Guidelines for interpreting phylogenetic trees

Guidelines For Taxonomy And Phylogenetic Terminology
Citation MLA
Zachos, Frank E. "Tree Thinking and Species Delimitation: Guidelines for Taxonomy and
Phylogenetic Terminology." Mammalian Biology 81.2 (2015): 185–88. Web.
In your own words, what was the main focus of the article? There are multiple interpretations
concerning how phylogenetic trees are built and the understanding of the phylogenetic species
concept. A common mistake when it comes to interpreting phylogenetic trees, which portray
evolutionary relationships among taxa. Generally it is viewed as a "ladder of progress," yet it is not
so simple and is often the most relevant error to occur among reports. Species delimitation
additionally plays a similar role in this article, in that it is misused when providing evidence of
species being divided; however, it is much harder to understand the varying outlooks. Overall, the
article focused on these mistakes un order to provide practical guidelines for phylogenetic and
taxonomic papers.
In your opinion, which was the importance of Figure 1? Explain why. Figure one is a correct
representation of a phylogenetic tree. It is important to the article due to the fact that it is a visual
that can be understood and compared to. The article focuses on the fact that phylogenetic trees are
generally incorrect due to a wrong impression. For example, not at any time will a tree be read from
"left to right" since there is no difference in whether a taxa is drawn on the left or the right side of
the tree. The only important
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Achieving Conservation Goals With Urbanizing Landscapes
Synopsis: Achieving Conservation goals with Urbanizing Landscapes
Goal of the Study: To help Conservation biology realize that they need to embrace urbanizing
ecosystems; to consider designing a protected area of network in NJ highlands; to apply the costs of
obtaining land and integrating this land into a protected urban area and to observe the performance
of a long stand preserved urban area in central university in terms of its biodiversity protection.
Rationale: Urban areas should not be ignored because they hold a surprisingly high number of
native species, some of which are very much of conservation concern. At time conservation
biologist think about what areas are the best areas that will allow them to conserve as much species
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1996 to 2004, State0wide voters accepted a budget of $11.4 billion dollars to fund many urban
land conservation projects. During this vote, New Jersey accounted for over 75% of this funding.
Major motivations include preserving local biodiversity in an urbanizing environment and
protecting important populations or rare species. Professor Lockwood realized that 17 species found
in the area were rapidly declining, such as Least flycatcher, field sparrow and cerulean warbler.
Professor Lockwood made it her goal to find an urban area that would allow these bird species to
thrive, and affordable cost of acquiring the land.
Methods: Professor Lockwood used distribution maps from MAxent software for each of the 17
species of birds and then overlaid these distribution maps unto the maps of land use/land cover in
the study region. In order to build a protected areas network in the New Jersey highlands that will
provide sufficient habitat for the 17 species, Professor Lockwood used an optimization algorithm.
Optimization algorithm often used in evolution studies and industrial. These are very well
developed for many situations in which the goal needs to be met at minimum costs. In this situation,
the Algorithm would search through the red dots of the species, looking to include those that satisfy
habitat needs for birds while minimizing the costs, such as

Evolutionary Theory : Climate Change On Evolution
Evolutionary Theory: Climate Change on Evolution Evolution is the process of change that occurs
in the traits of a population of a species over many years. At the molecular level, dissimilarities of
an individual's genes, known as the genotype, result in the change of their physical characteristics,
or phenotype. There are three main driving forces that trigger evolution in a population. Those three
include: natural selection, change in the gene pool through mating, and genetic variation between
individual species. In this work, I will be explaining how environmental factors, such as climate
change, causes individual species to experience these three factors and eventually result in evolution
and the development of traits that will help them adapt to their habitat. Zhenhua Lou, Mian Zhao,
and several other anthropologists conducted a study of the effects of climate change on the Sichuan
snub–nosed monkeys of the Shennongjia area, China. These species, classified as Rhinopithecus
roxellana, were examined at the Shennongjia National Nature Reserve because it represented the
most eastern population region for this specie. In order to estimate the presumed future distribution
of this species, the scientists examined eco–geographic factors including bio–climate habitat
(vegetation type, land cover, etc.) and topography of the natural reserved land. These experts used a
maximum entropy approach to predict the location distribution of habitats suitable for R. roxella in
the

Evolution Of A New Species Of Homo Essay
In 2003 archaeologists discovered the remains of a possible early human ancestor in Indonesia.
These remains were found in the Liang Bua cave on Flores Island, Indonesia, and so far this is the
only location where similar specimens have been found. It is estimated that H. floresiensis lived
between 74,000 and 17,000 years ago (Olszewski, 2016). If this is accurate, it would have lived
contemporarily with Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and most recently Homo sapiens.
Homo floresiensis had an unusually short body and small brain size for a Homo in the Late
Pleistocene. It displayed a Homo erectus cranial shape but not size, earlier Hominid–like limb
proportions, and other primitive, advanced, and unique skeletal features. It was well suited for life
on a densely forested isolated island that would have had a limited food source thus contributing to
its small size (Lyras et al., 2008). There is much debate on whether these fossils represent a new
species of Homo, whether it is a late survivor of the Homo erectus migration out of Africa, or even
be classified within a group of hominids that migrated out of Africa pre–Homo erectus.
There are several unique identifying features of H. floresiensis that are crucial in how to classify this
collection of specimens. These remains represented an individual with small stature, standing at
about only 1 meter (3.5 ft.) tall (Olszewski, 2016). These estimates are based on the measurements
of the tibia and comparing that

Habitat A & A Case Study
A.) In fig 1A, the environmental selection, shows species in pool, where different habitat types
existed. The species composition is determined by the environmental selection. Similar habitats
select for similar species to occupy its environment. In 1A, habitats A and A have the same invasion
of species which are species 1, 2, 3, and 4. The fundamental niche is where species could live and
reproduce itself in the whole range of habitats. Diverse types of species could occupy similar
habitat. In fig. 1D, dispersal limitation, the barrier requires that a species has the similar building
blocks to occupy habitat can live in that habitat. There are some species that have none of the
similar build up so they cannot thrive in the hosts 'bodies. The realized niche, is where a habitat
where a species actually live. In this case, species Due to dispersal limitation, species 2 and 3could
only live in habitats A and B.
B.) In 2A, as the example with the oral hygiene removes bacterial biofilm from the teeth, some of
these bacteria were removed. The drug used to target certain type of pathogen can also kill normal
microbiota. The likelihood of the community remaining after a shift in state will be hard for groups
of to survive. The use of antibiotics to destroy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As we are growing up, we are exposed to more microbiota from the environment and the food we
eat. When we consider the microbiome in our gut as invasive species, like any other invasive
species we can see that their chance of surviving in our body depends on niche and resources. The
environment conditions such as temperature, pH, and aerobic/anaerobic will determine if a species
occupy that space will thrive or not. "By viewing pathogens as invasive species, we see that the
contexts in which they are able to cause disease are the same as those required for any other species
that invades and proliferates in a community (Costello et al.,

Why Evolution Is True
Many people believe that Evolution is the creation of all living things that are from the past, present,
and the future. In the textbook "Why Evolution is True" shows that there are many facts that make
people question the theory of Evolution. The creation of humans is something that we all have
opinions and beliefs about how it all began. The creation of all living things that now live on earth,
it is the question that I will describe to all as I understand how Evolution has changed and affected
all living creatures and humans around the world. A scientist who studies evolution started with the
question as to how all living things on earth came into existence. Religion, on the other hand,
believes that a supreme being started all creation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the Bible, "all old creatures shall pass away and become new". There are many things
that scientist will disagree with and that is fine with religious people because they would also
disagree with the theory of evolution. This will be a continuous disagreement between the two for
many years to come. I would like to leave you with the big picture of the past, present and the future
of evolution. The human species has grown over millions of years and we can trace the change
between then and now. This timeline of years has given us the understanding that evolution it true
and it still has millions of years to go before the world and people of religion will understand that
how DNA relations connect all mammals past, present and future.
We cannot forget that religion will also be in the future and it will also stand strong on faith that all
men were created in the image of the Holy Spirit. That we all have made changes because of
progressing not development understanding that DNA never changes from generation, but when
there is one who doesn't believe in evolution there will be unbelief that evolution is

The Dna Samples Of Gophers Tested
Background
The DNA samples of gophers tested are prime examples of evolution. There are several
evolutionary processes that occurred with the species being study. Speciation occurred once a river
causing their gene pools to diverge separated the gophers. This evolutionary occurrence represents
allopathic speciation. Furthermore, once the species' gene pool diverged the morphological species
concept could be observed. The Geomys attwateri is slightly larger than the Geomys brevicep by 10
mm. During this evolutionary occurrence reproductive isolation may have occurred as well. Due to
the species being isolated geologically, interbreeding no longer occurred separating the gene flow of
each population. If these species were able to breed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Campbell) Although morphological observations help identify species they are not as accurate as
testing the DNA of species with similar resemblance. The most accurate way to identify species is to
extract their DNA and use bioinformatics. To decipher if a species by its morphology can be
suggested as a hypothesis, but the results of its DNA will identify the species accurately. Tissues
samples can be taken from the species in question, and the DNA can be extracted from tissue. Once
the DNA is extracted it can be amplified. DNA can be amplified by the PCR procedure, in which
specific gene regions can be used as barcodes to identify the species. These specific regions are
known as Cytochrome oxidase 1 and Cytochrome B. Once these regions are purified and amplified,
the samples can be sequenced, and the species can be identified. These procedures can solve many
mysteries and questions. The DNA sequencing of different species can identify where it falls on the
phylogenetic tree and where the population separated to produce a new species. These procedures
help us understand the evolution of ancestors to the present and the connection between each
species. Two separate species with multiple similarities can be observed, and bioinformatics can
help answer that question.
Purpose
There are several experiments that must be conducted before a species can be identified. The tissue
samples of these organisms must be obtained, and their tissues must

Aratus Shift In The Mangrove Tree Crabs
As the world around us warms, places that originally were too cold for certain species become their
new ideal habitat. Sometimes however, animals and plants that once inhabited the same area move
at different speeds, creating new interspecies interactions. Mangrove tree crabs, Aratus pisonii,
originally inhabited only the natural range of the mangrove tree. The current range of the mangrove
tree along the East coast starts at Jacksonville, Florida and continues south. Aratus depends on the
mangrove not only for shelter, but for their main food source as well. The crabs remain in the trees,
traveling vertically during high tide to avoid aquatic predation. Mangroves act as protection for the
shoreline, catching and holding sediment with their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both treatments were set up in the mangrove and salt marsh environments and left alone for an hour.
Upon returning, researchers recorded the number of Aratus eaten and those with missing legs.
Predation rates in both mangroves and salt marshes were higher when crabs were submerged than
when unsubmerged, revealing higher aquatic predation in both environments. Leg detachment rates
were higher in both salt marsh treatments. Smith theorizes that the difference is due to the crab body
width to substrate width ratio. Mangroves are thicker than spartina grass, providing Aratus with
more shelter and areas to retreat to when pursued. Aratus in salt marshes, however, have a higher
body to substrate width ratio, allowing for both easier spotting by prey and fewer places to retreat
to. Additionally, there is a greater area for escape on the mangrove trees than on spartina grass.
Instead of being restricted to downward movement into the predator filled waters, Aratus exhibit the
ability to move upward into the mangrove

Pros And Cons Of The Postzygotic Barrier Of Species
What defines a species is a very difficult question to answer. Variations are everywhere, but at some
point those variations grow to where the species are different. Two common problems come up
when looking at what makes a species a species. The first is what to do with hybrids and when are
they considered a different species. The second is the issue of asexual reproduction. There are many
different definitions of the word species and they all have their pros and cons when it comes to
addressing these issues and describing what makes a species distinct from another species. One of
the most common definitions for species is the following, "a group of populations whose members
have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring–but do not produce
viable, fertile offspring with members of other groups." This definition makes sense when one
thinks that a monkey cannot mate with a cat. The creation of viable and fertile offspring depends on
the avoidance of both prezygotic and postzygotic barriers that put a stop to it. Prezygotic barriers
refer to barriers that happen before creation of the zygote including habitat, temporal, behavioral,
mechanical, and gametic isolation. All of these factors prevent successful mating. Postzygotic
barriers happen after an offspring has been conceived. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
When two species are super similar such as the fire–bellied toad and the yellow–bellied toad they
can mate and make a hybrid of the two species. Is this hybrid considered a new species or not?
Overtime this question will be answered by reinforcement of the fact that they are different species,
fusion which would mean that they become one species, or stability which means that yes hybrids
exist, but it does not make any difference. However, in the moment the question is what to do with
these new

Examples Of Adaptive Traits In An Organbird
ADAPTATION AND TRAITS
One of the adaptive traits that are said to have evolved in the population of an organism is the beak
of the the bird called the Finch.Most notably, birds are similar in the sense that they have wings yet
most birds exhibit differences in size.some birds are small while others are big.One very importantly
feature that make birds distinct is the shape and size of the beak.This is intresting how birds can be
so different yet belong to the same species. however.This is due in part to assist the birds in the way
of feeding in order for the birds to survive in their environment.
Describe what makes this trait an adaptation.
The beak is an adaptive trait that is useful for birds to function in their environment. "Adaptations
are traits that developed to perform a certain function and allow organisms to thrive in their
environment." Josephs, M. (n.d.).The passage of certain adaptive traits in an ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Examples are A dolphin's flipper, a human arm and the leg of a cat are examples of homologous
structures."(n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2017
The beak trait in the Finch is best fitted for the homologous classification.despite the similarities in
the species of the Finch bird, the changes in function of the beaks of the finch clearly show that the
species has gone through divergent evolution
What is convergent and divergent evolution? Describe whether the trait is a result of convergent or
divergent evolution.
According to Convergent evolution. (n.d.).it says this"convergent evolution is the process whereby
organisms not closely related (not monophyletic), independently evolve similar traits as a result of
having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches."
"Divergent evolution is the process whereby members of a species become more and more different,
eventually resulting in two (or more) new

Interbreed Biological Species
The biological species concept is defined, as species that are groups of interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Species of the similar
classification can mate and reproduce with each other but not with distinctive species. Although
there is species that look relatively the same that does not define how species interbreed with each
other. For example, an alligator and a crocodile look the same but are not classified as the same
species therefore they wouldn't be able to interbreed. Even though both of these reptiles are from the
same group crocodilian and coexist they still don't interbreed. The reason why is because these two
reptiles have a different genetic make–up that wont let them reproduce.

Invasive Species Threatens The Ecosystem
Invasive Species Threatens the Ecosystem Every life form all over the world depends on the
ecosystem for its survival. However, the ecosystem can be threatened when there is an excess or
drop in resources. Many people will argue that human beings are the primary cause of this economic
imbalance but are people the root of this problem? No. There is evidence that invasive species all
over the country has also threatened our ecosystem. Invasive species are any living organism such a
plants, fungus, insects, and fish just to name a few. Invasive species pose a threat to wildlife in many
ways. ("National Wildlife Federation," 2009) states species brought into an atmosphere that doesn't
have any predators are considered dangerous. They often breed and spread rapidly, assuming control
over a region. Local untamed life has no advanced safeguards against the trespasser, and they stand
no chance against species that has no predators (p.2). Furthermore, these species invade areas that
they aren't indigenous to and reproduce quickly. To further understand the underlying crux of
invasive species and how this matter may come to fruition, I will provide an analogy of an article
that addresses this problem, by summarizing and identifying the negative impact invasive species
have on the ecosystem. Today, some may say that human beings are the reason invasive species
prevail. According to Bright (1999), Obtrusive species are being transported through the worldwide

The Sixth Extinction: An Analysis
Evolution is the the process in which an organism develops over a period of time to adapt to it's
environmental surroundings. If an organisms does not adapt to it's environment it will become
extinct. Humans have evolved a lot since the beginning. Humans deserve a "special status" because
we are different from other species. The thing that differs us from animals is humans kill animals for
different reasons, are more intelligent, and we are a big natural disaster. Evolution and extinction are
both concepts Elizabeth Kolbert introduce in her book The Sixth Extinction. The way she introduces
the concepts is by telling the story of how the the concepts came to be. One reason humans should
have a special status is because we don't just kill other species for nutrition we exploit them. "Over
the next several decades, other uses for the great uses for the auk were found besides "sustentation""
(Kolbert 60). The auks were used as fish bait, fuel, and mattresses ... Show more content on
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We are the cause of multiple species diving off. "by hundreds at a time as if god had made the
innocency of so poor of a creature to become such an admirable instrument for the sustentation of a
man." (Kolbert 60).The earth doesn't need us we need the earth. "We depend on natural ecosystems
for to purify air, water, and landscapes"(David). Humanity is the cause for climate change which is
the result for many species going extinct. Humans changing the climate is making it hard on other
species to adapt to their new surroundings. 70,000 years ago, we shared this planet with more than
30 land mammals that weighed more than a ton. of those 30+ only four remain (ross). African
megafauna only survived because they evolved alongside with us over a million years ago (ross).
"long enough for natural selection to bake in the instincts required to share a habitat with the most
dangerous predator nature has yet manufactured"

Natural Selection In Zoos
Many zoological establishments take pride in breeding programs. Through such programs genetic
diversity is currently upheld to a point where euthanasia is required for those animals who either do
not make the cut genetically, or are hindering the process of genetic diversity in some way. Should
zoos be allowed to continue to preserve genetic diversity regardless of the cost to its current
residence? Some people believe that killing the animals involved is unnecessary and poor practice
by the zoo. However, others have argued that without the diverse genetics the species would be
directly affected by heritable diseases. Zoological parks are a place where domesticated animals are
exhibited in captivity. The purpose behind a zoo varies, but they ... Show more content on
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Zoos should be focusing on animals that already exist within their program. Genetic diversity is
important as zoos must do the job of natural selection or risk an extinction of an entire species. This
process of natural selection should be revisited as it causes much uprising and is not withholding the
promise of protection. To ensure that generations live and grow, disease free, new genes must be
introduced. Without these genes the outcome would be a small and likely corrupted gene pool. In
my personal opinion, I understand the need of genetic diversity within species as it prevents many
diseases. However, I feel that it is inappropriate for zoos to euthanise healthy animals that may
interfere with the genetic diversity. Such animals need to be either neutered or relocated, even if it is
not transferred to another zoological park but to a game park or national

Speciation In New Species
habit. But the biggest change to Drosophilia behavior would their two host interaction creation a
reproductive behavior, leading to immune related incompatibilities by symbiosis.
Taking symbiosis into action, when two species works together and have an influence on each other
that could lead to morphological, molecular changes. This is when speciation is seen in a different
light, and a solid proof of why organisms cannot be fixed. Bacteria has the ability to alter the gene
loci creating a reproductive barrier, the genetic changes leads to negative epistasis change, making
the daughter hybrid inviable. When and alteration as such is possible to influence a species it's a
little questionable to think that species is fixed. Symbiotic interaction can physically alter the organ
making the host look different from the parents or change their behavioral patterns creating a
behavioral isolation, like release difference pheromones. Sexual selection then ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A genomic Island is a nucleotide that has a vast change, and it causes a great mutation. Organisms
with mutation of such, when put into similar ecological locations, show different speciation when
natural selection acts on it, this is Mutation–order speciation. The population size between the
original and the new species formed may fluctuate but this is contradicting to the statement because
a small change created a different species. Today is species fixed? Yes, we are not going to mate
with chimpanzee! But the process that got us here couldn't have happened if species were fixed.
Every mutation, isolation random drift, ecological segregation leading to gene flow and then natural
selection, sexual selection acting on the species, worked in order for speciation to occur.
Compressing all of these mechanisms as fixed is unfitting but accepting the fact that were fixed
right now is not, but are we fixed forever? I don't think

How Does Modern Life Evolve Over Millions Of Years Or Was...
Did modern life evolve over millions of years or was it created by God? The controversy started
when Charles Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species. His theory of evolution stated
that all life evolved from a single–celled organism. However, creationists rejected this theory. They
referenced the Bible's Book of Genesis for the historical account of how life was created. But
without a doubt, there is undeniable evidence to support the fact that life on earth came from a
common ancestor. With the recent advances in both science and technology, scientists can use fossil
records, genetic changes and anatomical similarities to prove that life as we know it evolved from
one common ancestor.
The remains and imprints of organisms found in earlier geological periods are still preserved in
sedimentary rocks. These fossil records allow scientists to look through vast periods of time and
attest to the fact that some species have transitional traits found in larger groups of organisms. This
proves that species evolved from a distant ancestor and were not fixed there by God. Animals such
as apes and the Archaeopteryx are evidence of the missing links and the gaps humanity has filled in
the fossil records. They are also examples of transitional species that have tied different groups of
species together through common traits and skeletal features. Fossil records also prove that single–
celled organisms were succeeded by multi–celled organisms which ties back to Charles Darwin

Pleistoina Hypothesis
Through the Pleistocene, the human race witnessed a remarkable integer of extinctions of huge
earthly species. In this extinction Australia nineteen genera while the Americas lost over seventy
genera. Almost all of these were animals of virtually large sizes (Donald, 1991). The North America
witnessed the loss of elephants, camels, horses ground sloths, pronghorn, ovibovids, peccaries and
the giant beaver. On the other hand, South America lost ground sloths, elephants, horses, and a
numbers of camels, rhinoceros–sized giant rodent species and glyptodonts. Australia lost
herbivorous marsupials larger than modern–day kangaroos The extinction of this mega fauna is
largely linked to two main hypotheses. The first hypothesis is linked to the worldwide climate
changes that took place during the Pleistocene resulting to environmental pressures that forced the
extermination of several megafaunal species. The second hypothesis puts it forward that the
worldwide spread of humanity and hunter–gatherer survival practices were accountable for these
deaths. Nevertheless, a close examination of these two theories discloses that neither climate
changes nor human overkill was likely to be independent to blame for the Pleistocene
exterminations. The two were intertwined thus a synthetic theory that comprises both theories ...
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Selective evolution came into play favoring one species and driving the other away. Due to their
bigger size the megafaunal were more affect by the competition than their smaller existing species.
The above is because the large animals need more primary habitats for forage and more water to
keep themselves as compared to smaller species. Due to the findings by Grayson (1991) shrinking
habitats forced large animals into co–habituating smaller regions, holding inadequate wherewithal to
sustain them all. The outcome was the removal of some species due to

100th Of The World's Worst Invasive Species
A question that usually ask by people when travelling to different countries is whether carrying the
native–species across the boundary or not?
One of the solutions to solve the lacking resources and native plant for agriculture and farming is
that investigate other species from different country. This sound good for developing the economy
but it is also the risk that can bring threat to the environment by interrupting the native food chain.
Many species going through the natural immigration to the new area, also have to face with the
challenge to posse the evolutionary adaptions in order to survive in the new surroundings. Usually,
the invasive species are introduced and transported to the new habitats through global commerce
and trade. It ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. 21 Oct. 2015.
The convention on biological diversity is now putting the invasive species on judge for the decision
on the trading of nonnative alien species from its natural environment to new area due to the issue
and impact .
Kriticos, Darren J., et al. "Invasive Alien Species In The Food Chain: Advancing Risk Assessment
Models To Address Climate Change, Economics And Uncertainty." Neobiota 18 (2013): 1–7.
Academic Search Complete. Web. 21 Oct. 2015.
This article investigates what risk is created when the invasive species are disrupting the native food
chain. The author is using the reference from different majorities to showing many dissimilar views
about this situation. Invasive alien species are not only harm the environment but also the economy
and uncertainty.
Blackburn, Tim M, et al. "A Unified Classification Of Alien Species Based On The Magnitude Of
Their Environmental Impacts." Plos Biology 12.5 (2014): e1001850. MEDLINE with Full Text.
Web. 22 Oct. 2015.
Diamond, Jared M. Collapse : How Societies Choose To Fail Or Succeed. n.p.: New York : Viking,
2005., 2005. Print. 20 Oct.

An Analysis Of Charles Darwin's Notion Of Extinction
At the end of the documentary, Charles Darwin is quoted in regards to the notion of extinction. He
says, "We need not marvel at extinction. If we must marvel, let it be at our own presumption in
imagining for a moment that we understand the many complex contingencies on which the existence
of each species depends. The appearance of new species and old species are bound together." This
quote is in reference to the ignorance that many people share about extinction. He says a lot of
people lack the full understanding of the impact of the phenomenon and the attributes associated to
it. He notes specifically that there is a lack of knowledge on which species will survive and the
complete livelihood of their wellbeing in the future. Charles Darwin

Efficient and Sustainable Ecosystems
Ecosystem Report:
Introduction:
Ecosystems are everywhere. Any place that contains living and non–living organisms (biotic and
abiotic), that share the same space are a community, this is called an ecosystem. An ecosystem can
occupy a large space in the environment, or a very small space. To make up an ecosystem, there
must be an interrelationship between the abiotic and biotic components in the ecosystem; for
example, there must be a series of food–chains in order for the different species to survive in that
particular ecosystem. Another definition of an ecosystem is:
'They consist of all the organisms in a community, their biotic and abiotic environments, and
exchanges within and between each of these' (Knox et al. 2010, p. 128).
The purpose of this investigation is to thoroughly study an ecosystem, to expand the knowledge of
many who wish to further understand the environment and its components. By completing this
investigation it allows for people to understand the importance and needs for having and
maintaining healthy ecosystems. For example, 'Ecosystems provide food both in their natural
state...in the form of managed landscapes' (International Water Management Institute 2011, p. 11).
The investigations of ecosystems are vital in today's society because people can learn how to better
treat and take care of them so they are more efficient and sustainable.
Methods:
Figure 1: This is a map of where the investigation was taken place, and it shows the 2 areas that

Drosophilid Flies Research Paper
Environmental conditions are sometimes appropriate for the evolution of numerous species from a
common ancestor. Evolutionary, or adaptive, radiations happen when a large number of species
descend from one lineage. This phenomenon usually occurs when a population of one species
colonizes an area with many available ecological niches and when the rate of speciation is greater
than the rate of extinction in a given area. Adaptive radiations have historically taken place after
mass extinctions and on newly formed island archipelagos, because these incidences create
conditions where new species can fill open ecological niches. Unlike the mainland, ecological
niches are available on new island systems. These island species adapt to new environments ...
For example, the silverswords are a diverse group of plants that occur in Hawaii. They occur in
many forms, such as herbs, vines and trees, and in many habitats, such as at sea level to
mountainous. However, their closest mainland relative is a small herb that occurs in the Pacific
Northwest. It lacks the diversity that the Hawaiian silverswords have. Hawaiian drosophilid flies
also provide an excellent example of adaptive radiation. There are around 800 species of drosophilid
flies in Hawaii, and it is thought that they descended from one species of fly that colonized a
Hawaiian island. In fact, it is possible that they speciated from a single fertilized female who was
transported to Hawaii millions of years ago. Subsequently, subsets of the original drosophilid fly
population were transported to other islands and speciated there as well. Scientists believe that the
Hawaiian drosophilid speciation is still occurring. For instance, different populations of one species
of fly that occur in forest habitat patches have different numbers of hairs on their forelegs, and these
hairs are used in mating rituals. If these differences cause the fly populations to not interbreed they
may lead to further

The Disadvantages Of Sexual Diversity Of Reproducing Species
One advantage of sexual reproduction is that these organisms generally have greater genetic
diversity. Organisms who reproduce asexually, on the other hand, are essentially clones of each
other. This means that their predators can adapt to hunt them easily. The diversity of sexually
reproducing organisms allows them to stay a step ahead of their predators because of their genetic
variations and their ability to adapt via natural selection (Brockmyre 2015).
The Red Queen Hypothesis states that species must keep evolving to keep up. It is based on a quote
from Through the Looking Glass: "It takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place."
Predators are evolving to best hunt their prey so the prey must keep evolving to survive (Brockmyre
2015).
Robert Vrijenhoek observed these processes in topminnows. The ponds where these fish live include
fish that reproduce sexually and fish that produce assexually. This population is affected by parasites
that cause black–spot disease. He found that more of the assexual fish were afftected than the sexual
fish. This is because when the parasites were able to effeccrively attack one assexual fish, they
could attack all of them as they are clones. This didn't apply to sexually producing fish as they were
all different ("The Red Queen" 2001). Sexual reproduction has caused monogamy in some species.
In these species, it is essential for the father to help raise the young, but the father won't help unless
he believes that the

Analysis Of The Annenberg Learner, Video On Demand Series...
In the Annenberg Learner, Video on Demand series session 6, Evolution and the tree of life, various
professors or scholars discussed the evolution of life. The session began with a beautiful photograph
of Harvard University of Natural History. Next, a narrator introduced the Museum of Comparative
Zoology located in the basement of Harvard. The basement holds the reptile and amphibian
collection. The narrator pointed out that the century old jars containing specimens of bodies along
with their DNAs carry clues that help scientists to reveal how evolution has shaped and reshaped the
living planet also how to make sense of life. Dr. Linda Grisham of Lesley University then
highlighted the topics to be explored. Namely, what is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dr Grisham spoke about how great it would be to observe the growth of a tree of life from its
ancient base to the tips of its million modern branches just what we might see? Dr. Grisham stated
may be single cell creatures or animal life, aquatic plants and animals modern mammals evolving
from tiny rodent creatures. Dr. Grisham then stated a question that she believed many students
might ask– that is why there are so many different types of living things? We then joined Ms. E
Abraham in the science studio. The young mind (students) where presenting their ideas of what is a
species. Many interesting definition was given however, the narrator commented that the children
seemed to understand that species is a way of grouping animals. Dr. Grisham noted that all the
children used external appearance as their main strategy for classifying things. Dr. James Hanken,
Director and Curator in Herpetology at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard shed light
on the classification of different species. He removed specimens from jars and explained their
differences and similarities. He removed and displayed a lizard reptile, that stated originated from
Africa ant is also called a chameleons, a king snake from North America a reptile and an amphibian,
a boa constrictor snake and a lizard that resembles a snake. He pointed out that the boa constrictor is
more mobile because this snake has the

Neanderthal Research Paper
Discovering the origins and timeline of our species genetics is an essential component of our
history. The majority of research into this topic has been relatively recent within the past many
years. Scientists are consistently providing new findings and new information for this rising area of
interest. Through widespread learning of this material can we collectively make sound judgements
based on our own past.
Have humans once interbred with Neanderthals?
As recently as only five years ago, anthropology researchers found that humans and Neanderthals
had interbred at some point in time simply based on the shapes of skulls found in caves buried
beneath thousands of years of soil. This mirrors a 2010 study that has uncovered the first proven ...
While incredibly common, there is little doubt regarding the evidential nature of specified human
groups containing this DNA. Neanderthals could not have contributed to modern African peoples'
genomes because Neanderthals evolved and lived exclusively in Eurasia and therefore could not
have bred with the humans living in Africa at that time (Smithsonian Institution). There is a clear
difference in that exclusively humans of Eurasian descent have appeared to actually have
Neanderthal DNA, in comparison to modern African peoples'. Along with this, we know that these
encounters may have occurred as modern humans moved into Europe. Humans may have even lived
alongside Neanderthals for thousands of years, allowing for centuries of genetic exchange
(Smithsonian Institution). Therein lies part of the controversy, as some make uneducated points as to
differentiate Neanderthal DNA as part of a racial difference between those of Eurasian and African
descent. Yet there is no current evidence to suggest Neanderthal DNA has any dictation on race
alone. Although data shows this to be a frequent ancient occurrence, we must take into account the
historically extensive amount of time between these collaborations that have been thought to have
happened, and just how archaic they truly

Island Biogeography Paper
The purpose of island biogeography is to help take a closer look at the speciation of animals on
mainland landscapes, and compare them to surrounding islands that separated from the mainland. In
this study, the focus is on avian birds and the differences in landscape make up that can influence
speciation. The differences can possibly lead to populations of different species settling apart from
one another, maybe leading to the extinction of one species and the thriving of another. Although
island geography has been a useful tool, it has also been questioned, leading to a new tool:
countryside biogeography. In Wolfe et al. (2015) it is explained how countryside geography is a tool
that can be used to look at different aspects of speciation in

Surviving Species Environments
When you think of survival of the fittest, you may be wrong. If you think about it as more of
survival of the best adapted to a species environment. Now this can be used with a few following
examples; a species will not be able to survive if it is the strongest of its kind if the area it lives in is
cold. The specimen with the warm fur coat will outlast the physically strong. Now this can work the
other way as well the specimen with the fur coat may not be able to defend its self from the
predators if it is not the most physically fit specimen. The end result if the species does not adapt to
the new surroundings it will eventually die out and become extinct, leaving the one specimen who
has now passed on the fur coat to survive in the cold

Mislabeling Essay
In the United States, seafood is an important commodity. According to the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. imported $20.2 billion in "edible fishery products in
2014" ("Imports"). With such large quantities of seafood flowing in and out of the country, mistakes
can be made. For decades scientists have called attention to the problem of mislabeled fish.
Although mislabeling fish may seem harmless, it can have devastating health effects on the
consumer, and efforts to prevent mislabeling have increased. In order to combat this problem, the
government should enforce DNA testing on all fish, regardless of whether the fish are imported or
produced domestically. In addition, stricter monitoring of the production process ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
DNA testing has become a popular method of monitoring firms in recent years; when it is
impossible to discern the species solely on its physical features, DNA testing creates a further look
into the species. Although early uses of DNA testing were prone to contamination and often became
ineffective after heating, improvements in technology have improved the process and its accuracy
(Wong and Hanner 828). Now more than ever, scientists have utilized this technology to identify
mislabeled species and to prove how widespread this malpractice

The Importance Of Natural Selection In Relation To Biology
My book discusses quite a lot about natural selection and this is a topic directly related to biology.
Natural selection has everything to do with evolution and this is a part of the study of biology.
Natural selection creates new species and somehow from this process humans came to be as well as
every other living organism. This is a slow process that takes generations to modify genes enough to
form an entirely new species, but it is done. Since all new species come from old ones, every living
organism is interconnected on some level. This is the belief that all organisms on earth share a
common ancestor. Old species will continue forming chains of new species and the cycle continues,
but not all organisms prosper. Natural selection only allows ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
New modifications create new species that have different advantages to survive in various
environments. Through generations of time a species can develop genetic advantages to survive in
its environment and reproduce more successfully than its surrounding organisms. While new species
are formed, others are extinct and this can affect all other organisms because that may be its prey or
predator. The new species are likely to be stronger, but more complex. Once a new species is
formed, it is usually because of the pressure the environment put on it to survive and it is unlikely
for the old species to reappear. The extinction of an old species is due to natural selection and is
most likely permanent. A similar species could appear in a different landscape, but it will not be
identical. For example, Darwin saw this with different species of finches on different islands. This is
called parallel succession. The species can still migrate to new geographical locations, but it is not
likely they will survive unless their bodies adapt. Descent with modification makes all species
related to one another and Darwin made a family tree where this can be visually seen. This all ties
into the study of biology because the functions of different organisms can be seen worldwide
through their variations while undergoing descent with

Alycia Stigall's Research
Biodiversity is a necessity for every ecosystem to thrive in equilibrium. However, the balance
between species, predators, and prey can be disturbed by the most microscopic change. One of these
catalysts are invasive species: living organisms that are non–native to an ecosystem. Alycia Stigall's
research (2010) has been fundamental to finding why speciation declined during the late Devonian
biodiversity crisis. Potential causes of speciation include reproductive isolation and geographic
isolation, which is also known as vicariance. Stigall studied three different species of shallow
marine invertebrate organisms and determined their speciation by combining each species'
geography and phylogenetic backgrounds. Measurements of the biodiversity ... Show more content
For instance, the Itaipu Reservoir on the Paraná River in South America is a man–made cistern that
utilizes hydropower for the area in the form of dams and reservoirs. When the reservoir inundated
the Guaira Falls which served as an ecological filter separating most species, fish that had lived in
the lower part of the Paraná River gained access to the upper Paraná River (Vitule, 2012). In order
to quantify homogenization, Vitule employed Jaccard's coefficient which measures similarities
between species in the same community. From the data, he concluded that homogenization occurred
in the area not by the elimination of threatened species but by the unidirectional movement of fish.
More than half of the species in the upper Paraná Basin were distributed from the lower Paraná
Basin after the reservoir flooded. Thus, homogenization and consequent loss of biodiversity of the
Itaipu area was directly influenced by anthropogenic

The Sixth Extinction Elizabeth Korbert Summary
I have luckily listened to the lecture presented by Elizabeth Kolbert, the author of The Sixth
Extinction and the winner of two national magazine awards. She basically introduced several
different extinct or endangered species firstly, including animals such as ʻalalā, a kind of crow that
lives in Hawaii, and plants such as American Chestnut, which dominated forest in US 100 years
ago. Then emphatically, Mrs. Kolbert talked about the biosystem appearing in New Zealand. By
recommending plenty of species and problems happened in the system, Mrs. Kolbert drew forth the
concentral idea of killing mammals to protect birds New Zealand did to balance the environmental
circumstance. I have noticed this point as quite attractive for me. Finally, the

Ring Species Evolution
Many geneticists believe that all current life stems from one common ancestor in a tree of life
fashion. Over millions of years, this process of speciation has created numerous kinds of creatures,
many of which we are still discovering today. For instance, a rare phenomenon, occuring only in
particular environments, was dubbed as a "ring species" by scientists Ernst Mayr and Theodosius
Dobzhansky and may help to create this great biodiversity (Pereira & Wake, 2015). When a species
becomes separated and can no longer interbreed, the gene flow between these two populations
discontinue, which leads to the development of two entirely different species (Martins & de Aguiar,
2017). Researchers have documented this extraordinary event, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
B. Martins, M. A. M. de Aguiar, and Y. Bar–Yam created a simulation to compare calculated
information to the actual evidence found from different greenish warbler forms. They discovered
that, while ring species may be volatile, they can occur for long lengths of time and often match
computed data from their model. Furthermore, they also questioned how each factor influenced the
growth and strength of a ring species. They determined that many elements, particularly the range of
species' area, species dependent traits, and geographical features, affect the overall stability and
efficiency of speciation (Martins, de Aguiar, and Bar–Yam, 2013). Multiple components having a
significant impact on ring species explains the unstable nature of these scenarios and their rarity.
Nonetheless, studying these less–than–ideal examples proves that speciation can transpire without
the adherence to strict conditions and also might insist that the definition of a ring species be
broadened to encompany more similar

Charles Darwin's Radical New Book On The Origin Of Species
The coalescence of the publication of Charles Darwin's radical new book On The Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection (1859) and the American Civil War (1861–1865) brought about a
dramatic end to transcendentalism and the American Romanticism period that dominated the late
18th and early 19th Centuries. American intellectuals began to apply the knowledge gained from
Origin of Species to more fields than just biology. This dynamic understanding (evolution) of life
ushered in a period of Naturalism. Naturalist literature was based on the following four basic
assumptions : The origin of man is brute matter caught in a struggle for survival; Individual
strengths and weaknesses are the results of heredity and chance; Everything is ... Show more content
Norris offers a very pessimistic view of humans and society and that that humans are naturally evil
to the reader early on. The fact that Norris described his main character in such a painfully honest
tone at the onset of his story not only removes the veil of goodness, but reveals a man struggling to
survive, instead of thriving, in his environment.
A running theme in this story, congruent with the first naturalistic assumption of the struggle for
survival, is the desire for wealth and the eventual greed spawned from this consuming desire. Mac's
girlfriend at the time, and later his wife, Trina, won $5000 in a lottery, but was very frugal with her
winnings. Mac, who was never accustomed to wealth or high society, found this very frustrating and
after the loss of his business, "every hour the question of money came up" (Norris, 127). He was
unrelenting in his search for money. To McTeague, wealth equaled power and success. Norris
exemplifies the dangers of greed and how it can get the best of you when McTeague's anger and
frustration at Trina with his financial situation boils over, "Miser, nasty little old miser. You're worse
than old Zerkow, always nagging about money, money, and you got five thousand dollars. You got
more, an' you live in that stinking hole of a room, and you won't drink any decent beer" (Norris,
135).
The second naturalistic assumption in McTeague, individual

Research Paper On Speciesism
Speciesism In our everyday lives we do not normally think about where the chicken came from on
our sandwich, nor do we think or care about how it once use to be a living and breathing being. This
lack of acknowledgement and empathy for other species is called speciesism. The term speciesism is
coined by psychologist Richard D. Ryder but it is more associated with philosophers Tom Regan
and Peter Singer.
In the Merriam Webster dictionary speciesism is defined as "1. Prejudice or discrimination based on
species; especially discrimination against animals; 2. the assumption of human superiority on which
speciesism is based." Thus the main concept of speciesism is all beings are equal. Even in our own
history we are speciesist towards one another. Racism and sexism are the most thought of analogies
for speciesism. "Since World War II this has become a major issue in the United States," (Crobett,
paragraph 5) and after the world saw what Adolf Hitler did to the Jews and other prisoners in the
concentration camps, people wanted equality for race, religion, and gender. Now it is an everyday
occurrences in our culture to hear on the news or see over the internet about some type of
discrimination. A prime example of this is the Ku Klux Kian, who brutally beat and killed black ...
Say if there were five species on a planet and only one species could live because the planet is about
to explode, how would one choose? If to say one of the five species was the human race, would that
make a difference? Speciesism states that if you choose the human race over the other four species
that would be unmoral because you would base your choice over physical characteristics. With that
choice you would cause the other four species to suffer when in all actuality all five species are
equal and none of those species should be picked over the

DNA Barcoding and the BOLD Database
Many technological advancements have been made since the discovery of DNA structure and its
function in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. Recently, scientists have developed a process
called DNA barcoding. The result of DNA barcoding is a database of barcodes of species, made up
of a sequence of nucleotides in specific genes. DNA barcoding is a relatively new process that
isolates a section of a mitochondrial gene and amplifies it, allowing scientists to sequence the order
of nucleotide bases in a certain gene, the organism's "barcode." The mitochondrial cytochrome c
oxidase 1 gene (CO1) is used for animals. It codes for a protein that is a part of the electron
transport chain, which is used by every species during oxidative phosphorylation in cellular
respiration. Every organism has a unique CO1 gene, but organisms that are within the same families
will have more similar genes. Thus, by looking at a sequence of nucleotides in the CO1 gene,
scientists can identify and categorize species. Each DNA barcode is registered in the Barcode of
Life Database (BOLD) under its respective species, and barcodes are being continually added to this
database by scientists on the grassroots level. This allows easy and fast identification of species with
no expert knowledge of the species required. The old Linnaean system of taxonomy is now
outdated, replaced by this revolutionary new way to identify organisms. Today, scientists are
utilizing the DNA barcoding process to answer a

Cause Of Biodiversity
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the influence of human beings on the
world's ecosystem, In fact human beings have deeply altered the environment, and have modified
the territory, exploiting the species directly, for example by fishing and hunting, changing the
biogeochemical cycles and transferring species from one area to another of the Planet.
The threats to biodiversity can be summarized in the following main points: o Alteration and loss of
the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas determines not only the loss of the vegetable
species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated to them. o Introduction of exotic species
and genetically modified organisms: species originating from a particular area, introduced into new
natural environments can lead to different forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium. o
Pollution: human activity influences the natural environment producing negative, direct or indirect,
effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of the environment and
abundance of the species; o Climate change: for example, heating of the Earth's surface affects
biodiversity because it endangers all the species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the
Polar species) or the altitude (mountain species). o Overexploitation of resources: when the
activities connected with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural
resource in a

Identification Of A New Species
JJournal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2015; 3( 5): 01–06
P–ISSN: 2349–6800
E–ISSN: 2320–7078
JEZS 2015; 3(5): 01–06
© 2015 JEZS
Received: 05–07–2015
Accepted: 06–08–2015
A. S. Abd El–Wahab
Department of Economic
Entomology and Pesticides,
Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo
University, Giza, Egypt
Correspondence:
Department of Economic
Entomology and Pesticides,
Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo
University, Giza, Egypt
Identification of a new species, Marigold thrips
"Neohydatothrips samayunkur Kudô" (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae) on marigold in Egypt
Abstract
Neohydatothrips samayunkur, a thrips species infest African marigold, is recorded from Egypt for
the first time. A detailed description is given of how to identify this thrips species. Tagetes erecta L.
were grown in the experimental farm at Giza governorate, Egypt. The Sampling was carried out
during mid
April to late July and from early September to late December, (2013& 2014). A weekly sample
randomly selected and examined for the presence of thrips. Identification was based on the
morphological characters. N. samayunkur adult body is bicolor, dark brown with abdominal
segments 3–6 yellowish with brown antecostal ridge. Antenna 8 segments, Legs; Mid– and hind
tarsi: 2–segmented, The hind leg tibiae is brown medially and otherwise yellow. Fore wings
alternating bands of dark and light. Second larval instars are pale yellow to orange in color, antenna
and all tibias are gray. Mesonotum

It is easy to say that species are constantly changing,...
It is easy to say that species are constantly changing, and branching off into totally new species. But
how do we know where the species originate? Phylogenies help to show us how all kinds of species
are related to each other, and why. These relationships are put into what can be called a cladogram,
which links species to common ancestors, in turn showing where, when, how, and why these
ancestors diverged to form new species. Without phylogenies, it would be extremely difficult to put
species in specific categories or relate them to one another. Along with phylogenies can come
conflict on which species should be related to one another. This conflict causes many hypotheses
and experiments, which can lead to phylogenetic retrofitting, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The parareptile hypothesis is taken back at least two decades. It has recently been rediscovered and
contradicted by parsimony. Bayesian inferences support this parareptile conclusion, but parsimony
concludes the idea of turtles being a sister group to pareiasaurs, which is an anapsid group,
including Eunotosaurus. To test these hypothesis, a multitude of data is compiled to observe the
stability behind the inferences made. In this article, one main experiment was discussed through the
collection and analysis of two retrofitted matrices, phylogenetic analyses, and molecular scaffolds.
In one matrice, Eunotosaurus was added to a diapsid–focused data set, while turtles were added to
an anapsid–focused data set. The diapsid sets included a broad sampling of diapsids, which placed
turtles as sisters to sauropterygians. The anapsid set, on the other hand, included a broad sampling of
anapsids, especially parareptiles. Turtles were not included in the anapsid set. When the experiment
moves on to the phylogenetic analysis, Bayesian inferences and parsimony were brought into the
mix. After these analyses, the experiment finally includes molecular scaffolding. The effect of
molecular scaffolding was to see where extant linneages interact with molecular phylogenies. The,
the Bayesian and parsimony analyses were again repeated with these backbone constraints while
everything else is indifferent. The idea

Summary: The Thing With Feathers
Missing Link in the Debate:
Evolution versus Creation
Simon Zhang
October 1st, 2014
Life Science
Précis
In the essay "The Thing with Feathers" David Quammen discusses the existence and evolution of
the missing link between birds and reptiles: Archaeopteryx. He explains that the Archaeopteryx is
one of the first dinosaurs with feathers and the essay suggests that this species was the transitional
stage between reptiles and birds. In the process, Quammen also states two of the major theories that
outline how and why the Archaeopteryx might have developed feathers, as well as how it might
have given them an advantage over non–feathered dinosaurs. The aborealists' theory suggests that
the Archaeopteryx developed feathers to glide ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using clear examples and evidence as well as the evolutionary concepts found in David Quammen's
essay it is obvious that the existence and missing links are clear indicators of evolution. Missing
links are species which relate major biological categorizations together, these species show the
emergence of a novel traits though still retaining their old ones. In the case of Archaeopteryx, it still
had many dinosaur–like features but had developed non–dinosaur–like feathers, as a result this
species shared similar traits with both dinosaurs and birds. Since birds and the Archaeopteryx share
many of the same characteristics it can be argued that birds evolved from Archaeopteryx which is
evidence that modern animals are descended from extinct species. However, this is only speculation
because many other different species evolved feathers over the eons and any one of those animals
could be the predecessor to our modern fowl. Regardless of which animal the modern fowl
descended from, be it Archaeopteryx or another feathered dinosaurs, the evidence still stands that
feathers were evolved and passed down the evolutionary tree to modern birds which opposes the
creationist's theory that all animals were created at the same time and that evolution is not occurring.
Apart from the Archaeopteryx there

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