the new philosophy humanism
· Revival of Greek and Roman philosophy and art
· Development of analytical and critical thinking
· Laid the foundations for the Scientific Revolution
· Laid the foundations for the Protestant Reformation
· Served as cultural bridge between Medieval and Modern
Europe
The Rise of Early Modern Europe
I. France and Louis XI (1423-1483)
· Founder of Modern France
· His nickname was "The Spider"--the world's first modern
politician!
· Defeated Charles the Bold and doubled the physical
boundaries of France
· Ended feudalism in France
· Built a system of roads
· Launched a lucrative silk industry
· Developed a new and modern tax collection system
· Created the first postal system in Europe
· Founded two new universities and several primary schools
· Thrifty and fiscally conservative monarch
II. Spain and Ferdinand (1452-1516) and Isabella (1451-1504)
· With their marriage they brought the two largest provinces
(Aragon and Castile) together, thus forming the heart of modern
Spain
· Ruled with the use of a royal council that was comprised of
members from the middle class
· Issued a new, modern national Spanish currency
· Initiated legal reform
· Regulated crime with a new police force

33. · Devout Catholic monarchs--sponsored the Catholic Inquisition
to insure that all citizens were Catholic
· Launched the Reconquista against Muslims and Jews--both
religious groups were banned in 1492
· Isabella was one of the most educated women of her era--
taught herself Latin
· Isabella personally backed Christopher Columbus and his
voyages to the Western Hemisphere
III. England and Henry VII (1485-1509)
· Member of the Tudor family (from the Lancaster Dynasty)
who defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth
· Ended the 30 year civil War of the Roses between the Houses
of Lancaster and the House of York
· Married of Elizabeth of York to halt any chances of reviving a
civil war
· Created the new political office of Justice of the Peace from
the middle class to help restore law and order at the local level
· Extremely thrifty monarch who rebuilt a nearly bankrupt
treasury
· Built up the English Navy
· Created a royal council to assist him in ruling the realm
· Restored the prestige of the English monarchy
· Used his children as political pawns and married them into
other royal prominent families--son, Arthur married Catherine
of Aragon; daughter, Margaret married James IV of Scotland,
and daughter, Mary married Louis XII of France
IV. Holy Roman Empire and Charles V (1500-1556)
· Holy Roman Emperor and controlled more lands than any
other European monarch--"the empire on which the sun never
sets"
· Grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and he could speak 7
languages

34. · Spent the early years of his reign fighting with France and the
Ottoman Empire--he halted the Islamic Armies outside of
Vienna in 1529
· Supported the Spanish conquest of the Western Hemisphere
· Spread the Spanish Inquisition to all Catholic sections of
Europe
· Vicious opponent to Martin Luther and the Protestant
Reformation
The Protestant Reformation
I. The Church on the Eve of the Reformation
· Reform-minded Christians had been calling for changes in the
Church for over a century before the arrival of Martin Luther
· Clerical Ignorance: The higher levels of clergy were well-
educated, but significant portions of local priests were
uneducated and could not read or write Latin or their own
national languages. The priests would attempt to memorize the
seven parts of the mass and try to muddle through them--
literally "the blind leading the blind."
· Clerical Pluralism/Absenteeism: Numerous high ranking
clergy held multiple church offices just to gain the income, and
thus could not devote the proper time and attention to each
church office they held. One French archbishop never visited
one of his cathedrals until the day of his funeral! Church
officials also held powerful political offices within their native
countries. Cardinal Wolsey of England was the most powerful
religious figure and held position of Lord Chancellor--the
second most powerful political office in England.
· Clerical Immorality: There were countless examples of clergy
at all levels up to the papacy who had violated their vows of
celibacy and kept mistresses on the side. There were numerous
illegitimate children, many of whom were raised at convents
and monasteries and forced to enter careers within the Church.
At all levels of the Church there were examples of clergy living
lavish lifestyles in clear violation of their vows of poverty and
also wasting Church funds.

35. II. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
· Originally only intended to challenge the Catholic Church to
begin internal reforms
· Ordained as a priest and highly educated with a Doctorate in
Theology
· In 1521 the Edict of Worms excommunicated Luther and
declared him an outlaw and a heretic
· Came to believe in salvation by faith alone--"justification by
faith" instead of works
· Translated the New Testament into German
· Launched a new worship style in his Lutheran churches--focus
of the service became the sermon
· Emphasized education for Lutheran clergy
· Broke with Catholic tradition of clerical celibacy and married
a former nun, Katherine von Bora
· Sparked the 1525 Peasant Rebellion in the German states
· His writings and influence spread due to the printing press
III. John Calvin
· Born and educated in France--majored in Philosophy and was
fluent in Latin and Greek
· Led the reforms of Geneva, Switzerland in the 1540s--became
the model Christian society
· Emphasized education for both genders--founded several
primary schools
· Promoted a new Protestant theology that differed with Luther
· Agreed with Luther on Sola Scriptura--the Bible as the sole
authority on Christian doctrine
· His followers established the Reformed Church and the
Presbyterian Church
IV. Henry VIII
· His English Reformation focused on "The King's Great
Matter"--Henry's lack of a legitimate male heir
· Theologically his new Church of England differed very little

36. with the Catholic Church
· He would have remained part of the Catholic Church had his
first wife Catherine of Aragon produced a live son
· Henry's new Church made the English monarch the "Supreme
Head" of the Church of England
· Henry's actions to close the monasteries was pure economics--
he want the income for the English crown
· The true Protestant Reformation in England began in the reign
of Henry's son, Edward VI--42 Articles of Faith were written as
well as The Book of Common Prayer, the liturgy of the
Anglican Church
· The English Reformation was completed during the reign of
Henry's younger daughter, Elizabeth I in the Elizabethan
Settlement of 1559
V. Significance of the Protestant Reformation
· Second most important event in Christian history since the
birth of Christ
· Broke the monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church in western
Christianity
· Led to the rise of multiple Protestant denominations
· Supported multiple translations of the Holy Bible
· Propelled the continuation of analytical and critical thinking
· Supported the rise of capitalism
· Influenced the Catholic Church to hold the Council of Trent
and address the criticisms of the Protestant Reformers
Age of Exploration
I. Motives of the Explorers
· New sea route to India and the Far East
· Opportunity for land-ownership for younger sons of European
nobility
· New good and trade commodities for European merchants
· Means to spread Christianity to native populations
II. New Technology Utilized by the Explorers
· Gunpowder--invented by Chinese for entertainment; developed
into a deadly weapon by the Byzantine Empire

37. · Caravel--small, wooden, and wind-powered ship developed by
the Portuguese; made long-distance sea travel possible
· Cannon--first used in the Siege of Constantinople in the 1450s
· Compass--invented by the Chinese; assisted the European
navigators in their travels to Asia and the Western Hemishphere
III. Prince Henry the Navigator
· King of Portugal who intended to discover the source of the
West African gold trade
· Initiated the first European contact with Sub-Sahara African
kingdoms
· Sponsored several exploration expeditions of the African west
coast
· Led the development of the new Portuguese ship, the caravel
· 1418, opened a school in Portugal that taught navigation,
cartography and oceanic sciences--trained several generations
of European navigators
IV. The Columbian Exchange
· Name of the 1972 work of Alfred Crosby; Dr. Crosby hold
dual doctorates in biology and history
· Crosby studied the Western Hemisphere in the first century
after Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean
· Crosby noted four exchanges between European and Native
Americans: 1) exchange of plants, 2) exchange of animals, 3)
exchange of diseases, and 4) exchange of peoples
· Native Americans introduced the Europeans to a wide variety
of new plant food sources
· Europeans brought numerous domesticated animals to the
Western Hemisphere, including horses, sheep and cattle
· The exchange of diseases proved to be quite deadly--
chickenpox, measles, scarlet fever, and smallpox decimated
huge native populations--90 % in some areas; in return the
Native Americans introduced the Europeans to syphilis
· Massive death rates among the Native Americans led the

38. Europeans to import West African slaves to work the new
plantation system
V. Significance of the Age of Discovery
· Launched European colonialism and Imperialism in Africa,
Asia and the Western Hemisphere
· Amerindians introduced Europeans to several new vital food
sources
· European diseases decimated 90% of the population in
Western Hemisphere by 1600
· Established the plantation system in Asia and Western
Hemisphere and created a high demand for a human labor
source
· Directly led to the explosion of the West African Slave Trade
In your opinion which political leader of early modern Europe
accomplished the most in the modernization of his/her nation?
How so?
What is the difference between a heretic and a martyr? In your
opinion, which group, the Catholics or the Protestants, was
more radical in its efforts to stamp out heresy?