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- 1. Rococo 777 fantasies became mirrors in which his well-to-do French patrons could behold the ornamental re!ections of their cherished pastimes. Jean-Honoré Fragonard. Boucher’s greatest student, J"#$- H%$%&' F&#(%$#&) (1732–1806), was a *rst-rate colorist whose decorative skill almost surpassed his master’s. An example of his manner can stand as characteristic not only of his work but also of the later Rococo in general. In !e Swing (+,(. 26-9), a young gentleman has convinced an unsuspecting older man (thought by some art historians to be a bishop) to swing the young man’s pretty sweetheart higher and higher, while her lover (and the work’s patron), in the lower le- corner, stretches out to admire her from a strategic position on the ground. .e young lady !irtatiously kicks o/ her shoe toward the little statue of Cupid. .e infant love god holds his *nger to his lips. .e landscape emulates Watteau’s— a luxuriant perfumed bower in a park that very much resembles a stage scene for comic opera. .e glowing pastel colors and so- light convey, almost by themselves, the theme’s sensuality. Giambattista Tiepolo. !e Swing is less than 3 feet in height, and Watteau’s L’Indi"érent (+,(. 26-7A) is barely 10 inches tall. Even the *gure-packed landscape Pilgrimage to Cythera (+,(. 26-7) is only
- 2. a little more than 4 feet high. Indeed, Rococo was a style best suited for small-scale works projecting a mood of sensual intimacy, and Rococo salons o-en featured tabletop sculptures, such as Nymph and Satyr Carousing (+,(. 26-9A) by Claude Michel, called C0%),%$ (1738–1814). But the intimate Rococo style could also be adapted for paintings of huge size, as the work of G,#12#33,43# T,"5%0% (1696–1770) demon- strates. A Venetian, Tiepolo worked for patrons in Austria, Germany (+,(. 26-4A), and Spain, as well as in Italy. He was a master of illu- sionistic ceiling decoration in the Baroque 26-9 J!"#-H$#$%& F%"'$#"%(, !e Swing, 1766. Oil on canvas, 29 8 580 ) 29 20. Wallace Collection, London. Fragonard’s Swing exemplifies Rococo style. Pastel colors and soft light complement a scene in which a young lady flirtatiously kicks off her shoe at a statue of Cupid while her lover admires her from below. 26-8 F%"#*$+, B$-./!%, Cupid a Captive, 1754. Oil on canvas, 59 60 ) 29 100. Wallace Collection, London. Boucher was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite artist. In this Rococo tableau, he painted a pyramid of rosy infant and female flesh and fluttering draperies set off against a cool, leafy background. 26-9A CLODION, Nymph and Satyr Carousing,
- 3. ca. 1780–1790. 1 ft. 1 ft. 30702_ch26_rev03_770-799.indd 777 11/06/18 4:25 pm © 2 01 8 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s
- 7. uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and America appealed greatly to Watteau’s wealthy patrons, whom, even as he was dying from tuberculosis, he still depicted as carefree and at leisure in his most unusual painting, Signboard of Gersaint (!"#. 26-7B). François Boucher. A$er Watteau’s death brought his bril- liant career to a premature end at age 36, F%&'()"* B)+,-.% (1703–1770) rose to the dominant position in French painting, in large part because he was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite artist. Although Boucher was an excellent portraitist, his success rested primarily on his canvases depicting shepherds, nymphs, and god- desses gracefully cavorting in shady glens engulfed in pink and sky-blue light. Cupid a Captive (!"#. 26-8) presents a rosy pyramid of infant and female /esh set o0 against a cool, leafy
- 8. background, with /uttering draperies both hiding and revealing the nudity of the 1gures. Boucher used the full range of Italian and French Baroque devices—the dynamic play of crisscrossing diagonals, curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions—to create his master- ful composition. But he dissected powerful Baroque curves into a multiplicity of decorative /ourishes, dissipating Baroque drama into sensual playfulness. Lively and lighthearted, Boucher’s artful Rococo In Pilgrimage to Cythera (!"#. 26-7), luxuriously costumed lovers make a “pil- grimage” to Cythera, the island of eternal youth and love, sacred to Aphrodite. (Some art historians think that the lovers are returning from Cythera rather than having just arrived. Watteau provided few clues to settle the question de1nitively.) 2e elegant 1gures move gracefully from the protective shade of a woodland park 1lled with play- ful cupids and voluptuous statuary. 2e poses of the 1gures, which blend elegance and sweetness, are hallmarks of Watteau’s style, both in ambitious multi1gure compositions such as Pilgrimage to Cythera and in single-1gure studies such as L’Indi!érent (!"#. 26-7A). Watteau prepared his paintings using albums of draw- ings in which he sought to capture slow movement from di3cult and unusual angles, searching for the smoothest, most poised, and most re1ned attitudes. As he experimented with nuances of posture and movement, Watteau also strove for the most exquisite
- 9. shades of color di0erence, de1ning in a single stroke the shimmer of silk at a bent knee or the shine appearing on a glossy surface as it emerges from shadow. 2e haze of color, the subtly modeled shapes, the gliding motion, and the air of suave gentility tinged with nostalgia 26-7B WATTEAU, Signboard of Gersaint, 1721. 26-7 A!"#$!% W&""%&', Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717. Oil on canvas, 49 30 ( 69 4 120. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Watteau’s fête galante paintings depict the outdoor amusements of French upper-class society. The haze of color suited the new Rococo taste and was the hallmark of the Royal Academy’s Rubénistes. 26-7A WATTEAU, L’Indifférent, ca. 1716. 1 ft. 30702_ch26_rev03_770-799.indd 776 11/06/18 4:25 pm © 2 01 8 C en
- 13. r m at ch th e pu bl is he d pr od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 (the Dutch Republic), Sweden, and France expanded their author- ity. Spanish and Danish power diminished. In addition to recon- !guring territorial boundaries, the Peace of Westphalia in essence granted freedom of religious choice throughout Europe. "is
- 14. agree- ment thus marked the abandonment of the idea of a united Chris- tian Europe, and accepted the practical realities of secular political systems. "e building of today’s nation-states was emphatically under way. "e 17th century also brought heightened economic compe- tition to Europe. Much of the foundation for worldwide mercan- tilism—extensive voyaging and geographic exploration, improved mapmaking, and advances in shipbuilding—had been laid in the previous century. In the 17th century, however, changes in !nancial systems, lifestyles, and trading patterns, along with expanding colo- nialism, fueled the creation of a worldwide marketplace. In 1609, the Dutch founded the Bank of Amsterdam, which eventually became the center of European transfer banking, with Amsterdam usurping Antwerp as the richest center of commerce in Europe. By establish- ing a system in which merchant !rms held money on account, the bank relieved traders of having to transport precious metals as pay- ment. Trading practices became more complex. Rather than simple reciprocal trading, triangular trade (trade among three parties) facilitated access to a larger pool of desirable goods. Exposure to an ever-growing array of goods a#ected European diets and lifestyles.
- 15. Tea (from China) and, later, co#ee (from island colonies) became popular beverages over the course of the 17th century. Equally explosive was the growth of sugar use. Sugar, tobacco, and rice were slave crops, and the slave trade expanded to meet the demand for these goods. Traders captured and enslaved Africans and shipped them to European colonies and the Americas to provide the requi- site labor force for producing these commodities. "e resulting worldwide mercantile system permanently changed the face of Europe. "e prosperity generated by interna- tional trade a#ected social and political relationships, necessitat- ing new rules of etiquette and careful diplomacy. With increased disposable income, more of the newly wealthy spent money on art, signi!cantly expanding the market for artworks, especially small- scale paintings for private homes (see “"e Art Market in the Dutch Republic,” page 747). FLANDERS In the 16th century, the Netherlands had come under the crown of Habsburg Spain when Emperor Charles V retired, leaving the Spanish kingdoms, their Italian and American possessions, and the Netherlandish provinces to his only legitimate son, Philip II (r. 1556–1598). (Charles bestowed his imperial title and German lands on his brother.) Philip’s repressive measures against the
- 16. Protestants led the northern provinces to break from Spain and establish the Dutch Republic. "e southern provinces remained under Spanish control and retained Catholicism as their o$cial religion. "e polit- ical distinction between modern Holland and Belgium more or less re%ects this original separation, which in the 17th century signaled not only religious but also artistic di#erences. Painting "e major artistic media of 17th-century Flanders (the Span- ish Netherlands) were prints and illustrated books and oil paint- ings. Flemish Baroque painters retained close connections to the Baroque art of Catholic Europe. By contrast, the Dutch schools of painting developed their own subjects and styles, consistent with their reformed religion and the new political, social, and economic structure of the Dutch Republic. Peter Paul Rubens. "e greatest 17th-century Flemish painter was P&'&( P)*+ R*,&-. (1577–1640), a towering !gure in the his- tory of Western art. Rubens built on the innovations of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque masters to formulate the !rst truly pan- European painting style. Rubens’s art is an original and powerful synthesis of the manners of many masters, especially Michelangelo, Titian, Carracci, and Caravaggio. His style had wide appeal, and
- 17. his in%uence was international. Among the most learned individuals of his time, Rubens possessed an aristocratic education and a cour- tier’s manner, diplomacy, and tact, which, with his facility for lan- guage, made him the associate of princes and scholars. He became court painter to the dukes of Mantua (descended from Mantegna’s patrons); friend of King Philip IV (r. 1621–1665) of Spain and his adviser on collecting art; painter to Charles I (r. 1625–1649) of England and Marie de’ Medici (1573–1642) of France; and perma- nent court painter to the Spanish governors of Flanders. Rubens also won the con!dence of his royal patrons in matters of state. "ey o/en entrusted him with diplomatic missions of the highest importance. To produce a steady stream of paintings for a rich and powerful inter- national clientele, Rubens employed scores of assistants. He also became a highly successful art dealer, buying and selling contemporary artworks and classical antiquities for royal and aristocratic clients throughout Europe, who competed with each other in amassing vast collections of paintings and sculptures. One of those collections became the subject of a painting by Rubens and J)- B(*&01&+ '1& E+2&( (1568–1625): Allegory of Sight (340. 25-1A). Rubens’s many enterprises made him a rich man, able to a#ord a
- 18. magni!cent townhouse in Antwerp and a castle in the countryside. Rubens, like Raphael, was a successful and renowned artist, a con- sort of kings, a shrewd man of the world, and a learned philosopher. Elevation of the Cross. When he was 23 years old, Rubens departed Flanders for Italy and remained there from 1600 until 1608. During these years, he studied the works of Italian Renais- sance and Baroque masters and laid the foundations of his mature style. Shortly a/er returning home, he painted Elevation of the Cross (340. 25-2) for the church of Saint Walburga in Antwerp. Later moved to the city’s cathedral, the altarpiece in the form of a triptych is one of numerous commissions for religious works that Rubens received at this time. By investing in sacred art, Flemish churches sought to a$rm their allegiance to Catholicism and Span- ish Habsburg rule a/er a period of Protestant iconoclastic fervor in the region. Rubens’s interest in Italian art, especially the works of Michel- angelo and Caravaggio, is evident in the Saint Walburga triptych. "e choice of this episode from the passion cycle provided Rubens with the opportunity to depict heavily muscled men in unusual poses straining to li/ the heavy cross with Christ’s body nailed to it. Here, as in his Lion Hunt (340. I-14), Rubens, deeply
- 19. impressed by Michelangelo’s heroic twisting sculpted and painted nude male 25-1A BRUEGHEL and RUBENS, Allegory of Sight, ca. 1617–1618. !Every thumbnail image has a corresponding full-size MindTap Bonus Image and content in the MindTap reader for this chapter.!"741 30702_ch25_rev03_738-769.indd 741 10/08/18 12:02 pm © 2 01 8 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll
- 23. he d pr od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 580! CHAPTER 20 Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Northern Europe Rogier’s extraordinary ability to represent !esh and fabric rivaled Jan van Eyck’s, and few painters, not even Jan, have equaled him in rendering passionate sorrow as it vibrates through a "gure or distorts a tearstained face. Rogier’s depictions of the agony of loss in Deposition and of the terror of the damned in Last Judgment (#$%. 20-13A) are among the most moving and unforgettable images in religious art. It was probably Rogier whom Michelangelo had in mind when, according to the Portuguese painter Francisco de Hol- landa (1517–1584), the Italian
- 24. master observed, “Flemish paint- ing [will] please the devout better than any painting of Italy, which will never cause him to shed a tear, whereas that of Flanders will cause him to shed many.”1 and dramatically confronting the viewer, but the setting of the Cru- ci"xion in a box is unrealistic, as is the size of the cross, the arms of which are not wide enough for Jesus’s hands to have been nailed to them. &e painting, with the artist’s crisp drawing and precise mod- eling of forms, resembles a strati"ed relief carving, and the viewer may wonder if this is a painting of the biblical event or a painting of a shrine representing the event. In any case, a series of lateral undu- lating movements gives the group a compositional unity, a formal cohesion that Rogier strengthened by depicting the sorrowful anguish that many of the "gures share. Present are the Virgin, sev- eral of her half-sisters, Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Saint John the Evangelist, and Mary Magdalene. &e similar poses of Christ and his mother further unify the composition, evoke the shape of the crossbows in the corner tracery, and re!ect the belief that Mary su'ered the same pain at the Cruci"xion as her son. 20-13A VAN DER WEYDEN,
- 25. Last Judgment, ca. 1443–1451. ART AND SOCIETY The Artist’s Profession in Flanders As they did in Italy (see “Artistic Training,” page 434), guilds controlled artistic production in Flanders. To pursue a craft, individuals had to belong to the guild representing that craft. Painters, for example, sought admission to the Guild of Saint Luke, the patron saint of painters because Luke made a portrait of the Virgin Mary (FIG. 20-1). The patron saint of the metalworkers’ guild was Saint Eligius (FIG. 20-14), who was a goldsmith before devoting himself to the Church and eventually becom- ing bishop of Tournai. The path to eventual membership in the guild began, for men, at an early age, when the father apprenticed his son in boyhood to a mas- ter, with whom the young aspiring painter lived. The master taught the fundamentals of his craft—how to make implements, prepare panels with gesso (plaster mixed with a binding material), and mix colors, oils, and varnishes. Once the youth mastered these procedures and learned to work in the master’s traditional manner, he usually spent several years working as a journeyman in various cities, observing and absorbing
- 26. ideas from other masters. He then was eligible to become a master and could apply for admission to the guild. Fees could be very high, espe- cially if an artist was not a citizen of the same city, as was the case, for example, when Petrus Christus of Baerle purchased citizenship in Bruges in order to join that city’s painters’ guild. Sometimes, an art- ist seeking admission to a guild would marry the widow of a member. (A woman could inherit her husband’s workshop, but could not run it.) Guild membership was essential for establishing an artist’s reputation and for obtaining commissions. The guild inspected paintings to evalu- ate workmanship and ensure that its members used quality materials. It also secured adequate payment for its artists’ labor. Women had far fewer opportunities than men to train as artists, in large part because of social and moral constraints that forbade women to reside as apprentices in the homes of male masters. Moreover, from the 16th century, when academic training courses supplemented and then replaced guild training, until the 20th century, women would not as a rule expect or be permitted instruction in figure painting, because it involved dissection of cadavers and study of the nude male model.
- 27. Flemish women interested in pursuing art as a career—for example, Caterina van Hemessen (FIG. 23-16)—most often received tutoring from fathers and husbands who were professionals and whom the women assisted in all the technical procedures of the craft. Despite these obstacles, membership records of the art guilds of Bruges and other cities reveal that a substantial number of Flemish women were able to establish themselves as artists during the 15th century. That they suc- ceeded in negotiating the difficult path to acceptance as professionals is a testament to both their tenacity and their artistic skill. 20-14 P!"#$% C&#'%"$%, A Goldsmith in His Shop, 1449. Oil on wood, 39 30 ( 29 100. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Robert Lehman Collection, 1975). Once thought to depict Eligius, the patron saint of goldsmiths, Christus’s painting, made for the Bruges goldsmiths’ guild, is more likely a genre scene of a couple shopping for a wedding ring. 1 ft. 30702_ch20_rev03_566-591.indd 580 07/06/18 4:23 pm © 2
- 31. at er ia l o r m at ch th e pu bl is he d pr od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
- 32. 742! CHAPTER 25 The Baroque in Northern Europe of War is a chaotic scene !lled with twisting, straining, foreshort- ened male and female bodies, but Rubens used the commission from the Medici duke as an opportunity to express his desire— as a diplomat as well as a citizen-painter—for peace in an age when war was constant. Consequences of War is a commentary on the "irty Years’ War (see “Rubens on Consequences of War,” page 743). Marie de’ Medici. Rubens’s interaction with royalty and aris- tocracy provided the Flemish master with an understanding of the ostentation and spectacle of Baroque (particularly Italian) art that appealed to the wealthy and privileged. Rubens, the born cour- tier, reveled in the pomp and majesty of royalty. Likewise, those in power embraced the lavish spectacle that served the Catholic Church so well in Italy. "e magni!cence and splendor of Baroque imagery reinforced the authority and right to rule of the highborn. Among Rubens’s royal patrons was Marie de’ Medici, a member of the famous Florentine banking family and widow of Henry IV (r. 1589–1610), the !rst Bourbon king of France. She commis- sioned Rubens to paint a series of huge canvases memorializing and glorifying her career. Between 1622 and 1626, Rubens, work- ing with amazing creative energy, produced with the aid of his many assistants 21 historical-allegorical pictures and three por- traits designed to hang in the queen’s new palace, the Luxembourg, in Paris. (Today, they are on display in a huge exhibition hall in
- 33. the Louvre, the former palace of the kings of France.) Remark- ably, each of the paintings, although conceived as an instrument of royal propaganda to #atter the queen and impress her sub- jects and foreign envoys, is also a great work of art—a supreme testimony to Rubens’s skill and the talents of his small army of assistants. !gures, showed his prowess in representing foreshortened anatomy and the contortions of violent action. Rubens placed the body of Christ on the cross as a diagonal that cuts dynamically across the picture while inclining back into it. "e whole composition seethes with a power that comes from strenuous exertion, from power- ful muscles taut with e$ort. "e tension is emotional as well as physical, as re#ected not only in Christ’s face but also in the fea- tures of his followers. Bright highlights and areas of deep shadow inspired by Caravaggio’s tenebrism (%&'(. 24-17, 24-17A, 24- 17B, and 24-18), hallmarks of Rubens’s work at this stage of his career, enhance the drama. "e human body in action, draped or undraped, male or female, would remain the focus of Rubens’s art throughout his long career. "is interest, combined with his voracious intellect, led Rubens to copy the works of classical antiquity and of the Italian masters. During his last two years in Rome, Rubens made many black-chalk drawings of great artworks, including !gures in Michel- angelo’s Sistine Chapel frescoes (%&'. 22-17) and the ancient
- 34. marble group (%&'. 5-89) of Laocoön and his two sons. In De imitatione statuarum (On the Imitation of Statues), a treatise Rubens wrote in Latin, the artist stated: “I am convinced that in order to achieve the highest perfection one needs a full understanding of the [ancient] statues, indeed a complete absorption in them; but one must make judicious use of them and before all avoid the e$ect of stone.”2 Consequences of War. Once Rubens established his repu- tation, commissions from kings, queens, dukes, and other elite patrons throughout Europe soon followed. One of these commis- sions was Consequences of War (%&'. 25-3), which Rubens painted in 1638 for Ferdinando II de’ Medici, the grand duke of Tuscany (r. 1621–1670). Like Elevation of the Cross (%&'. 25-2), Consequences 25-2 P!"!# P$%& R%'!(), Elevation of the Cross, from Saint Walburga, Antwerp, 1610. Oil on wood, center panel 159 1 780 * 119 1 120, each wing 159 1 780 * 49 110. Antwerp Cathedral, Antwerp. In this triptych,
- 35. Rubens explored foreshortened anatomy and violent action. The whole composition seethes with a power that comes from heroic exertion. The tension is emotional as well as physical. 1 ft. 30702_ch25_rev03_738-769.indd 742 10/08/18 12:02 pm © 2 01 8 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A
- 39. is he d pr od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Flanders 579 “Framed Paintings,” page 578) reinforce this identi!cation. Across the top, Jan wrote “As I can” in Flemish using Greek letters. One suggestion is that this portrait was a demonstration piece intended for prospective clients, who could compare the painting with the painter and judge what he “could do” in terms of recording a faith- ful likeness. Across the bottom appear the date and a statement in Latin: “Jan van Eyck made me.” "e use of both Greek and Latin suggests that the artist viewed himself as both a learned man and a worthy successor to the fabled painters of antiquity.
- 40. Rogier van der Weyden When Jan van Eyck began work on the Ghent Altarpiece, Rogier van der Weyden (#$%. 20-1) was an assistant in the work- shop of Robert Campin (#$%. 20-8), but the younger Tournai painter’s fame soon eclipsed Campin’s and eventually rivaled Jan’s. Rogier’s renown rested on his skill in recording indi- vidual features and character in his portraits (#$%. 20-12A) and especially on the dynamic compositions of his narrative works, which stress human action and drama. He concen- trated on Christian themes, especially those episodes in the life of Jesus that elicited pow- erful emotions—for example, the Cruci!xion and Pietà (the Vir- gin Mary cradling the dead body of her son)—moving observers deeply by vividly portraying the su&erings of Christ. Deposition. One of Rogier’s early masterworks is Deposition (#$%. 20-13), the center panel of a triptych commissioned by the archers’ guild of Louvain for the church of Notre-Dame hors- les- murs (Church of Our Lady—the Virgin—outside the [town] walls). Rogier acknowledged the patrons of this large painting by incorpo- rating the crossbow (the guild’s symbol) into the decorative trac- ery in the corners. Instead of creating a deep landscape setting, as Jan van Eyck might have, Rogier compressed the !gures and action onto a shallow stage with a golden back wall, imitat- ing the large sculptured shrines so
- 41. popular in the 15th century, of which Jacques de Baerze’s Retable de Champ- mol (#$%. 20-3) is one of many Nether - landish examples (compare #$%'. 20-21 and 20-22). "e device admirably served his purpose of expressing max- imum action within a limited space patrons became interested in the reality (both physical and psycho- logical) that portraits could reveal. In the 15th century, Flemish patrons eagerly embraced the opportunity to have their likenesses painted. "e elite wanted to memorialize themselves in their dynastic lines and to establish their identities, ranks, and stations with images far more concrete than heraldic coats of arms. Portraits also served to represent state o(- cials at events they could not attend. Royalty, nobility, and the very rich would sometimes send artists to paint the likeness of a pro- spective bride or groom. For example, when young King Charles VI (r. 1380–1422) of France sought a bride, he dispatched a painter to three di&erent royal courts to make portraits of the candidates. But prosperous merchants also commissioned portraits for their homes. An early example of secular portraiture is Jan van Eyck’s dif- !cult-to-interpret depiction of the banker Giovanni Arnol!ni (see “Giovanni Arnol!ni and His Wife,” page 577). Man in a Red Turban. Whatever the intended meaning of
- 42. Giovanni Arnol!ni and His Wife, the painting is representative of the growing importance of secular portraiture as an income- producing artistic genre in 15th-century Flanders. In Man in a Red Turban (#$%. 20-12), the man whom Jan van Eyck portrayed looks directly at the viewer. "is is the !rst known Western painted portrait in a thousand years where the sitter does so. "e level, composed gaze, directed from a true three-quarter head pose, must have impressed observers deeply. "e painter created the illu- sion that from whatever angle a viewer observes the face, the eyes return that gaze. Jan, with his considerable observational skill and controlled painting style, injected a heightened sense of speci!city into this portrait by including beard stubble, veins in the bloodshot le) eye, and weathered, aged skin. Although a de!nitive identi!ca- tion of the sitter has yet to be made, most art historians consider Man in a Red Turban a self-portrait, which Jan painted by looking at his image in a mirror (as he depicted himself in the mirror in the Arnol!nis’ home; #$%. 20-11). "e inscriptions on the frame (see 20-13 R!"#$% &'( )$% W$*)$(, Deposition, center panel of a triptych from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs, Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435–1442. Oil on wood, 79 2 580 + 89 7 1 80. Museo
- 43. del Prado, Madrid. Deposition resembles a relief carving in which the biblical figures act out a drama of passionate sorrow as if on a shallow theatrical stage. The painting makes an unforgettable emotional impression. 20-12A VAN DER WEYDEN, Portrait of a Lady, ca. 1460. 1 ft. 30702_ch20_rev03_566-591.indd 579 07/06/18 4:23 pm © 2 01 8 C en ga ge L ea rn in g.
- 47. bl is he d pr od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 S�26-1a The Enlightenment fascination with classical antiquity gave rise to the art movement called Neoclassicism. In this painting, Kauffman chose a classical sub- ject and clothed her figures in Roman garb. S�26-1b Kauffman’s heroine is Cornelia, mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, political reformers during the Roman Republic. The portraits of the mother and her sons are based on ancient statuary. S�26-1c The painting is an Enlightenment exemplum virtutis (“example of virtue”). When a visitor shows Cor- nelia her jewelry and asks to see Cornelia’s, the mother of the Gracchi presents her children as her jewels.
- 48. 26-1 ANGELICA KAUFFMAN, Cornelia Presenting Her Children as Her Treasures, or Mother of the Gracchi, ca. 1785. Oil on canvas, 39 40 ! 49 20. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond (Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund). 1 ft. 30702_ch26_rev03_770-799.indd 770 11/06/18 4:25 pm © 2 01 8 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht
- 52. od uc t. Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 You will be responsible for answering this question with the required number of examples and historical periods. Please respond to the following question in 400-500 words. Your short essays should be well-organized, thoughtful analyses that engage the course material. Your responses must discuss specific works of art/architecture and provide ample visual evidence from the textbook to support your argument. Use the lecture notes and textbook for support, but you do not need to consult outside sources. Your response will run through TurnItIn software, so be sure to cite the textbook, when necessary. Question: Over the course of the five hundred years we have studied this semester, representations of the human body have changed drastically. Throughout the semester, we have examined the depiction of the human body in a variety of media, such as painting, sculpture, and photography. Please choose four examples and discuss the changing modes of showing the human body by considering qualities such as medium, realism, movement, etc. in relation to the culture/society in question. Your four examples must come from four different stylistic periods (with at least one, but not more
- 53. than two, coming from the first half of the semester) and one must not be a painting. Each of the four examples must be identified by artist, title, date, medium, and cultural/historical period. 4 Examples: Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition, center panel of a triptych from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs, Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435– 1442. Oil on wood, 79 2 580 × 89 7 180. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Peter Paul Rubens, Elevation of the Cross, from Saint Walburga, Antwerp, 1610. Oil on wood, center panel 159 1780 × 119 1120, each wing 159 1780 × 49 110. Antwerp Cathedral, Antwerp. AngelicA KAuffmAn, Cornelia Presenting Her Children as Her Treasures, or Mother of the Gracchi, ca. 1785. Oil on canvas, 39 40 × 49 20. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond (Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund). François Boucher, Cupid a Captive, 1754. Oil on canvas, 59 60 × 29 100. Wallace Collection, London. SAMPLE ESSAY Question: Discuss the approach to and meaning of realism in Baroque art using at least three examples. “During the 17th century, Europe experienced yet another prominent evolution in art history with the onset of Baroque art, in which “artists embraced dynamism, theatricality, and elaborate ornamentation…to spectacular effect” (Kleiner). While Renaissance art focused on mathematical and scientific elements, Baroque art shifted its attention to the theatrical experience created by each piece. Realism in Baroque art is
- 54. characterized by the depiction of more normal, everyday subject matter which otherwise could have even been deemed too inappropriate. Artists approached realism in Baroque art through the incorporation of religious propaganda, sensual ecstasy, and even violence that is in reality common in life. “Prime examples of the theatrical and dramatic themes in Baroque art lie in Gianlorenzo Bernini’s sculptures, such as the emotional David from the Villa Borghese as well as Ecstasy of Saint Teresa in the Cornaro Chapel. In David, the spectator is drawn in by the immense amount of movement contained in the stationary sculpture. In his depiction of David and Goliath’s spar, “Bernini selected the most dramatic of an implied sequence of poses…[and] David moves out into the space surrounding it…” (Kleiner). The amount of emotion illustrated in David’s facial and bodily expressions is almost overwhelming, especially because of the stress and anger shown through his pinched eyebrows and his pose that suggests he turning his muscular body to deliver a powerful blow to his opponent. Such realism is unparalleled to anything seen in previous sculptures. Similarly, in Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, the subject matter is passionate and sensual. Teresa is portrayed in a blissful state that may have previously been deemed inappropriate but is realistic. In the same way that Bernini humanized David’s anger, Teresa’s feeling of ecstasy is almost written on her face through her thrown back head, closed eyes, and her loose posture. As common in this period, Teresa’s feelings are dramatically displayed. Although Bernini uses marble to create his sculptures, his sculptures are as fluid in their movements as paint can be. “Additionally, realism is seen in Baroque art through Caravaggio’s piece Calling of Saint Matthew. Caravaggio reduces religious and “sacred subjects to…human dramas played out in the harsh and dingy settings of his time and place” (Kleiner). Specifically, the setting of the piece is familiar in that it is a realistic tavern. The realism is amplified in Caravaggio’s use of his own elements, chiaroscuro that
- 55. contrasts dark and bright colors and tenebrism that causes the figures to emerge from a shadow, as if they are truly on a theatrical stage. While Bernini’s sculptures were dynamic in their movement, Caravaggio’s paintings have dynamic movement and meaning in the various lightings he creates. The ray of light in Calling of Saint Matthew illuminates the tax collectors and is what beckons them to convert to Christianity. This piece can be considered religious propaganda in that it promotes the conversion to Christianity, which was a very prominent agenda of many people during this period of time. Similar to how Bernini drew in the viewers of his pieces, Caravaggio leaves a space empty in the background, inviting the spectators to the stage of his painting to join the tax collectors in religious conversion. “Overall, the Baroque period in art history was one of new, dramatic, and dynamic works that covered a broader range of subjects that could be considered more realistic. The level of complexity and emotion in every piece is unparalleled to previous eras, allowing Baroque art to live up to the irregularity suggested by its name.”