O R I G I N A L A R T I C L EUnconscious emotions quantif.docx

O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
Unconscious emotions: quantifying and logging something
we are not aware of
Leonid Ivonin • Huang-Ming Chang •
Wei Chen • Matthias Rauterberg
Received: 30 September 2011 / Accepted: 1 February 2012 /
Published online: 5 April 2012
� The Author(s) 2012. This article is published with open
access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Lifelogging tools aim to precisely capture daily
experiences of people from the first-person perspective.
Although there have been numerous lifelogging tools
developed for users to record the external environment
around them, the internal part of experience characterized
by emotions seems to be neglected in the lifelogging field.
However, the internal experiences of people are important
and, therefore, lifelogging tools should be able to capture
not only the environmental data, but also emotional expe-

riences, thereby providing a more complete archive of past
events. Moreover, there are implicit emotions that cannot
be consciously experienced, but still influence human
behaviors and memories. It has been proven that conscious
emotions can be recognized from physiological signals of
the human body. This fact may be used to enhance life-logs
with information about unconscious emotions, which
otherwise would remain hidden. On the other hand, it is not
clear if unconscious emotions can be recognized from
physiological signals and differentiated from conscious
emotions. Therefore, an experiment was designed to elicit
emotions (both conscious and unconscious) with visual and
auditory stimuli and to record cardiovascular responses of
34 participants. The experimental results showed that heart
rate responses to the presentation of the stimuli are unique
for every category of the emotional stimuli and allow dif-
ferentiation between various emotional experiences of the
participants.

Keywords Emotions � Unconscious � Heart rate �
Archetypal symbols � Lifelogging
1 Introduction
Keeping a diary is a very traditional way of lifelogging.
Some people tend to write down in their diaries all the
details of what they saw and did, while others like to note
moods and emotions they had during a day. Presently, there
are various kinds of lifelogging tools (e.g., [1–3]) that have
been developed to assist people with recording their life
experiences. However, these tools can only record the
surrounding environment of people, which ultimately
includes everything that they encounter, but not the internal
world, which comprises moods, thoughts and emotions.
Therefore, current lifelogging tools do not provide people
with a possibility to keep records of their mental life, which
is crucial for some people who keep diaries [4, 5].
To offer capabilities that are superior to diaries, life-
logging applications should try to capture the complete

experiences of people including data from both their
external and internal worlds. Since mental experiences of
people are too broad and complex to start with, it is rea-
sonable to focus on the individual components of one’s
internal world. We propose to first consider emotions
because they are undoubtedly one of the most important
components of mental life. Moreover, emotions can be
recognized from physiological signals of a human body
[6–9]. This latter fact is important for the development of
L. Ivonin (&) � H.-M. Chang � W. Chen � M. Rauterberg
Designed Intelligence Group, Department of Industrial Design,
Eindhoven University of Technology,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
H.-M. Chang
W. Chen
M. Rauterberg
123

Pers Ubiquit Comput (2013) 17:663–673
DOI 10.1007/s00779-012-0514-5
an automatic lifelogging tool. It should be noted that
questions about emotions are fundamental in psychology
and play an important role in understanding mind and
behavior [10]. Recently, an interesting idea about this role
was presented: emotion is a medium of communication
between the unconscious and the conscious in the human
mind [11]. According to this idea, emotion is seen as the
conscious perception of the complex mapping processes
from the unconscious space into the low-dimensional space
of the conscious.
Recent studies have proved that it is possible to recog-
nize emotion based on physiological signals. This research
direction looks rather promising [12] and the primary focus
there is on the conscious emotions, which people are aware
of and can report. However, Berridge and Winkielman [13]

argue that emotion can be unconscious as well. According
to Kihlstrom [14, pp. 432], ‘‘explicit emotion’ refers to the
person’s conscious awareness of an emotion, feeling, or
mood state; ‘implicit emotion’, by contrast, refers to
changes in experience thought or action that are attribut-
able to one’s emotional state, independent of his or her
conscious awareness of that state’’. For this reason, we
believe that lifelogging tools should take into account both
conscious and unconscious emotions. Unconscious emo-
tions might even be of higher interest and importance than
conscious emotions for some users of lifelogging tools
because they are hidden from their conscious awareness.
To the best of our knowledge, recognition of unconscious
emotions has not been studied yet, and, thus, it is necessary to
investigate if physiological signals can be used for this
purpose. In our study, we focused on the signal of heart rate,
which has been proved to be one of the physiological signals
that are related to emotional states [15–18]. Importantly for

development of lifelogging tools, heart rate can be unob-
trusively measured with wearable sensors.
In emotion recognition studies various sets of stimuli are
utilized to elicit emotions in participants. For this purpose,
specialized databases of stimuli have been developed and
validated [19, 20]. However, in case of unconscious emo-
tions such sets of stimuli have not been clearly identified
yet. Therefore, in our study, we had to introduce archetypal
stimuli [21] as a new kind of stimuli that are applied to
evoke unconscious emotions.
Another difference of our study from the large part of
the previous work in this direction is that we targeted five
different emotional states, while other studies tended to
focus on a fewer number of emotions [22].
Based on the aforesaid, an experiment was set up in a
laboratory setting for elicitation of emotions (both con-
scious and unconscious) with visual and auditory stimuli
and for measurement of heart rate changes of participants

in response to presentation of the stimuli. Conscious
emotions were included in the experiment for control
purposes. This experiment should (1) clarify if different
types of emotional stimuli evoke diverse cardiovascular
responses and (2) if unconscious emotions can be recog-
nized from heart rate.
1.1 Visual and auditory affective stimuli
To elicit emotional feelings under laboratory conditions, it
is common to use visual and auditory stimuli. Based on the
previous work in this field, there are publicly available
databases with affective pictures and sounds that cover the
most popular emotions and have been successfully tested
[19, 20, 23]. Unfortunately, there are no databases that
contain stimuli capable of eliciting unconscious emotional
experiences. In view of the aforementioned, for the
experiment, it is necessary to pick appropriate content from
one of the available databases for regular emotion elicita-
tion and to choose stimuli that are capable of evoking

unconscious emotion.
1.1.1 Affective pictures and sounds
In the field of emotion research, International Affective
Picture System (IAPS) [19] and the International Affective
Digital Sound System (IADS) [20] are widely used to
investigate the correlation between self-reported feelings of
subjects and the stimuli that are exposed to them. In our
study, IAPS and IADS were selected as the sources of
experimental material due to the facts that these databases
consistently cover the emotional affective space, have
relatively complete content including pictures and sound
clips and provide detailed instructions about usage of the
databases.
Now, we have to identify the remaining stimuli for
unconscious emotion.
1.1.2 Archetypal pictures and sounds
Jung [24] postulated the concept of collective uncon-
sciousness, arguing that in contrast to the personal psyche,

the unconsciousness has some contents and modes of
behavior that are identical in all individuals. This means
that the collective unconsciousness is identical in all human
beings and, thus, constitutes a common psychic substrate of
a universal nature which is present in every human being.
Jung further posited that the collective unconsciousness
contains archetypes: ancient motifs and predispositions to
patterns of behavior that manifest symbolically as arche-
typal images in dreams, art or other cultural forms [25].
According to Jung’s personal confrontation with the
unconsciousness, he tried to translate the emotions into
images, or rather to find the images that were concealed in
the emotions [26]. According to the record of Jung’s
664 Pers Ubiquit Comput (2013) 17:663–673
123
patients, archetypal symbols are essential for representation
of one’s emotions at an unconscious level. Jung further

argued that mandala (Fig. 1b, c), a circular art form, is an
archetypal symbol representing the self and wholeness [24,
26]. The fundamental and more generic form of mandala
consists of a circle with a dot at its center (Fig. 1a). This
pattern can also be found in different cultural symbols,
such as the Celtic cross, the aureole and rose windows.
Since Jung’s argument, mandala drawings have been
applied for practical use in the art and psychotherapeutic
fields as basic tools for self-awareness, self-expression,
conflict resolution and healing [29–33]. Recent studies
have discovered that mandala could be a promising tool for
non-verbal emotional communication [32, 34–37]. For
patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), ther-
apists can diagnose patients’ emotional statuses through the
mandalas drawn by them, while these patients are not
willing or not able to discuss sensitive information
regarding childhood abuse [36]. Furthermore, in another
case concerning breast cancer patients, mandala drawings,

as a non-invasive assessment tool, allowed the physician to
extract valuable information that may have been otherwise
blocked by conscious processes [34]. The above studies
have shown the potential of mandala to be a promising tool
to convey unconscious emotions.
Based on the work of Jung, the Archive for Research in
Archetypal Symbolism (ARAS) was established [21].
ARAS is a pictorial and written archive of mythological,
ritualistic and symbolic pictures from all over the world
and from all epochs of human history [38]. Therefore, we
assumed that the archetypal content of ARAS might enable
us to elicit unconscious emotion and included the arche-
typal symbols in our experiment.
About archetypal sounds, very little information is
available. We found out that ‘Om’ and Solfeggio fre-
quencies are considered to be archetypal sounds [39, 40].
‘Om’ or ‘Aum’ represents a sacred syllable in Indian
religions [40]. ‘‘Om’’ is the reflection of the absolute reality

without beginning or end and embracing all that exists
[41]. Next, Solfeggio frequencies are a set of six tones that
were used long ago in Gregorian chants and Indian Sanskrit
chants. These chants had special tones that were believed
to impart spiritual blessings during religious ceremonies
[39]. Solfeggio frequencies represent the common funda-
mental sound that is both used in Western Christianity and
eastern Indian religions; therefore, we considered them as
archetypal sounds.
In addition to the archetypal symbols, we also included
the archetypal sounds in our experiment to take into account
the effect of auditory stimuli. Our expectations are that
unlike the content of IAPS and IADS, the visual and auditory
archetypal stimuli might evoke unconscious emotions.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Participants
Thirty-four healthy subjects, including 15 males and 19
females, participated in our experiment. Most of the partic-

ipants were students and researchers associated with the
Eindhoven University of Technology. The participants had
diverse nationalities: 15 from Asia (China, India, Indonesia,
and Taiwan), 8 from Europe (Belgium, The Netherlands,
Russia, Spain and Ukraine), eight from the Middle East
(Turkey and United Arab Emirates) and three from South
America (Colombia and Mexico). The subjects had a mean
age of 26 years and 9 months, ranging from 18 to 50 years
(one under 20 years old, two above 40 years old). The par-
ticipants provided informed consent prior to the start of the
experiment and were financially compensated for their time.
2.2 Stimuli
IAPS and IADS contain huge amounts of visual and audio
stimuli, including 1,194 pictures and 167 sound clips. Due
Fig. 1 a Basic form of mandala [27], b Traditional Tibetan
Mandala (book cover of [25]) and c mandala of the six
Chakravartins [28]
Pers Ubiquit Comput (2013) 17:663–673 665
123

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to the limitation of time and resources, we had to reduce
the amount of materials for the experiment. To keep the
validity of these two databases with the shrunk size, three
selective principles were applied. First, four featured cat-
egories in the affective space of IAPS and IADS had to
remain: they were positive and arousal (PA), positive and
relax (PR), neutral (NT) and negative (NG). Second, the
selected stimuli of each category had to reflect the original
data set. For example, the PA picture category mainly
consisted of Erotic Couple, Adventure, Sports and Food.
Thus, the selected PA picture category should contain these
clusters as well. Last, stimuli that can best represent the
category should be selected first. For example, for PA
category, the most positive and arousing content should be
included first.
The same criteria were used to select the materials for
the fifth category archetypal content (AR), with the only
difference that the distribution of archetypal content in the

affective space is not yet defined. To sum up, there were
two kinds of media, which were pictures and sound clips;
each media contained five categories, which were men-
tioned above as PA, PR, NT, NG, and AR and each cate-
gory comprised 6 stimuli (see Table 1). In total, the
materials for the experiment included 30 pictures and 30
sound clips. The study followed the method used in IAPS
and IADS [19, 20].
2.3 Procedure
The experiment followed a within-subjects design. After
briefing the subject and obtaining informed consent, the
electrodes for the electrocardiogram (ECG) recording were
placed. The subjects then completed a number of ques-
tionnaires, which are reported in [45], to allow time for
acclimatization to the laboratory setting prior to emotion
manipulation. After filling in the pre-experiment ques-
tionnaires, each participant was asked to sit in front of a
monitor for displaying visual stimuli and two speakers for

playing audio stimuli. The experiment was built with a
web-based system and all the experimental data was stored
online in the database for further analysis. Before the real
experiment started, each participant went through a tutorial
to get familiar with the controls and the interface. After
introductions and making sure that the participant was calm
and ready for the experiment, two sessions were per-
formed: a picture session and a sound session. Once a
session began, the screen or the speakers started to display
pictures or play sound clips one at a time in a random
order. Each picture or sound clip was exposed to the par-
ticipant for 6 s. Then the stimulus was replaced with a
black screen and the interface paused for 5 s. The rating
scales to self-reported emotional feelings were shown after
the pause. The information obtained from these self-reports
is discussed in another paper [46]. Participants had
unlimited time to report their emotional feelings. Another
5-s pause and a black screen appeared after the self-report,

which was meant to let participants calm down and recover
from the previously induced emotion. Then, the next pic-
ture or sound clip was shown or played. In Fig. 2, we show
the sequence of events during the stimulus demonstration
and specify the time intervals that are important in this
experiment. The meaning of the time intervals will be
discussed later. All the 34 participants went through the
whole procedure individually.
2.4 Physiological measures
2.4.1 Recording equipment
The ECG was taken with four Ag/AgCl electrodes with gel
placed on the left and right arms (close to shoulders), and
left and right sides of a belly. The electrode placed on the
right side of the belly served as a reference. The signal was
recorded at 1,024 Hz using an amplifier included in ASA-
Lab (ANT BV) and Advanced Source Analysis v.4.7.3.1
(ANT BV, 2009).
2.4.2 Derivation of measures

At the end of the experiment, two data files per participant
were obtained. The first file was retrieved from the pre-
sentation system and contained information about the time
Fig. 2 The timeline of a
stimulus presentation. A
stimulus is presented at time_b,
and then it is removed at time_e.
At time_r_b a participant is
presented with the rating scales
and at time_r_e the participant
submits the ratings
123
intervals of stimuli presentations. For every stimulus, the
system stored the time when it appeared and disappeared,
as well as the time when the rating scales were presented to
a subject and the time when the subject submitted the
ratings. The second file contained signals from the three
ECG electrodes together with the timestamps of beginning

and ending of the recording.
Normally, the ECG signal was taken from electrodes
that represent the lead II of Einthoven’s triangle, but for
some of the participants we had to use the lead I because
the signal from the electrode placed on the left side of the
belly contained a strong noise. Next, QRS complexes were
identified in the ECG signal using a self-developed com-
puter program, which implemented the method described
in [47]. The same computer program matched the ECG
recording and the time intervals of stimuli presentation.
Interval-1 (see Fig. 2) is used to calculate the average heart
rate just before a stimulus is displayed; this heart rate,
therefore, serves as a reference. During interval-2 (see
Fig. 2), a stimulus is presented and for this reason we
expect changes in heart rate relative to interval-1. Interval-
3 (see Fig. 2) includes both a stimulus demonstration and a
pause with black screen. We expected that, due to the
latency of physiological signals, the changes in heart rate

might not be visible during the stimulus presentation. Thus,
interval-3 gives extra time to observe changes in heart rate.
Additionally, we took into account interval-4 (see Fig. 2)
to investigate if there was a difference in heart rate during
and after the presentation of a stimulus.
The number of heartbeats, time between the beats and
average heart rate per second were calculated with our
computer program for every interval mentioned above. In
the statistical analysis, the type of media (i.e., picture or
sound) and the category of stimuli (i.e., archetypal, positive
and relaxing, positive and arousing, neutral, and negative)
were treated as independent within-subject variables, and
the average heart rates for interval-2, interval-3 and inter-
val-4 were treated as dependent variables.
All statistical tests used a 0.05 significance level and
performed using SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 19).
3 Results
After the experiment, three types of heart rate analyses

were performed. The first type of analysis studied the
values of heart rate that corresponded to each category of
the stimuli. The second type of analysis examined the
changes in heart rate during the stimuli demonstrations
with regard to the heart rate calculated for the reference
intervals. The third type of analysis aimed to investigate
the classification of the emotional categories based on heart
rate.
3.1 Heart rate measures
As the experiment followed a within-subject design and the
stimuli for every participant were presented in a random
order, the effect of ECG baseline drift was leveraged.
Therefore, it is reasonable to make a comparison of aver-
age heart rates during the presentations of different stimuli.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for repe-
ated measurements showed a significant main effect of cat-
egory on the heart rate of subjects during the time interval-2,
[F (4, 32) = 3.772, p = 0.013 (Wilks’ Lambda)]. The same

test showed a significant main effect of the category of
stimuli on the average heart rate of participants during the
time interval-3, [F (4, 32) = 5.793, p = 0.001 (Wilks’
lambda)] and during time interval-4, [F (4, 32) = 5.089,
p = 0.003 (Wilks’ lambda)]. However, the average values of
heart rates measured for different categories of stimuli are
very close to each other (see Table 2).
Table 2 Mean values of heart rate in beats per minute for
different media and categories (N = 34)
Media Category Interval-2 Interval-3 Interval-4
Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE
Picture Archetypal 72.793 1.678 72.568 1.701 72.451 1.728
Positive and relaxing 72.983 1.763 72.762 1.776 72.675 1.824
Positive and arousing 71.887 1.835 71.697 1.798 71.487 1.779
Neutral 72.596 1.789 72.562 1.758 72.522 1.731
Negative 71.549 1.792 71.923 1.785 72.356 1.791
Sound Archetypal 70.786 1.649 70.581 1.638 70.440 1.616
Positive and relaxing 71.954 1.616 71.719 1.631 71.515 1.680
Positive and arousing 70.754 1.693 70.688 1.676 70.611 1.669

Neutral 70.907 1.581 71.141 1.567 71.342 1.573
Negative 70.970 1.744 71.139 1.733 71.450 1.722
123
There was a significant relationship between the type of
media (i.e., picture or sounds) and the average heart rate of
the participant. Thus, MANOVA for repeated measurement
demonstrated a significant main effect of the media on
interval-2 [F (1, 35) = 9.992, p = 0.003 (Wilks’ lambda)],
on interval-3 [F (1, 35) = 9.296, p = 0.004 (Wilks’
lambda)] and on interval-4 [F (1, 35) = 8.296, p = 0.007
(Wilks’ lambda)].
3.2 Measures of changes in heart rate
At the next step of our analysis, the changes of heart rate
during the presentation of stimuli relative to the reference
intervals were examined. For every stimulus, first, an
average heart rate for the reference interval (interval-1) was

calculated, and then the differences between the calculated
value and the average heart rates at interval-2, interval-3
and interval-4 were determined.
In the statistical analysis, the type of stimuli (i.e., picture
or sound) and the category of stimuli (i.e., archetypal,
positive and relaxing, positive and arousing, neutral, and
negative) were treated as independent within-subject vari-
ables. The changes in heart rate for interval-2, interval-3
and interval-4 were treated as dependent variables.
MANOVA for repeated measurements showed a sig-
nificant main effect of the category of stimuli on the
changes in the heart rate of participants during interval-2
[F (4, 32) = 5.413, p = 0.002 (Wilks’ Lambda)], though
the same statistical test did not show significance during
interval-3 [F (4, 32) = 2.446, p = 0.067 (Wilks’ Lambda)]
and interval-4 [F (4, 32) = 1.518, p = 0.220 (Wilks’
Lambda)]. Descriptive statistics for the changes in heart
rate during observation of the stimuli for different intervals

of time can be found in Table 3.
The influence of different types of media on the changes
in heart rate has also been analyzed, and MANOVA for
repeated measurements displayed a significant main
effect of the media type during interval-2 [F (1, 35) =
5.171, p = 0.029 (Wilks’ lambda)] and during interval-3
[F (1, 35) = 5.633, p = 0.023 (Wilks’ lambda)].
To graphically illustrate the dynamic of changes in heart
rate during interval-3, which lasted 11 s, we plotted two
diagrams (Figs. 3, 4). In Fig. 3, the data series that corre-
spond to different types of media are presented. Changes in
heart rate during interval-3, which are related to the cate-
gories of emotional stimuli, can be seen in Fig. 4.
3.3 Classification analysis
Finally, a discriminant analysis was conducted to investi-
gate if heart rate data could be used to predict the cate-
gories of emotional stimuli. The changes of heart rate from
the baseline during interval-3 were used as predictor vari-

ables. Significant mean differences were observed at sec-
onds 4, 5 and 6 on the category of emotional stimuli.
Although the log determinants for different categories of
stimuli were quite similar, Box’s M test was significant,
which indicated that the assumption of equality of covari-
ance matrices was violated. However, taking into account
the large sample size (N = 2040), the results of Box’s M
test can be neglected [48]. A combination of the discrim-
inant functions revealed a significant relation (p = 0.019)
between the predictor variables and the categories of
emotional stimuli, and the classification results showed that
25 % of the original cases and 23.3 % of cross-validated
grouped cases were correctly classified. Although these
classification rates are not very high, they are still above
the chance level, which, in the case of five categories of
stimuli, equals to 20 %. Therefore, the achieved classifi-
cation rates represent an improvement of 25 % for the
original cases and 16.5 % for the cross-validated grouped

cases in comparison to the chance level.
Table 3 Changes in heart rate in beats per minute for different
media and categories (negative values mean deceleration of
heart rate) (N = 34)
Media Category Interval-2 Interval-3 Interval-4
Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE
Picture Archetypal -1.243 0.312 -1.468 0.293 -1.585 0.380
Positive and relaxing -0.379 0.479 -0.601 0.501 -0.687 0.624
Positive and arousing -1.732 0.393 -1.922 0.311 -2.132 0.331
Neutral -1.903 0.338 -1.938 0.307 -1.997 0.339
Negative -2.204 0.330 -1.830 0.313 -1.397 0.428
Sound Archetypal -2.336 0.362 -2.541 0.339 -2.682 0.398
Positive and Relaxing -1.367 0.383 -1.602 0.372 -1.806 0.468
Positive and Arousing -2.155 0.411 -2.221 0.395 -2.297 0.445
Neutral -2.169 0.305 -1.935 0.273 -1.734 0.361
Negative -2.323 0.335 -2.153 0.333 -1.842 0.385
123

4 Discussion
The content of IAPS and IADS databases was successfully
used to induce a range of emotions in a way that was
similar to our experiment [15, 49]. Therefore, we consid-
ered that every category of stimuli that comes from the
databases would result in a unique combination of emo-
tional feelings of the participants. Based on the literature
review, we also expected that each of the categories of
stimuli would result in a distinct pattern of physiological
responses.
In addition to the content of IAPS and IADS, the
archetypal stimuli were included in the experiment. To the
best of our knowledge, no one has used the archetypal
stimuli in the emotion research so far; hence, we did not
exactly know what kind of physiological changes they
might induce. However, we assumed that the physiological
reaction should be different from the response to the IAPS
and IADS stimuli.

The experimental results enabled us to draw several
conclusions. The first and the most important conclusion
was that the results confirmed our hypotheses regarding the
Fig. 3 Changes in heart rate
(HR) from the baseline, which is
defined by interval-1, for
different types of media during
interval-3
Fig. 4 Changes in heart rate
(HR) from the baseline, which is
defined by interval-1, for
different categories of stimuli
during interval-3
123
unique pattern of physiological response for every
(including archetypal) category of stimuli. Indeed, for both
types of analysis that were performed, namely, for the

analysis of the average heart rate during the demonstration
of a stimulus and for the analysis of the change in average
heart rate during the demonstration of a stimulus, the sta-
tistical tests showed a significant main effect of the cate-
gory of the stimuli on heart rate. However, it is necessary to
note that for the change of the average heart rate, the test
was significant only for interval-2, while for the average
heart rate the test was significant for interval-2, interval-3
and interval-4. According to the previous research on the
response of heart rate to emotional stimuli [15], the
absence of the significant main effect of category during
interval-3 and interval-4 can be explained by the fact that
the largest change in heart rate happens during the first 2 s
of a stimulus presentation.
Figure 5 illustrates the average heart rate changes
measured on interval-2 with a reference to interval-1. It can
be observed that, independent of the media type and the
category of stimuli, heart rate exhibits a general deceler-

ating response. This finding agrees with the previously
reported results [15, 49] and is explained by Laceys’ model
[50], which describes the effect of attention on heart rate.
According to Laceys’ theory of intake and rejection, the
deceleration of heart rate occurs due to the diversion of
attention to an external task, for instance, perception of a
visual or auditory stimulus. On the other hand, when the
attention has to be focused on an internal task and the envi-
ronment has to be rejected, heart rate tends to accelerate.
The next conclusion is that negative stimuli evoked
larger deceleration of heart rate in comparison to positive
and neutral stimuli. This pattern is also in agreement with
previous studies [49] and is usually explained by Laceys’
theory. The fact that our experimental results are highly
consistent with the literature confirms again the validity of
our study.
We also analyzed changes in heart rate for different
types of media and found that auditory stimuli led to a

higher speed of heart rate deceleration in comparison to
visual stimuli. From our point of view, the participants
might consider sounds to be more significant and unex-
pected events, because they could not influence the per-
ception of a sound stimulus. For example, if a subject did
not like a negative visual stimulus, she could always close
her eyes and avoid the stimulus. However, she could not
avoid an auditory stimulus in the same manner. Therefore,
an intake of an auditory stimulus affected heart rate
stronger than a visual stimulus.
It is particularly interesting to look at the effect of the
archetypal stimuli on heart rates of participants. According
to the statistical analysis, there is a significant difference
between the influence of visual and auditory archetypal
stimuli on the heart rate of the participants during interval-3
[F (11, 24) = 2875, p = 0.015 (Wilks’ Lambda)]. Surpris-
ingly, the archetypal sounds evoked even stronger heart rate
deceleration than the negative sounds. This phenomenon is

difficult to explain; however, we have an idea that is based on
one of the original purposes of the archetypal sounds, which
is to support people in meditation practice. Indeed, to achieve
a proper mental state during meditation, people have to move
away from their conscious experiences and free their mind
from thoughts [51]. This exercise is difficult because the
conscious mind can hardly be idle. Therefore, people use the
archetypal sounds (for instance, the famous ‘‘Om’’ sound) to
keep the conscious concentrated on these sounds while they
meditate. Then, one can infer that the archetypal sounds
efficiently capture the attention of individuals. This, in turn,
allows us to explain the strong heart rate deceleration with
Laceys’ theory.
The pattern of heart rate change is influenced by the
archetypal pictures to a lesser extent than by the archetypal
sounds. This might be that, because for the revelation of
archetypal features of the pictures, participants have to be
deeply engaged in the contemplation of archetypal pictures.

As mandalas and meditative sounds are religious sym-
bols and, therefore, can possibly elicit conscious emotions
in some people, one might question if the emotional
responses of participants to the archetypal stimuli is indeed
unconscious. In order to investigate this question, it is
reasonable to assume that people from Asia are more
familiar with mandala than people from other regions of
the world because mandala is a religious symbol in Hin-
duism and Buddhism. Therefore, a presentation of mandala
to Asian people might elicit conscious emotional response.
Fig. 5 The deceleration of heart rate for different types of media
and
categories of stimuli during interval-2
123
However, mandala does not appear in, for example,
European religions, and, for this reason, it is unlikely that
European people consciously know this symbol. As in our

study we had participants from various geographical
locations (15 from Asia, 8 from Europe, 8 from the Middle
East and 3 from South America), it was possible to com-
pare emotional responses to mandala between the partici-
pants who come from Asia and the participants who come
from other regions of the world. Analysis showed that for
the archetypal stimuli, there is no statistically significant
main effect of the geographical region (Asia or non-Asia)
on changes in heart rate of the participants [F (11,
23) = 1.724, p = 0.13 (Wilks’ Lambda)]. Therefore, we
can conclude that emotional responses to the archetypal
stimuli do not depend on the familiarity of the participants
with these symbols.
5 Conclusion and future directions
As was pointed out earlier, we see emotion as an important
component of one’s mental life and, therefore, lifelogging
tools should be able to capture emotions. Recent research
in the area of affective computing has demonstrated that

emotional states of people can be recognized from their
physiological signals [52]. However, based on this
research, it is not clear if unconscious emotions have cor-
responding patterns of physiological signals. Our study
provided evidence which implied that unconscious emo-
tions also affect the heart rate. Moreover, deceleration of
heart rate, which followed presentation of the archetypal
stimuli to the participants, was different from deceleration
of heart rate after demonstration of other stimuli. It is
obvious that even theoretically, heart rate alone will not
allow precise classification of emotions because emotion is
a multidimensional phenomenon, and heart rate provides
just one dimension. Our experimental results support this
point of view with the classification rate of 25 % above the
chance level, which is lower than in some studies that focus
on a fewer number of emotions and utilize various physi-
ological signals in addition to heart rate (e.g., [53]). This
result is probably best explained by the fact that we tar-

geted many broad emotional categories, which consider-
ably complicates recognition of emotion. Nevertheless, this
study provided an important foundation for the develop-
ment of lifelogging tools that take into account emotional
experiences of people. Therefore, it is necessary to con-
tinue the work in this direction and further investigate the
patterns of physiological responses to the archetypal
stimuli. From our point of view, other features of the ECG
signal could also be useful for measurement of emotions.
Along with heart activities, other physiological signals,
such as galvanic skin response and respiration rate, should
be taken into account. Additional physiological signals are
important because eventually they might allow establishing
one-to-one links between the profile of physiological
response patterns and emotional experiences across time
[8].
Acknowledgments This work was supported in part by the
Erasmus
Mundus Joint Doctorate (EMJD) in Interactive and Cognitive

Envi-
ronments (ICE), which is funded by Erasmus Mundus under the
FPA
no. 2010-2012.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use,
dis-
tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original
author(s) and the source are credited.
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c.779_2012_Article_514.pdfUnconscious emotions: quantifying
and logging something we are not aware
ofAbstractIntroductionVisual and auditory affective
stimuliAffective pictures and soundsArchetypal pictures and
soundsMaterials and
methodsParticipantsStimuliProcedurePhysiological
measuresRecording equipmentDerivation of

measuresResultsHeart rate measuresMeasures of changes in
heart rateClassification analysisDiscussionConclusion and
future directionsAcknowledgmentsReferences
Effects of sociocultural factors on social trends in society
Olgun Goktas1, Oguz Tekin2, Metin Canbal2, Irfan Sencan2,
Seyda Kunt2, Ayfer Sahin2, Umut Cavus3
1Family Health Centre, Uludag University
2Family Medicine Department, Fatih University Faculty of
Medicine
3Emergency Department, Fatih University Faculty of Medicine
Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Olgun Goktas, Family Health
Centre, Uludag University, Gorukle Campus,
16059 Nilufer, Bursa, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected]
This study has not been presented anywhere
and has not been published in a journal. The
study was conducted within the scope of
another study entitled “The psychosocial
effects of situations people are involved in,” for
which ethics commission approval was
obtained. The data was recorded after
obtaining the approval of the participants.
doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2013.01013.x
Abstract
We aimed to determine the effect of gender, age, marital status,
number of the people
in the household, number of children, and regular reading habits

on social trends by
using the social trends scale for adults. Economically
independent 290 adults were
selected on a volunteer basis by family practitioners. Our
findings indicate that vio-
lence avoidance and economic status were correlated to book
reading and having
children; and gender, regular reading, and having children have
impact on economic
status. We conclude that promoting regular reading in society,
efforts on protecting
the institution of marriage, and counseling services that assist
toward normalization
of the number of children and promoting knowledge and
awareness of parenthood
would be beneficial to the social trends in society.
The holistic approach in family practice takes the evaluation
of the individual from a biopsychosocial perspective as its
basis (Ahmed & Lemkau, 2007). When we consider social
factors as a part of the psychological factors, the social envi-
ronment, such as the family and work environment, are
important for us (Engel, 1977). If we take the social environ-
ment into account in a professional practice approach, we will
achieve better results.
Subjects with a tendency toward violence and drug abuse
in society have recently drawn the interest of researchers.
Many official commissions have been established in response
to the violent behavior of students in schools (Turkish Grand
National Assembly [TBMM], 2006).
Studies carried out with the 11–20-year age group
emphasize the positive effect of female gender and regular
book reading on the prevention of violence (Tekin et al.,
2007). The target and ideal scores are also higher in girls

compared to boys. The same study shows that there is a cor-
relation between avoidance of violence and drug abuse and
family status, social adjustment, targets, and ideals. There is
a positive relationship between “social adaptation and
status” and “substance avoidance,” “family status,” and
“targets and ideals” of the social trends in adult age group.
There is also a positive relationship between “avoidance of
violence” and “family status,” “economic status” and “targets
and ideals,” “substance avoidance” and “family status,” and
“avoidance of violence” and “targets and ideals” (Tekin &
Göktaş, 2009).
Use of psychosocial testing in biopsychosocial approach
provides significant advantages in health management by
providing alternative assessment methods.
In another study, it has been found that male gender,
moving domiciles frequently, a history of violence, a violent
environment, unemployed, or a history of drug abuse, vio-
lence in the family and people around with violent attitude
can contribute to a tendency toward violence (Andrews &
Jenkins, 2000).
The presence of drug or alcohol abuse, stress, various types
of losses, economic difficulties, work problems, family prob-
lems, changes in lifestyle, mental and physical inadequacies,
isolated social life, violent and aggressive family structure,
and the effect of bad relationships in the past have been
stressed as contributing factors in another study (Eyler &
Cohen, 1999).
We used a social trends scale, which is developed for adults
(Tekin & Göktaş, 2009), to determine the effect of gender, age,
marital status, number of people in household, having chil-
dren, and regular reading habits on social trends.

bs_bs_banner
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 428–432
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 428–432
Method
Study design
The study was conducted within the scope of another study
entitled “The psychosocial effects of situations people are
involved in,” for which ethics commission approval was
obtained. We used “Fatih Social Trends Scale” (Tekin &
Göktaş, 2009; Table 1) questionnaire for this study.
Study sample
The “Fatih Social Trends Scale” questionnaire was applied to
290 volunteer subjects accepted to participate in this study
between September 2008 and September 2009 in various
medical institutions by family practitioners, in Bursa and
Ankara, Turkey. The volunteers were economically independ-
ent people in the adult age group. After obtaining approval of
the participants, gender, age, marital status, number of the
people in household, number of children, and regular reading
habits parameters were recorded. These participants scores
based on the “Fatih Social Trends Scale” are calculated. This
scale uses six factors with five Likert-type answers (I, I
definitely don’t agree; II, I don’t agree; III, Undecided; IV,
Moderately agree; and V, Agree; Table 1; Baş, 2003; Tekin &

Göktaş, 2009; Trochim, 1999).
Statistical analysis
The data were processed in SPSS package (Özdamar, 2001). In
order to obtain the general view of the scores, general linear
model (factorial analysis of variance [ANOVA]) analysis was
used. Then, Mann–Whitney U test and Spearman correlation
methods were used for more advanced comparisons in dual
tests. A p < .05 was accepted as significant. Comparisons were
made in the 95% confidence interval (Özdamar, 2004).
Results
Two hundred ninety subjects (99 males and 191 females) par-
ticipated in this study. The mean ages of the participants were
35 � 8.5 and 32.2 � 9 years, for males and females, respec-
tively. Ninety-eight of them were regular book readers
(33.7%). Two hundred eleven were married (72.7%). Other
demographic characteristics are given in Table 2.
When the study group factor score averages were com-
pared against gender, the economic status scores of the males
were higher than the economic status scores of females
(p < .002; Table 3).
When the study group factor score averages were com-
pared by regular book reading, the regular readers’ avoidance
of violence and economic status was higher than the non-
readers’ avoidance of violence and economic status (p < .032
and p < .016; Table 4).
When the study groups’ factor score averages were com-
pared first by marital status and then the married participants
with children by those without children, there was no statisti-
cally significant difference between the groups.

The social adaptation and status scores of married subjects
without children were higher than those married subjects
with children.
In multifactorial analysis, the association between factors,
such as age and the number of children by the scale factor
measurements are evaluated by using correlation method. In
general, there was a negative correlation between age and
family status (r = -.153, p = .009). When subgroups are
evaluated by marital status, regular reading habits, and
gender, there was a negative correlation between age and
family status, and the number of children and family status
(r = -.155, p = .024; and r = -.149, p = .030, respectively).
Taking book reading into account, there was a negative corre-
lation between age and family status, and the number of chil-
dren and family status (r = -.160, p = .026; and r = -.202,
p = .005, respectively). Taking gender into account, in men,
there was a negative correlation between age and family status
Table 1 Fatih Social Trends Scale-Adult Version
A. Social adaptation and status
9 Humans are civilized being and they must resolve their
problems by
reconciliation instead of violence
16 I am hoping to achieve the place I hope for in society
19 People have to live in a social environment
B. Substance avoidance
2 Acquiring habits like smoking etc is normal for people in
order to
deal with stress (*)
8 Bad habits should be treated and corrected

14 I will definitely not give up habits like smoking etc (*)
C. Violence avoidance
21 Being tough is generally good and solves problems quickly
(*)
23 There is a perpetual atmosphere of conflict in our family (*)
27 Best way to protect yourself is to be aggressive (*)
D. Family status
5 I am happy with my family life
11 In my family, everyone is tolerant and positive to each other
17 Because of the bad atmosphere, I don’t want to stay at home
(*)
35 My family structure is sound
41 My family life is insufferable (*)
47 I love and like my family life
E. Economic status
12 I have a good monthly income in comparison to the
communal
average
24 I can’t meet the requirements of my family and kids (*)
42 I am working just to be able to eat (*)
F. Targets and ideals
29 Targets and Ideals make life worth living
43 A peaceful societal structure is an important target for the
country
45 A person’s life should be directed by their ideals
49 It is every individual’s duty to serve society
*The scoring was done by deducting 6 from the answers of
questions.
Goktas et al. 429

Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 428–432
of (r = -.225, p = .025) and in women, there was also a nega-
tive correlation between the number of children and family
status (r = -.187, p = .010).
In order to determine the joint effects of factors that could
affect the factor score, we used the factorial ANOVA method.
We observed that marital status had an effect on social status.
Our findings suggest that regular book reading and having
children had an effect on avoidance of violence. Although the
avoidance of violence scores of regular readers and those with
children were higher, in noncombined comparison, there was
no statistical significance (Tables 4 and 5). Gender, regular
reading, and having children were related to economic status.
Substance avoidance, family status, targets, and ideals were
not affected by any of the factors studied, according to a fac-
torial ANOVA general comparison. When the family status
comparison was repeated by marital status, regular reading
was more frequent in the married group (mean, 4.47 � .66
and 4.19 � .76; Table 5).
Discussion
The relationship between violent tendencies and gender
has been emphasized in some studies, and the trend toward
violence in adolescent males has been emphasized in
Table 2 Demographic Features of the Participants

Male Female
n Mean/percentage n Mean/percentage
Age 99 35 � 8,5 191 32.2 � 9
Book reading
Reads regularly 27 27.3 71 37.2
Does not read regularly 72 72.3 120 62.8
Marital status
Married 73 73.7 138 72.3
Single 26 26.3 53 27.7
Number of persons in household 99 4 � 1.47 191 3.6 � 1.27
Child status
Yes 32 32.3 74 38.7
No 67 67.7 117 61.3
Number of children (those with children) 67 1.94 � .9 117 1.73
� .86
Table 3 Comparison of Social Trends Scale Factor by Gender
Male Female
n Mean/percentage n Mean/percentage P
Social adaptation and status 99 4.33 � .73 191 4.35 � .71 NS
Substance avoidance 4.2 � .92 4.2 � .8 NS
Violence avoidance 4.14 � .80 4 � .89 NS
Family status 4.37 � .66 4.31 � .76 NS
Economic status 3.34 � 1 2.93 � 1 .002
Targets and ideals 4.6 � .64 4.68 � .46 NS
Table 4 Comparison of Social Trends Scale Factor Against
Reading Books

Reads regularly Does not read regularly
n Mean/percentage n Mean/percentage P
Social adaptation and status 98 4.31 � .74 192 4.35 � .70 NS
Substance avoidance 4.15 � .82 4.23 � .85 NS
Violence avoidance 4.24 � .81 4 � .88 .032
Family status 4.41 � .69 4.29 � .74 NS
Economic status 3.29 � .99 2.97 � 1 .016
Targets and ideals 4.68 � .57 4.65 � .50 NS
430 Sociocultural factors on social trends in society
Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 428–432
other studies (Andrews & Jenkins, 2000; Tekin et al., 2007).
However, our findings suggests that the regular book reading
and having children have higher impact on violence avoid-
ance then gender in the adult age group. The completion of
the development of personality can be seen as a determinant
for this finding. The thinking discipline imparted by regular
book reading and intellectual development may play a repres-
sive role against violent tendencies or may transform it into a
struggle at a more civilized level. Being a parent and having
feelings of affection toward the children may be helpful in
reducing or preventing negative impulses and feelings.
Another study have emphasized that interfamily problems
could increase the tendency toward violence (Eyler & Cohen,
1999). Starting from this assumption and considering the
effect of the family status, examining the factors that have an
effect on latter, we determined that regular book reading

played a significant role. A negative effect of the higher age
and the number of kids drew our attention at first. However,
these negative factors were significant only in the nonregular
book reader group. The psychological accumulation while
the age advances and its reflection on the family may be a
factor here. Also, the difficulties while rearing children, espe-
cially for the mother, and reflection of these difficulties
on family relations, should be taken into account. Regular
reading may have a therapeutic effect by promoting positive
thinking and organization of the ideas.
Another point which we noted was that the married sub-
jects’ social adaptation and status scores were higher than the
single subjects. When the value of institution of marriage
in society is taken into account, it emerges that marriage’s
contribution on high status scores is not accidental and this
institution should be promoted and encouraged.
The negative effect of economic difficulties on violent ten-
dencies was also emphasized in one study (Eyler & Cohen,
1999). It has been determined that gender, regular book
reading, and having children all had significant effects on the
economic status scores. It can be stated that men in our
society have a higher work potential and possibilities. We are
of the opinion that this is the reason for the higher scores
obtained. However, the positive effect of regular book reading
draws our attention here too. Thinking exercises may have a
positive effect on working life as well. The economic status
scores for people with children can be explained by a possible
relation between better economic situation and choosing to
have children.
The findings by using a previously developed psychosocial
scale in this study can be used for developing beneficial appli-
cations, both on a personal level and for society in general.
Above all, regular reading needs to be encouraged in society. It

can be seen how important the recommendation to “read” in
our society is in relation to the social trends and shows how
critically important it is to make reading a habit from an early
Table 5 The Cumulative Effect of other Factors on the Family
Status
Marital status Source Type III sum of squares df Mean square F
Sig.
Married Corrected model 6.621a 6 1.103 2.071 .058
Intercept 125.266 1 125.266 235.134 .000
Gender .359 1 .359 .674 .413
Book reading 4.261 1 4.261 7.999 .005
Child .312 1 .312 .585 .445
Age 1.764 1 1.764 3.312 .070
Person in household .107 1 .107 .200 .655
n of child 8.33E-005 1 8.33E-005 .000 .990
Error 108.680 204 .533
Total 4014.111 211
Corrected total 115.301 210
Single Corrected model 2.376b 6 .396 .813 .563
Intercept 28.276 1 28.276 58.064 .000
Gender .226 1 .226 .464 .498
Book reading 1.369 1 1.369 2.811 .098
Child .100 1 .100 .206 .652
Age .018 1 .018 .037 .849
Person in household .230 1 .230 .472 .494
n of child .008 1 .008 .016 .899
Error 35.062 72 .487
Total 1596.944 79
Corrected total 37.438 78
aR squared = .057 (adjusted R squared = .030).
bR squared = .063 (adjusted R squared = -.015).

Goktas et al. 431
Psychology 2013, 43, pp. 428–432
age from the perspective of the person and for society. This
may result in avoidance of violence and development in the
subjects’ economic status.
In our society, the institution of marriage occupies a very
important place and this has been emphasized many times in
our culture. The edict to “marry and multiply” has been taken
seriously by members of society for many hundreds of years
by the members of society. However, in the light of some of
the dangers faced by the institution of marriage, we can easily
conclude that it is paramount that this institution, which is so
important from a individual and society point of view, must
be protected.
Being married and having children (within limits) not only
improves the social status, but is also a factor that prevents
violence. Thus, the significance of these social values is
emphasized both for the individual and for society from a dif-
ferent perspective as well.
Although the decrease in family status with advanced age
and increased number of children was not confirmed by
other multifactor analyses, it may provide a provision to
recommend family counseling and family therapy to these
groups.
Conclusion

Demographic and sociocultural factors affect the trends
in society. The habit of regular book reading, being married,
and having children within limits creates a positive effect on
various factors of social trends. Our findings suggests that
work in the protection of the institution of marriage, and
counseling services that provide guidance on the number of
children and promoting knowledge and awareness of par-
enthood, will be of benefit to social trends in the society.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank all of the participants in this land-
mark clinical trial, and all of the centers, researchers, clini-
cians, and health professionals that have conducted the trial.
All authors report no potential conflicts of interest relevant
to this article.
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reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Yerushalmi, Hanoch, PhD
American Journal of Psychotherapy; 2010; 64, 3; ProQuest
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pg. 283

REVIEW ARTICLE
Parental Expectations and Children's Academic
Performance in Sociocultural Context
Yoko Yamamoto & Susan D. Holloway
Published online: 4 March 2010
# The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access
at Springerlink.com
Abstract In this paper, we review research on parental
expectations and their effects on
student achievement within and across diverse racial and ethnic
groups. Our review
suggests that the level of parental expectations varies by
racial/ethnic group, and that
students' previous academic performance is a less influential
determinant of parental
expectations among racial/ethnic minority parents than among
European American parents.
To explain this pattern, we identify three processes associated
with race/ethnicity that
moderate the relation between students' previous performance
and parental expectations.
Our review also indicates that the relation of parental
expectations to concurrent or future
student achievement outcomes is weaker for racial/ethnic
minority families than for

European American families. We describe four mediating
processes by which high parental
expectations may influence children's academic trajectories and
show how these processes
are associated with racial/ethnic status. The article concludes
with a discussion of
educational implications as well as suggestions for future
research.
Keywords Parental expectations . Academic achievement .
Education . Ethnicity. Race .
Socioeconomic status
The role of parental expectations in affecting children's
academic progress has received
substantial attention from psychologists and sociologists over
the past half century. In
general, parental expectations have been found to play a critical
role in children's academic
success. Students whose parents hold high expectations receive
higher grades, achieve
higher scores on standardized tests, and persist longer in school
than do those whose
parents hold relatively low expectations (Davis-Kean 2005;
Pearce 2006; Vartanian et al.
2007). High parental expectations are also linked to student
motivation to achieve in school,
scholastic and social resilience, and aspirations to attend
college (Hossler and Stage 1992;
Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214
DOI 10.1007/s10648-010-9121-z
Y. Yamamoto (*)
Department of Education, Brown University, Box 1938,

Providence, RI 02912, USA
S. D. Holloway
Graduate School of Education, University of California,
Berkeley, CA, USA
Peng and Wright 1994; Reynolds 1998). Furthermore, parents'
academic expectations
mediate the relation between family background and
achievement, and high parental
expectations also appear to buffer the influence of low teacher
expectations on student
achievement (Benner and Mistry 2007; Zhan 2005).
While most of the research conducted to date has been cross-
sectional, a few
longitudinal studies offer particularly powerful evidence that
parental expectations are a
causal determinant of student expectations and academic
outcomes (Rutchick et al. 2009;
Trusty et al. 2003). Additionally, two meta-analyses have found
that parental expectations
are the strongest family-level predictor of student achievement
outcomes, exceeding the
variance accounted for by other parental beliefs and behaviors
by a substantial margin
(Jeynes 2005, 2007).
For the most part, scholarly inquiry on parental expectations has
focused on European
American, middle-class samples, and theoretical formulations
have typically not attempted
to account for the context of race or ethnicity in shaping
parental expectations or the

academic outcomes associated with them. Only within the last
few decades have
researchers attempted to include diverse ethnic and racial
groups in their samples. In
recent years, several large studies have included a measure of
parental expectations
including the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS)
and the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K). As we will
argue presently, these and
other studies find significant racial/ethnic variation in (a) the
level of parental expectations,
(b) the role of students' academic performance in determining
parental expectations, and (c)
the effect of parental expectations on student outcomes. The
goal of this review is to
conduct a thorough review of these studies and take a fresh look
at the way in which
parental expectations are formed and communicated to children
in a variety of sociocultural
contexts.
Our analysis of racial and ethnic differences in the formation
and effects of parental
expectations draws from a sociocultural approach to parenting
pioneered by anthropologists
Beatrice and John Whiting, along with their colleagues and
former students (e.g., Harkness
and Super 2002; LeVine et al. 1994; Weisner 2002; Whiting and
Edwards 1988; Whiting
and Whiting 1975). Within this perspective, parents in a society
are thought to develop
goals and care strategies (i.e., cultural models) that maximize
the likelihood that children
will attain culturally valued skills and characteristics. Parents
are seen as rational actors

who use their shared knowledge of the world to adapt and make
complex decisions in
their local community. The likelihood of a particular parent
adopting the norms that
have been formulated within a cultural scene is dependent on
individual characteristics
of the parent (e.g., personality, health status) but parents are
also viewed as existing
within cultural scenes that include macro-structural elements
and institutions (e.g.,
political and economic systems).
Although cultural models of child rearing and education are
collectively constructed by
members of a community, this does not mean that they
necessarily emerge at the level of a
national, ethnic, or racial group, nor do all members of a group
necessarily agree with
dominant cultural models (Gjerde 2004). To understand why a
parent acts the way she does,
it is essential to identify the models that are available to
members of a certain community
but also to acknowledge “individuals' self-consciousness,
individuality, and ability to
transcend their own culture” (Gjerde 2004, p. 140).
The implications of this sociocultural perspective for our review
of the extant literature
are that we (a) will be alert to the likelihood that parents'
expectations about their children's
schooling will be partially dependent on their racial or ethnic
heritage; (b) will examine the
linkages of the social economic context to parental
expectations; and (c) will explore the
190 Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214

culturally based beliefs that parents have about their own role
and the role of those in
important institutions such as the schools. This perspective will
also guide the questions we
seek to explore in future work, which are discussed in the final
section of this review.
Defining Parental Expectations
Although the term “parental expectations” has been defined in
various ways in the
literature, most researchers characterize parental expectations as
realistic beliefs or
judgments that parents have about their children's future
achievement as reflected in course
grades, highest level of schooling attained, or college
attendance (e.g., Alexander et al.
1994; Glick and White 2004; Goldenberg et al. 2001). Parental
expectations are based on
an assessment of the child's academic capabilities as well as the
available resources for
supporting a given level of achievement. Most researchers
operationalize parental
expectations by asking parents “how far” they think their child
will go in school or by
asking them to forecast what grades a child will receive that
year (see Table 1).
Occasionally, researchers have also asked about student
perceptions of parental expect-
ations as a proxy for parental expectations themselves (e.g., Gill
and Reynolds 1999).
Parental expectations can be contrasted with parental

aspirations, which typically refer to
desires, wishes or goals that parents have formed regarding
their children's future attainment
rather than what they realistically expect their children to
achieve (Seginer 1983). To the
extent that parental aspirations reflect the value parents place
on education, they are based
on parents' personal goals as well as community norms about
schooling and its role in
promoting professional and personal success (Astone and
McLanahan 1991; Carpenter
2008). Researchers tend to measure parental aspirations by
asking the year of schooling
parents “want” or “hope” their children to achieve (Aldous
2006; Goldenberg et al. 2001).
Although parental aspirations and expectations are conceptually
distinct, the terms are
sometimes used interchangeably (e.g., Fan and Chen 2001;
Juang and Silbereisen 2002;
Mau 1995). On occasion, researchers assess parental aspirations
and expectations separately
but combine them into a single measure for analytic purposes
(e.g., Bandura et al. 1996). In
this review, we focus exclusively on studies that measured
parental expectations about their
children’s future academic achievement. In order to locate
relevant work, we first conducted
a computer-based literature search of the PsycINFO and ERIC
databases using the key
phrase “parent[al] expectation” and “achievement.” We
restricted our search to peer-
reviewed articles published in journals in or after 1990. We then
took an “ancestry
approach,” examining the references sections of relevant
articles to identify relevant articles

that had not emerged in the computer search. In the process of
reviewing articles, we
excluded studies that (a) measured parents' aspirations
concerning their children's
educational achievement rather than parental expectations, (b)
examined children with
cognitive disabilities, and (c) focused on parental expectations
concerning students' non-
academic outcomes such as occupational attainment.
This process resulted in the identification of 33 articles
reporting on studies that assessed
parental expectations concerning their children's academic
achievement and two meta-
analyses (see Table 1 for an overview). In 18 of these articles
the authors contrasted the
expectations of parents in two or more racial/ethnic groups or
examined the relation
between parental expectations and students' academic
performance in two or more groups.
In this paper, we refer to race as well as to ethnicity, which can
be defined as an
individual's heritage based on nationality, language and/or
culture (Betancourt and Lopez
1993). A variety of terms have been employed to denote
racial/ethnic groups in the studies
Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214 191
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ic
an

,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
Y
es
3
rd
an
d
4
th
g
ra
d
e
7
9
0
B
eg

in
n
in
g
S
ch
o
o
l
S
tu
d
y
(B
S
S
).
R
an
d
o
m
sa
m
p
le
o
f
2
0
sc
h
o
o

ls
in
th
e
B
al
ti
m
o
re
ci
ty
sy
st
em
an
d
ra
n
d
o
m
ly
se
le
ct
ed
ch
il
d

re
n
w
it
h
in
th
e
sc
h
o
o
ls
B
al
b
o
n
i
an
d
P
ed
ra
b
is
si
(1
9
9
8
)

P
ar
en
ts
'
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s
fo
r
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
's
le
ar
n
in
g
p
er
fo
rm
an
ce

:
p
o
o
r
to
ex
ce
ll
en
t
N
o
t
sp
ec
if
ie
d
N
o
1
st
g
ra
d
e
2
1
6

C
h
il
d
re
n
se
le
ct
ed
fr
o
m
p
ri
m
ar
y
sc
h
o
o
ls
in
d
if
fe
re
n
t
It
al
ia

n
ci
ti
es
B
en
n
er
an
d
M
is
tr
y
(2
0
0
7
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f

h
o
w
m
u
ch
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
w
il
l
co
m
p
le
te
A
fr
ic
an
A
m

er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
L
at
in
o
N
o
9
to
1
6
y
ea
rs
o

ld
3
7
0
1
8
-y
ea
r
o
ld
s
an
d
o
ld
er
re
cr
u
it
ed
fr
o
m
tw
o
lo
w
-i

n
co
m
e
n
ei
g
h
b
o
rh
o
o
d
s
in
M
il
w
au
k
ee
,
W
is
co
n
si
n
.
T
h
en

p
ar
ti
ci
p
an
ts
w
it
h
at
le
as
t
o
n
e
ch
il
d
b
et
w
ee
n
th
e
ag
es
o
f
1
an

d
1
0
y
ea
rs
w
er
e
in
v
it
ed
to
p
ar
ti
ci
p
at
e
in
a
su
b
st
u
d
y
(T
h
e

C
h
il
d
an
d
F
am
il
y
S
tu
d
y
;
C
F
S
)
B
eu
te
l
an
d
A
n
d
er
so
n
(2

0
0
8
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f
h
o
w
m
u
ch
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
th
ei
r
ch

il
d
w
il
l
co
m
p
le
te
“B
la
ck
”,
A
si
an
an
d
m
ix
ed
ra
ce
,
“W
h
it
e”

in
S
o
u
th
A
fr
ic
a
Y
es
8
th
to
11
th
g
ra
d
e
5
4
7
T
h
e
C
ap
e

A
re
a
P
an
el
S
tu
d
y
(C
A
P
S
).
D
re
w
a
sa
m
p
le
o
f
C
en
su
s
E
n
u
m
er

at
io
n
A
re
as
(E
A
s)
,
an
d
th
en
ra
n
d
o
m
ly
sa
m
p
le
d
h
o
u
se
h
o
ld

s
w
it
h
in
ea
ch
se
le
ct
ed
E
A
in
C
ap
e
to
w
n
in
S
o
u
th
A
fr
ic
a

C
ar
p
en
te
r
(2
0
0
8
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f
h
o
w
fa
r
th
ei
r
ch
il

d
w
il
l
g
o
in
sc
h
o
o
l
L
at
in
o
an
d
n
o
n
-L
at
in
o
w
it
h
an
im
m

ig
ra
n
t
p
ar
en
t
Y
es
1
0
th
(t
im
e
1
)
an
d
1
2
th
g
ra
d
e
3

,2
0
0
E
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
al
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(E
L
S
)
2
0
0
2

D
av
is
-K
ea
n
(2
0
0
5
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f
h
o
w
m
u
ch
sc
h

o
o
li
n
g
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
w
il
l
co
m
p
le
te
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p

ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
Y
es
8
to
1
2
y
ea
rs
o
ld
8
3
4
T
h
e
1
9
9
7
C
h

il
d
D
ev
el
o
p
m
en
t
S
u
p
p
le
m
en
t
o
f
th
e
P
an
el
S
tu
d
y
o
f
In
co
m

e
D
y
n
am
ic
s
(P
S
ID
-C
D
S
)
E
n
tw
is
le
an
d
A
le
x
an
d
er
(1
9

9
0
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
“b
es
t
g
u
es
se
s”
fo
r
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
's
fi
rs
t
m
ar
k
in

m
at
h
em
at
ic
s:
u
n
sa
ti
sf
ac
to
ry
to
ex
ce
ll
en
t
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,

E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
Y
es
1
st
g
ra
d
e
7
8
5
B
eg
in
n
in
g
S
ch
o

o
l
S
tu
d
y
(B
S
S
).
R
an
d
o
m
sa
m
p
le
o
f
2
0
sc
h
o
o
ls
in
th
e
B
al

ti
m
o
re
ci
ty
sy
st
em
an
d
ra
n
d
o
m
ly
se
le
ct
ed
ch
il
d
re
n
w
it
h
in

th
e
sc
h
o
o
ls
E
n
tw
is
le
an
d
A
le
x
an
d
er
(1
9
9
6
)
P
ar
en
ts
'

“b
es
t
g
u
es
se
s”
fo
r
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
's
fi
rs
t
m
ar
k
in
m
at
h
em
at
ic
s
an

d
re
ad
in
g
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
Y
es
1
st
an

d
2
n
d
g
ra
d
e
3
9
1
B
eg
in
n
in
g
S
ch
o
o
l
S
tu
d
y
(B
S
S
).
R
an
d
o

m
sa
m
p
le
o
f
2
0
sc
h
o
o
ls
in
th
e
B
al
ti
m
o
re
ci
ty
sy
st
em
an
d

ra
n
d
o
m
ly
se
le
ct
ed
ch
il
d
re
n
w
it
h
in
th
e
sc
h
o
o
ls
192 Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214
T

a
b
le
1
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
)
A
u
th
o
r(
s)
M
ea
su
re
m
en
t
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex

p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s
R
ac
e/
et
h
n
ic
it
y
R
ac
ea
C
h
il
d
g
ra
d
e/
ag
e
S
am

p
le
si
ze
b
S
am
p
le
d
es
cr
ip
ti
o
n
G
al
p
er
et
a
l.
(1
9
9
7
)
P

ar
en
ts
’
re
p
o
rt
o
f
h
o
w
m
u
ch
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
th
ey
th
in
k
th
ei
r
ch
il

d
re
n
ar
e
ca
p
ab
le
o
f
ac
h
ie
v
in
g
an
d
h
o
w
m
u
ch
th
ey
th
in
k

th
ei
r
ch
il
d
re
n
w
il
l
ac
tu
al
ly
re
ce
iv
e
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
A
si
an

,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
L
at
in
o
N
o
K
in
d
er
g
ar
te
n
1
2
4
F

o
rm
er
H
ea
d
S
ta
rt
ch
il
d
re
n
an
d
th
ei
r
p
ar
en
ts
in
ei
g
h
t
p
ar
ti
ci
p
at

in
g
sc
h
o
o
ls
se
le
ct
ed
fr
o
m
3
1
si
te
s
ac
ro
ss
th
e
n
at
io
n
G
il
l
an

d
R
ey
n
o
ld
s
(1
9
9
9
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s
o
f
ch
il
d
's
sc
h
o

o
li
n
g
an
d
ch
il
d
re
n
's
p
er
ce
p
ti
o
n
s
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n

s
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
4
th
to
6
th
g
ra
d
e
7
1
2
C
h
ic
ag

o
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(C
L
S
).
L
o
w
-
in
co
m
e
et
h
n
ic
m
in
o

ri
ty
w
h
o
at
te
n
d
ed
g
o
v
er
n
m
en
t-
fu
n
d
ed
k
in
d
er
g
ar
te
n
p
ro
g

ra
m
s
in
C
h
ic
ag
o
P
u
b
li
c
S
ch
o
o
ls
G
li
ck
an
d
W
h
it
e
(2
0
0
4

)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d
h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n

A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
A
si
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
M
ex
ic
an
,
O

th
er
H
is
p
an
ic
,
o
th
er
s
Y
es
8
th
g
ra
d
e
11
,0
6
1
N
at
io
n
al

E
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(N
E
L
S
8
8
)
G
o
ld
en
b
er

g
et
a
l.
(2
0
0
1
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f
h
o
w
fa
r
th
ey
th
in

k
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
w
il
l
g
o
in
te
rm
s
o
f
fo
rm
al
sc
h
o
o
li
n
g
L
at
in

o
N
o
K
in
d
er
g
ar
te
n
(t
im
e
1
)
an
d
fo
ll
o
w
u
p
th
ro
u
g
h
6

th
g
ra
d
e
8
1
L
at
in
o
im
m
ig
ra
n
t
sa
m
p
le
se
le
ct
ed
fr
o
m
ra

n
d
o
m
ly
se
le
ct
ed
sc
h
o
o
ls
.
H
al
le
et
a
l.
(1
9
9
7
)
P
ar
en
ts
'

re
p
o
rt
o
f
li
k
el
ih
o
o
d
th
at
th
e
ta
rg
et
ch
il
d
w
o
u
ld
co
m
p
le
te

d
if
fe
re
n
t
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
al
le
v
el
s
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
3

rd
an
d
4
th
g
ra
d
e
4
1
S
am
pl
e
w
as
d
ra
w
n
fr
o
m
al
l
3
rd

an
d
4
th
gr
ad
er
s
en
ro
ll
ed
at
th
e
ta
rg
et
el
em
en
ta
ry
sc
ho
ol
in
th
e
so
ut
h

ea
st
er
n
re
gi
o
n
of
th
e
U
S
A
H
ao
an
d
B
o
n
st
ea
d
-
B
u
rn
s
(1
9
9

8
)
P
ar
en
ts
’
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d
h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n

A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
A
si
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
L

at
in
o
Y
es
8
th
g
ra
d
e
1
7
,9
1
2
N
at
io
n
al
E
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
L
o

n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(N
E
L
S
8
8
)
H
o
ss
le
r
an
d
S
ta
g
e
(1
9
9

2
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d
h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
sc
h
o
o
li
n

g
M
in
o
ri
ty
,
n
o
n
-m
in
o
ri
ty
Y
es
9
th
g
ra
d
e
2
,4
9
7
A
ll

st
u
d
en
ts
fr
o
m
2
1
h
ig
h
sc
h
o
o
ls
in
In
d
ia
n
a
S
ta
te
.
A
cl
u
st

er
d
es
ig
n
u
se
d
to
se
le
ct
th
e
sc
h
o
o
ls
Je
y
n
es
(2
0
0
5
)
M

et
a-
an
al
y
si
s
o
f
st
u
d
ie
s
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s,
d
ef
in
ed
as

d
eg
re
e
to
w
h
ic
h
a
st
u
d
en
t's
p
ar
en
t
h
el
d
h
ig
h
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s

o
f
th
e
st
u
d
en
ts
’
p
ro
m
is
e
o
f
ac
h
ie
v
in
g
at
h
ig
h
le
v
el
s
M
in

o
ri
ty
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
K
in
d
er
g
ar
te
n
to
6
th
g
ra
d

e
4
1
st
u
d
ie
s
N
o
t
ap
p
li
ca
b
le
Je
y
n
es
(2
0
0
7
)
M
et
a-
an
al

y
si
s
o
f
st
u
d
ie
s
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s,
d
ef
in
ed
as
d
eg
re
e

to
w
h
ic
h
a
st
u
d
en
t's
p
ar
en
t
h
el
d
h
ig
h
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s
o
f
th
e

st
u
d
en
ts
'
p
ro
m
is
e
o
f
ac
h
ie
v
in
g
at
h
ig
h
le
v
el
s
M
in
o
ri
ty
,

E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
6
th
to
1
2
th
g
ra
d
e
5
2
st
u
d
ie
s

N
o
t
ap
p
li
ca
b
le
Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214 193
T
a
b
le
1
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
)
A
u
th
o
r(
s)

M
ea
su
re
m
en
t
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
o
n
s
R
ac
e/
et
h
n
ic
it
y
R
ac

ea
C
h
il
d
g
ra
d
e/
ag
e
S
am
p
le
si
ze
b
S
am
p
le
d
es
cr
ip
ti
o
n

N
eu
en
sc
h
w
an
d
er
et
a
l.
(2
0
0
7
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d

h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
N
o
t
sp
ec
if
ie
d
(A
m
er
ic
an
an
d
S

w
is
s
p
eo
p
le
)
N
o
M
=
11
y
ea
r
o
ld
s
3
,3
4
8
1
)
M
ic
h
ig
an

S
tu
d
y
o
f
A
d
o
le
sc
en
t
L
if
e
T
ra
n
si
ti
o
n
s
[M
S
A
L
T
],
2
)
C
h

il
d
h
o
o
d
an
d
B
ey
o
n
d
S
tu
d
y
[C
A
B
],
3
)
S
w
is
s
P
ar
en
t-
T
ea
ch

er
-C
o
ll
ab
o
ra
ti
o
n
S
tu
d
y
[S
P
T
C
S
]
O
k
ag
ak
i
an
d
F
re
n
sc
h
(1
9

9
8
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d
fi
n
al
sc
h
o
o
li
n
g
an
d
ex
p
ec

te
d
g
ra
d
es
A
si
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
L
at
in
o

Y
es
4
th
an
d
5
th
g
ra
d
e
2
7
5
P
ar
en
ts
o
f
4
th
an
d
5
th
g
ra

d
e
in
a
su
b
u
rb
an
sc
h
o
o
l
d
is
tr
ic
t
in
N
o
rt
h
er
n
C
A
P
ea
rc
e

(2
0
0
6
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec
te
d
h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
ed
u
ca

ti
o
n
C
h
in
es
e
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
Y
es
8
th
g
ra

d
e
(t
im
e
1
),
1
2
th
g
ra
d
e
an
d
1
2
y
ea
rs
la
te
r
8
,5
2
2
N

at
io
n
al
E
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(N
E
L
S
8
8
an
d
2

0
0
0
)
P
en
g
an
d
W
ri
g
h
t
(1
9
9
4
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
ex
p
ec

te
d
h
ig
h
es
t
le
v
el
o
f
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
A
si
an
A

m
er
ic
an
,
E
u
ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
,
L
at
in
o
,
N
at
iv
e
A
m
er
ic
an
,
o

th
er
s
Y
es
8
th
g
ra
d
e
9
,6
8
5
N
at
io
n
al
E
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
L
o
n

g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y
(N
E
L
S
8
8
)
P
h
il
li
p
so
n
an
d
P
h
il
li
p
so

n
(2
0
0
7
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
p
re
d
ic
ti
o
n
o
f
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
re
n
's
ex
p
ec
te
d

sc
o
re
s
in
m
at
h
em
at
ic
s
an
d
la
n
g
u
ag
e
C
h
in
es
e,
A
n
g
lo
-C
el

ti
c
Y
es
5
th
an
d
6
th
g
ra
d
e
1
5
8
P
ar
en
ts
an
d
ch
il
d
re
n
fr
o

m
th
re
e
p
ri
m
ar
y
sc
h
o
o
ls
,
tw
o
C
h
in
es
e
sc
h
o
o
ls
an
d
o
n
e
B

ri
ti
sh
In
te
rn
at
io
n
al
sc
h
o
o
l
in
H
o
n
g
K
o
n
g
R
ät
y
(2
0
0
6
)

P
ar
en
ts
'
p
re
d
ic
ti
o
n
o
f
w
h
et
h
er
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
w
il
l
en
te
r
g
y

m
n
as
iu
m
o
r
v
o
ca
ti
o
n
al
p
ro
g
ra
m
N
o
t
sp
ec
if
ie
d
N
o
1
st

g
ra
d
e
(t
im
e1
)
an
d
fo
ll
o
w
u
p
at
3
rd
g
ra
d
e
4
2
3
A
n
at

io
n
w
id
e
ra
n
d
o
m
sa
m
p
le
o
f
p
ar
en
ts
w
it
h
a
7
-y
ea
r-
o
ld
ch
il

d
st
ar
ti
n
g
sc
h
o
o
l
in
F
in
la
n
d
R
ät
y
et
a
l.
(2
0
0
2
)
P
ar
en
ts

'
es
ti
m
at
io
n
o
f
th
e
p
ro
b
ab
il
it
y
o
f
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
’s
en
te
ri
n
g
g
y
m

n
as
iu
m
(h
ig
h
er
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
)
N
o
t
sp
ec
if
ie
d
N
o
3
rd
an
d
6

th
g
ra
d
e
5
0
1
A
n
at
io
n
al
sa
m
p
le
in
F
in
la
n
d
R
ey
n
o
ld
s

(1
9
9
8
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
h
o
w
fa
r
in
sc
h
o
o
l
th
ey
th
in
k

th
ei
r
ch
il
d
w
il
l
g
et
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
1
2
y
ea
rs
o
ld
s

1
,1
7
0
C
h
ic
ag
o
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
in
al
S
tu
d
y.
L
o
w
-i
n
co
m
e
et
h

n
ic
m
in
o
ri
ty
w
h
o
at
te
n
d
ed
g
o
v
er
n
m
en
t-
fu
n
d
ed
k
in
d
er

g
ar
te
n
p
ro
g
ra
m
s
in
C
h
ic
ag
o
P
u
b
li
c
S
ch
o
o
ls
R
u
tc
h
ic
k
et

a
l.
(2
0
0
9
)
P
ar
en
ts
'
re
p
o
rt
o
f
h
o
w
m
u
ch
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n

th
ey
ex
p
ec
te
d
th
ei
r
ch
il
d
to
co
m
p
le
te
A
fr
ic
an
A
m
er
ic
an
,
E
u

ro
p
ea
n
A
m
er
ic
an
N
o
C
h
il
d
re
n
ag
ed
6
to
1
3
.
M
=
9
.7
5
8

8
4
C
hi
ld
D
ev
el
o
pm
en
t
S
up
p
le
m
en
t
(C
D
S
),
an
ex
te
n
si
o
n
of

th
e
P
an
el
S
tu
dy
o
f
In
co
m
e
D
yn
am
ic
s
(P
S
ID
).
N
at
io
n
al
sa
m

pl
e
ta
rg
et
ed
to
lo
w
-i
nc
o
m
e
fa
m
il
ie
s
fr
o
m
48
st
at
es
194 Educ Psychol Rev (2010) 22:189–214
T
a
b

le
1
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
)
A
u
th
o
r(
s)
M
ea
su
re
m
en
t
o
f
p
ar
en
ta
l
ex
p
ec

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