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Obesity
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Obesity
Classification and external resources

Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing
normal, overweight, and obese
ICD-10 E66
ICD-9 278
OMIM 601665
DiseasesDB 9099
MedlinePlus 003101
eMedicine med/1653
MeSH C23.888.144.699.500
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it
may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased
health problems.[1][2] People are considered as obese when their body mass index (BMI), a
measurement obtained by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of the
person's height in metres, exceeds 30 kg/m2.[3]
Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases, particularly heart disease, type 2
diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis[2] and asthma[4][2][5].
Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive food energy intake, lack of
physical activity, and genetic susceptibility, although a few cases are caused primarily by
genes, endocrine disorders, medications or psychiatric illness. Evidence to support the view
that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is limited; on
average obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their thin counterparts due to the
energy required to maintain an increased body mass.[6][7]
Dieting and physical exercise are the mainstays of treatment for obesity. Diet quality can be
improved by reducing the consumption of energy-dense foods such as those high in fat and
sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietary fiber. Anti-obesity drugs may be taken to
reduce appetite or inhibit fat absorption together with a suitable diet. If diet, exercise and
medication are not effective, a gastric balloon may assist with weight loss, or surgery may be
performed to reduce stomach volume and/or bowel length, leading to earlier satiation and
reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food.[8][9]
Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing prevalence in
adults and children, and authorities view it as one of the most serious public health problems
of the 21st century.[10] Obesity is stigmatized in much of the modern world (particularly in the

Western world), though it was widely perceived as a symbol of wealth and fertility at other
times in history, and still is in some parts of the world.[2][11]
Contents
 1 Classification
 2 Effects on health
o 2.1 Mortality
o 2.2 Morbidity
o 2.3 Survival paradox
 3 Causes
o 3.1 Diet
o 3.2 Sedentary lifestyle
o 3.3 Genetics
o 3.4 Other illnesses
o 3.5 Social determinants
o 3.6 Infectious agents
 4 Pathophysiology
 5 Public health
 6 Management
 7 Epidemiology
 8 History
o 8.1 Etymology
o 8.2 Historical trends
o 8.3 The arts
 9 Society and culture
o 9.1 Economic impact
o 9.2 Size acceptance
 10 Childhood obesity
 11 In other animals
 12 Notes
 13 Further reading
Classification
Main article: Classification of obesity
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it
may have an adverse effect on health.[1] It is defined by body mass index (BMI) and further
evaluated in terms of fat distribution via the waist–hip ratio and total cardiovascular risk
factors.[12][13] BMI is closely related to both percentage body fat and total body fat.[14]

A "super obese" male with a BMI of 47 kg/m2: weight 146 kg (322 lb), height 177 cm (5 ft
10 in)
In children, a healthy weight varies with age and sex. Obesity in children and adolescents is
defined not as an absolute number, but in relation to a historical normal group, such that
obesity is a BMI greater than the 95th percentile.[15] The reference data on which these
percentiles were based date from 1963 to 1994, and thus have not been affected by the recent
increases in weight.[16]
BMI Classification
< 18.5 underweight
18.5–24.9 normal weight
25.0–29.9 overweight
30.0–34.9 class I obesity
35.0–39.9 class II obesity
≥ 40.0 class III obesity
BMI is calculated by dividing the subject's mass by the square of his or her height, typically
expressed either in metric or US "customary" units:
Metric:
US customary and imperial:
where is the subject's weight in pounds and is the subject's height in inches.
The most commonly used definitions, established by the World Health Organization (WHO)
in 1997 and published in 2000, provide the values listed in the table at right.[3]
Some modifications to the WHO definitions have been made by particular bodies. The
surgical literature breaks down "class III" obesity into further categories whose exact values
are still disputed.[17]
 Any BMI ≥ 35 or 40 is severe obesity
 A BMI of ≥ 35 or 40–44.9 or 49.9 is morbid obesity
 A BMI of ≥ 45 or 50 is super obesity
As Asian populations develop negative health consequences at a lower BMI than Caucasians,
some nations have redefined obesity; the Japanese have defined obesity as any BMI greater
than 25[18] while China uses a BMI of greater than 28.[19]
Effects on health
Excessive body weight is associated with various diseases, particularly cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes mellitus type 2, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer,
osteoarthritis[2] and asthma[20][2][5]. As a result, obesity has been found to reduce life
expectancy.[2]

Mortality
Relative risk of death over 10 years for White men (left) and
women (right) who have never smoked in the United States by
BMI.[21]
Obesity is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide.[10][22][23] Large-scale
American and European studies have found that mortality risk is lowest at a BMI of 20–
25 kg/m2[21][24] in non-smokers and at 24–27 kg/m2 in current smokers, with risk increasing
along with changes in either direction.[25][26] A BMI above 32 has been associated with a
doubled mortality rate among women over a 16-year period.[27] In the United States obesity is
estimated to cause an excess 111,909 to 365,000 deaths per year,[2][23] while 1 million (7.7%)
of deaths in the European are attributed to excess weight.[28][29] On average, obesity reduces
life expectancy by six to seven years:[2][30] a BMI of 30–35 reduces life expectancy by two to
four years,[24] while severe obesity (BMI > 40) reduces life expectancy by 10 years.[24]
Morbidity
Main article: Obesity-associated morbidity
Obesity increases the risk of many physical and mental conditions. These comorbidities are
most commonly shown in metabolic syndrome,[2] a combination of medical disorders which
includes: diabetes mellitus type 2, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and high
triglyceride levels.[31]
Complications are either directly caused by obesity or indirectly related through mechanisms
sharing a common cause such as a poor diet or a sedentary lifestyle. The strength of the link
between obesity and specific conditions varies. One of the strongest is the link with type 2
diabetes. Excess body fat underlies 64% of cases of diabetes in men and 77% of cases in
women.[32]
Health consequences fall into two broad categories: those attributable to the effects of
increased fat mass (such as osteoarthritis, obstructive sleep apnea, social stigmatization) and
those due to the increased number of fat cells (diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, non-
alcoholic fatty liver disease).[2][33] Increases in body fat alter the body's response to insulin,
potentially leading to insulin resistance. Increased fat also creates a proinflammatory
state,[34][35] and a prothrombotic state.[33][36]
Medical field Condition Medical field Condition
Cardiology
 ischemic heart
disease:[37] angina and
Dermatology
 stretch marks[39]
 acanthosis

myocardial infarction
 congestive heart
failure[2]
 high blood pressure[2]
 abnormal cholesterol
levels[2]
 deep vein thrombosis
and pulmonary
embolism[38]
nigricans[39]
 lymphedema[39]
 cellulitis[39]
 hirsutism[39]
 intertrigo[40]
Endocrinology
and
Reproductive
medicine
 diabetes mellitus[2]
 polycystic ovarian
syndrome[2]
 menstrual disorders[2]
 infertility[2][41]
 complications during
pregnancy[2][41]
 birth defects[2]
 intrauterine fetal
death[41]
Gastrointestinal
 gastroesophageal
reflux disease[2][42]
 fatty liver disease[2]
 cholelithiasis
(gallstones)[2]
Neurology
 stroke[2]
 meralgia paresthetica[43]
 migraines[44]
 carpal tunnel
syndrome[45]
 dementia[46]
 idiopathic intracranial
hypertension[47]
 multiple sclerosis[48]
Oncology[49]
 breast, ovarian
 esophageal,
colorectal
 liver, pancreatic
 gallbladder, stomach
 endometrial, cervical
 prostate, kidney
 non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma, multiple
myeloma
Psychiatry
 depression in women[2]
 social stigmatization[2] Respirology
 obstructive sleep
apnea[2][5]
 obesity
hypoventilation
syndrome[2][5]
 asthma[2][5]
 increased
complications during
general
anaesthesia[2][7]
Rheumatology
and
Orthopedics
 gout[50]
 poor mobility[51]
 osteoarthritis[2]
 low back pain[52]
Urology and
Nephrology
 erectile
dysfunction[53]
 urinary
incontinence[54]
 chronic renal
failure[55]

 hypogonadism[56]
 buried penis[57]
Survival paradox
See also: Obesity paradox
Although the negative health consequences of obesity in the general population are well
supported by the available evidence, health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be
improved at an increased BMI, a phenomenon known as the obesity survival paradox.[58] The
paradox was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing
hemodialysis,[58] and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure and peripheral
artery disease (PAD).[59]
In people with heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality
than those with a normal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose
weight as they become progressively more ill.[60] Similar findings have been made in other
types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates
of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have heart disease. In
people with greater degrees of obesity, however, risk of further events is increased.[61][62]
Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and
obese.[63] One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more
aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event.[64] Another found that if one
takes into account chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in those with PAD the
benefit of obesity no longer exists.[59]
Causes
At an individual level, a combination of excessive food energy intake and a lack of physical
activity is thought to explain most cases of obesity.[65] A limited number of cases are due
primarily to genetics, medical reasons, or psychiatric illness.[66] In contrast, increasing rates
of obesity at a societal level are felt to be due to an easily accessible and palatable diet,[67]
increased reliance on cars, and mechanized manufacturing.[68][69]
A 2006 review identified ten other possible contributors to the recent increase of obesity: (1)
insufficient sleep, (2) endocrine disruptors (environmental pollutants that interfere with lipid
metabolism), (3) decreased variability in ambient temperature, (4) decreased rates of
smoking, because smoking suppresses appetite, (5) increased use of medications that can
cause weight gain (e.g., atypical antipsychotics), (6) proportional increases in ethnic and age
groups that tend to be heavier, (7) pregnancy at a later age (which may cause susceptibility to
obesity in children), (8) epigenetic risk factors passed on generationally, (9) natural selection
for higher BMI, and (10) assortative mating leading to increased concentration of obesity risk
factors (this would increase the number of obese people by increasing population variance in
weight).[70] While there is substantial evidence supporting the influence of these mechanisms
on the increased prevalence of obesity, the evidence is still inconclusive, and the authors state
that these are probably less influential than the ones discussed in the previous paragraph.
Diet

Main article: Diet and obesity
Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961
(left) and 2001–2003 (right) in kcal/person/day.[71]
no data
<1600
1600–1800
1800–2000
2000–2200
2200–2400
2400–2600
2600–2800
2800–3000
3000–3200
3200–3400
3400–3600
>3600
Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002[71]
The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and
countries. It has also changed significantly over time.[71] From the early 1970s to the late
1990s the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought)
increased in all parts of the world except Eastern Europe. The United States had the highest
availability with 3,654 calories per person in 1996.[71] This increased further in 2003 to
3,754.[71] During the late 1990s Europeans had 3,394 calories per person, in the developing
areas of Asia there were 2,648 calories per person, and in sub-Saharan Africa people had
2,176 calories per person.[71][72] Total calorie consumption has been found to be related to
obesity.[73]
The widespread availability of nutritional guidelines[74] has done little to address the
problems of overeating and poor dietary choice.[75] From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in the
United States increased from 14.5% to 30.9%.[76] During the same period, an increase
occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase
was 335 calories per day (1,542 calories in 1971 and 1,877 calories in 2004), while for men
the average increase was 168 calories per day (2,450 calories in 1971 and 2,618 calories in
2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption
rather than fat consumption.[77] The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are
sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in
young adults in America,[78] and potato chips.[79] Consumption of sweetened drinks is
believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity.[80][81]
As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense, big-portions, and fast-food meals,
the association between fast-food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.[82] In

the United States consumption of fast-food meals tripled and food energy intake from these
meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.[83]
Agricultural policy and techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food
prices. In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm
bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables.[84]
Obese people consistently under-report their food consumption as compared to people of
normal weight.[85] This is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter
room[86] and by direct observation.
Sedentary lifestyle
See also: Sedentary lifestyle and Exercise trends
A sedentary lifestyle plays a significant role in obesity.[87] Worldwide there has been a large
shift towards less physically demanding work,[88][89][90] and currently at least 60% of the
world's population gets insufficient exercise.[89] This is primarily due to increasing use of
mechanized transportation and a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the
home.[88][89][90] Inchildren, there appear to be declines in levels of physical activity due to less
walking and physical education.[91] World trends in active leisure time physical activity are
less clear. The World Health Organization indicates people worldwide are taking up less
active recreational pursuits, while a study from Finland[92] found an increase and a study from
the United States found leisure-time physical activity has not changed significantly.[93]
In both children and adults, there is an association between television viewing time and the
risk of obesity.[94][95][96] A review found 63 of 73 studies (86%) showed an increased rate of
childhood obesity with increased media exposure, with rates increasing proportionally to time
spent watching television.[97]
Genetics
Main article: Genetics of obesity
A 1680 painting by Juan Carreno de Miranda of a girl presumed to have Prader-Willi
syndrome[98]

Like many other medical conditions, obesity is the result of an interplay between genetic and
environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism
predispose to obesity when sufficient food energy present. As of 2006 more than 41 of these
sites have been linked to the development of obesity when a favorable environment is
present.[99] People with two copies of the FTO gene (fat mass and obesity associated gene)
has been found on average to weigh 3–4 kg more and have a 1.67-fold greater risk of obesity
compared to those without the risk allele.[100] The percentage of obesity that can be attributed
to genetics varies, depending on the population examined, from 6% to 85%.[101]
Obesity is a major feature in several syndromes, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Bardet-Biedl
syndrome, Cohen syndrome, and MOMO syndrome. (The term "non-syndromic obesity" is
sometimes used to exclude these conditions.)[102] In people with early-onset severe obesity
(defined by an onset before 10 years of age and body mass index over three standard
deviations above normal), 7% harbor a single point DNA mutation.[103]
Studies that have focused upon inheritance patterns rather than upon specific genes have
found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were obese, in contrast to less than 10%
of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight.[104]
The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that due to dietary scarcity during human evolution
people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by
storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and
individuals with greater adipose reserves would be more likely survive famine. This tendency
to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies.[105] This
theory has received various criticisms and other evolutionarily based theories such as the
drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed.[106][107]
Other illnesses
Certain physical and mental illnesses and the pharmaceutical substances used to treat them
can increase risk of obesity. Medical illnesses that increase obesity risk include several rare
genetic syndromes (listed above) as well as some congenital or acquired conditions:
hypothyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, growth hormone deficiency,[108] and the eating
disorders: binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome.[2] However, obesity is not
regarded as a psychiatric disorder, and therefore is not listed in the DSM-IVR as a psychiatric
illness.[109] The risk of overweight and obesity is higher in patients with psychiatric disorders
than in persons without psychiatric disorders.[110]
Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include
insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids,
certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal
contraception.[2]
Social determinants
Main article: Social determinants of obesity
While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they cannot explain the
current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally.[111] Though it is accepted
that energy consumption in excess of energy expenditure leads to obesity on an individual

basis, the cause of the shifts in these two factors on the societal scale is much debated. There
are a number of theories as to the cause but most believe it is a combination of various
factors.
The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. A review in 1989 found that in
developed countries women of a high social class were less likely to be obese. No significant
differences were seen among men of different social classes. In the developing world,
women, men, and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity.[112] An
update of this review carried out in 2007 found the same relationships, but they were weaker.
The decrease in strength of correlation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization.[113]
Among developed countries, levels of adult obesity, and percentage of teenage children who
are overweight, are correlated with income inequality. A similar relationship is seen among
US states: more adults, even in higher social classes, are obese in more unequal states.[114]
Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is
thought that in developed countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they
are under greater social pressure to remain slim, and have more opportunities along with
greater expectations for physical fitness. In undeveloped countries the ability to afford food,
high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring a larger body size
are believed to contribute to the observed patterns.[113] Attitudes toward body mass held by
people in one's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time
has been found among friends, siblings, and spouses.[115] Stress and perceived low social
status appear to increase risk of obesity.[114][116][117]
Smoking has a significant effect on an individual's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an
average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten
years.[118] However, changing rates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of
obesity.[119]
In the United States the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A
woman's risk increases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child.[120]
This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical
activity in Western parents.[121]
In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China
overall rates of obesity are below 5%; however, in some cities rates of obesity are greater
than 20%.[122]
Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the
developing world.[123] Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may
promote the storage of fat once more food energy becomes available.[123]
Consistent with cognitive epidemiological data, numerous studies confirm that obesity is
associated with cognitive deficits. [124] Whether obesity causes cognitive deficits, or vice
versa is unclear at present.
Infectious agents
See also: Infectobesity

The study of the effect of infectious agents on metabolism is still in its early stages. Gut flora
has been shown to differ between lean and obese humans. There is an indication that gut flora
in obese and lean individuals can affect the metabolic potential. This apparent alteration of
the metabolic potential is believed to confer a greater capacity to harvest energy contributing
to obesity. Whether these differences are the direct cause or the result of obesity has yet to be
determined unequivocally.[125]
An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different
animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of
obesity is yet to be determined.[126]
Pathophysiology
A comparison of a mouse unable to produce leptin thus resulting in obesity (left) and a
normal mouse (right)
Flier summarizes the many possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the
development and maintenance of obesity.[127] This field of research had been almost
unapproached until leptin was discovered in 1994. Since this discovery, many other hormonal
mechanisms have been elucidated that participate in the regulation of appetite and food
intake, storage patterns of adipose tissue, and development of insulin resistance. Since leptin's
discovery, ghrelin, insulin, orexin, PYY 3-36, cholecystokinin, adiponectin, as well as many
other mediators have been studied. The adipokines are mediators produced by adipose tissue;
their action is thought to modify many obesity-related diseases.
Leptin and ghrelin are considered to be complementary in their influence on appetite, with
ghrelin produced by the stomach modulating short-term appetitive control (i.e. to eat when
the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by
adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive
controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high).
Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who
are leptin deficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been
found to have high levels of leptin.[128] This resistance is thought to explain in part why
administration of leptin has not been shown to be effective in suppressing appetite in most
obese people.[127]

A graphic depiction of a leptin molecule
While leptin and ghrelin are produced peripherally, they control appetite through their actions
on the central nervous system. In particular, they and other appetite-related hormones act on
the hypothalamus, a region of the brain central to the regulation of food intake and energy
expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its role in
integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathway being the most well understood.[127] The
circuit begins with an area of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the
lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brain's feeding and
satiety centers, respectively.[129]
The arcuate nucleus contains two distinct groups of neurons.[127] The first group coexpresses
neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and has stimulatory inputs to the
LH and inhibitory inputs to the VMH. The second group coexpresses pro-opiomelanocortin
(POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and has stimulatory
inputs to the VMH and inhibitory inputs to the LH. Consequently, NPY/AgRP neurons
stimulate feeding and inhibit satiety, while POMC/CART neurons stimulate satiety and
inhibit feeding. Both groups of arcuate nucleus neurons are regulated in part by leptin. Leptin
inhibits the NPY/AgRP group while stimulating the POMC/CART group. Thus a deficiency
in leptin signaling, either via leptin deficiency or leptin resistance, leads to overfeeding and
may account for some genetic and acquired forms of obesity.[127]
Public health
The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that overweight and obesity may soon
replace more traditional public health concerns such as undernutrition and infectious diseases
as the most significant cause of poor health.[130] Obesity is a public health and policy problem
because of its prevalence, costs, and health effects.[131] Public health efforts seek to
understand and correct the environmental factors responsible for the increasing prevalence of
obesity in the population. Solutions look at changing the factors that cause excess food
energy consumption and inhibit physical activity. Efforts include federally reimbursed meal
programs in schools, limiting direct junk food marketing to children,[132] and decreasing
access to sugar-sweetened beverages in schools.[133] When constructing urban environments,
efforts have been made to increase access to parks and to develop pedestrian routes.[134]
Many countries and groups have published reports pertaining to obesity. In 1998 the first US
Federal guidelines were published, titled "Clinical Guidelines on the Identification,
Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report".[135]
In 2006 the Canadian Obesity Network published the "Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines

(CPG) on the Management and Prevention of Obesity in Adults and Children". This is a
comprehensive evidence-based guideline to address the management and prevention of
overweight and obesity in adults and children.[136]
In 2004, the United Kingdom Royal College of Physicians, the Faculty of Public Health and
the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health released the report "Storing up Problems",
which highlighted the growing problem of obesity in the UK.[137] The same year, the House
of Commons Health Select Committee published its "most comprehensive inquiry [...] ever
undertaken" into the impact of obesity on health and society in the UK and possible
approaches to the problem.[138] In 2006, the National Institute for Health and Clinical
Excellence (NICE) issued a guideline on the diagnosis and management of obesity, as well as
policy implications for non-healthcare organizations such as local councils.[139] A 2007 report
produced by Sir Derek Wanless for the King's Fund warned that unless further action was
taken, obesity had the capacity to cripple the National Health Service financially.[140]
Comprehensive approaches are being looked at to address the rising rates of obesity. The
Obesity Policy Action (OPA) framework divides measure into 'upstream' policies,
'midstream' policies, 'downstream' policies. 'Upstream' policies look at changing society,
'midstream' policies try to alter individuals' behavior to prevent obesity, and 'downstream'
policies try to treat currently afflicted people.[141]
Management
Main article: Management of obesity
Orlistat (Xenical), the most commonly used medication to treat obesity, and sibutramine
(Meridia), a recently withdrawn medication due to cardiovascular side effects
The main treatment for obesity consists of dieting and physical exercise.[65] Diet programs
may produce weight loss over the short term,[142] but maintaining this weight loss is
frequently difficult and often requires making exercise and a lower food energy diet a
permanent part of a person's lifestyle.[143][144] Success rates of long-term weight loss
maintenance with lifestyle changes are low, ranging from 2–20%.[145] Dietary and lifestyle
changes are effective in limiting excessive weight gain in pregnancy and improve outcomes
for both the mother and the child.[146]
One medication, orlistat (Xenical), is current widely available and approved for long term
use. Weight loss however is modest with an average of 2.9 kg (6.4 lb) at 1 to 4 years and
there is little information on how these drugs affect longer-term complications of obesity.[147]
Its use is associated with high rates of gastrointestinal side effects[147] and concerns have been
raised about negative effects on the kidneys.[148] Two other medications are also available.

Lorcaserin (Belviq) results in an average 3.1 kg weight loss (3% of body mass) greater than
placebo over a year.[149] A combination of phentermine and topiramate (Qsymia) is also
somewhat effective.[150]
The most effective treatment for obesity is bariatric surgery. Surgery for severe obesity is
associated with long-term weight loss and decreased overall mortality. One study found a
weight loss of between 14% and 25% (depending on the type of procedure performed) at
10 years, and a 29% reduction in all cause mortality when compared to standard weight loss
measures.[151] However, due to its cost and the risk of complications, researchers are
searching for other effective yet less invasive treatments.
Epidemiology
Main article: Epidemiology of obesity
World obesity prevalence among males (left) and females
(right).[152]
<5%
5–10%
10–15%
15–20%
20–25%
25–30%
30–35%
35–40%
40–45%
45–50%
50–55%
>55%
Before the 20th century, obesity was rare;[153] in 1997 the WHO formally recognized obesity
as a global epidemic.[78] As of 2005 the WHO estimates that at least 400 million adults
(9.8%) are obese, with higher rates among women than men.[154] The rate of obesity also
increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old[155] and severe obesity in the United States,
Australia, and Canada is increasing faster than the overall rate of obesity.[17][156][157]
Once considered a problem only of high-income countries, obesity rates are rising worldwide
and affecting both the developed and developing world.[28] These increases have been felt
most dramatically in urban settings.[154] The only remaining region of the world where
obesity is not common is sub-Saharan Africa.[2]
History
Etymology
Obesity is from the Latin obesitas, which means "stout, fat, or plump." Ēsus is the past
participle of edere (to eat), with ob (over) added to it.[158] The Oxford English Dictionary
documents its first usage in 1611 by Randle Cotgrave.[159]
Historical trends

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance obesity was often seen as a sign of wealth, and
was relatively common among the elite: The Tuscan General Alessandro del Borro,
attributed to Charles Mellin, 1645[160]
Venus of Willendorf created 24,000–22,000 BC
The Greeks were the first to recognize obesity as a medical disorder.[153] Hippocrates wrote
that "Corpulence is not only a disease itself, but the harbinger of others".[2] The Indian
surgeon Sushruta (6th century BCE) related obesity to diabetes and heart disorders.[161] He
recommended physical work to help cure it and its side effects.[161] For most of human history
mankind struggled with food scarcity.[162] Obesity has thus historically been viewed as a sign
of wealth and prosperity. It was common among high officials in Europe in the Middle Ages
and the Renaissance[160] as well as in Ancient East Asian civilizations.[163]
With the onset of the industrial revolution it was realized that the military and economic
might of nations were dependent on both the body size and strength of their soldiers and

workers.[78] Increasing the average body mass index from what is now considered
underweight to what is now the normal range played a significant role in the development of
industrialized societies.[78] Height and weight thus both increased through the 19th century in
the developed world. During the 20th century, as populations reached their genetic potential
for height, weight began increasing much more than height, resulting in obesity.[78] In the
1950s increasing wealth in the developed world decreased child mortality, but as body weight
increased heart and kidney disease became more common.[78][164] During this time period
insurance companies realized the connection between weight and life expectancy and
increased premiums for the obese.[2]
Many cultures throughout history have viewed obesity as the result of a character flaw. The
obesus or fat character in Greek comedy was a glutton and figure of mockery. During
Christian times food was viewed as a gateway to the sins of sloth and lust.[11] In modern
Western culture, excess weight is often regarded as unattractive, and obesity is commonly
associated with various negative stereotypes. People of all ages can face social stigmatization,
and may be targeted by bullies or shunned by their peers. Obesity is once again a reason for
discrimination.[165]
Public perceptions in Western society regarding healthy body weight differ from those
regarding the weight that is considered ideal – and both have changed since the beginning of
the 20th century. The weight that is viewed as an ideal has become lower since the 1920s.
This is illustrated by the fact that the average height of Miss America pageant winners
increased by 2% from 1922 to 1999, while their average weight decreased by 12%.[166] On
the other hand, people's views concerning healthy weight have changed in the opposite
direction. In Britain the weight at which people considered themselves to be overweight was
significantly higher in 2007 than in 1999.[167] These changes are believed to be due to
increasing rates of adiposity leading to increased acceptance of extra body fat as being
normal.[167]
Obesity is still seen as a sign of wealth and well-being in many parts of Africa. This has
become particularly common since the HIV epidemic began.[2]
The arts
The first sculptural representations of the human body 20,000–35,000 years ago depict obese
females. Some attribute the Venus figurines to the tendency to emphasize fertility while
others feel they represent "fatness" in the people of the time.[11] Corpulence is, however,
absent in both Greek and Roman art, probably in keeping with their ideals regarding
moderation. This continued through much of Christian European history, with only those of
low socioeconomic status being depicted as obese.[11]
During the Renaissance some of the upper class began flaunting their large size, as can be
seen in portraits of Henry the VIII and Alessandro del Borro.[11] Rubens (1577–1640)
regularly depicted full-bodied women in his pictures, from which derives the term
Rubenesque. These women, however, still maintained the "hourglass" shape with its
relationship to fertility.[168] During the 19th century, views on obesity changed in the Western
world. After centuries of obesity being synonymous with wealth and social status, slimness
began to be seen as the desirable standard.[11]

Society and culture
Economic impact
In addition to its health impacts, obesity leads to many problems including disadvantages in
employment[169][170] and increased business costs. These effects are felt by all levels of society
from individuals, to corporations, to governments.
In 2005, the medical costs attributable to obesity in the US were an estimated $190.2 billion
or 20.6% of all medical expenditures,[171] [172][173] while the cost of obesity in Canada was
estimated at CA$2 billion in 1997 (2.4% of total health costs).[65] The total annual direct cost
of overweight and obesity in Australia in 2005 was A$21 billion. Overweight and obese
Australians also received A$35.6 billion in government subsidies.[174] The estimate range for
annual expenditures on diet products is $40 billion to $100 billion in the US alone.[175]
Obesity prevention programs have been found to reduce the cost of treating obesity-related
disease. However, the longer people live, the more medical costs they incur. Researchers
therefore conclude that reducing obesity may improve the public's health, but it is unlikely to
reduce overall health spending.[176]
Services must accommodate obese people with specialist equipment such as much wider
chairs.[177]
Obesity can lead to social stigmatization and disadvantages in employment.[169] When
compared to their normal weight counterparts, obese workers on average have higher rates of
absenteeism from work and take more disability leave, thus increasing costs for employers
and decreasing productivity.[178] A study examining Duke University employees found that
people with a BMI over 40 filed twice as many workers' compensation claims as those whose
BMI was 18.5–24.9. They also had more than 12 times as many lost work days. The most
common injuries in this group were due to falls and lifting, thus affecting the lower
extremities, wrists or hands, and backs.[179] The US state of Alabama Employees' Insurance
Board approved a controversial plan to charge obese workers $25 per month if they do not
take measures to reduce their weight and improve their health. These measures started in
January 2010 and apply to those with a BMI of greater than 35 kg/m2 who fail to make
improvements in their health after one year.[180]

Some research shows that obese people are less likely to be hired for a job and are less likely
to be promoted.[165] Obese people are also paid less than their non-obese counterparts for an
equivalent job. Obese women on average make 6% less and obese men make 3% less.[181]
Specific industries, such as the airline, healthcare and food industries, have special concerns.
Due to rising rates of obesity, airlines face higher fuel costs and pressures to increase seating
width.[182] In 2000, the extra weight of obese passengers cost airlines US$275 million.[183]
The healthcare industry has had to invest in special facilities for handling severely obese
patients, including special lifting equipment and bariatric ambulances.[184] Costs for
restaurants are increased by litigation accusing them of causing obesity.[185] In 2005 the US
Congress discussed legislation to prevent civil law suits against the food industry in relation
to obesity; however, it did not become law.[185]
Size acceptance
United States President William Howard Taft was often ridiculed for being overweight
See also: Fat acceptance movement
The principal goal of the fat acceptance movement is to decrease discrimination against
people who are overweight and obese.[186][187] However, some in the movement are also
attempting to challenge the established relationship between obesity and negative health
outcomes.[188]
A number of organizations exist that promote the acceptance of obesity. They have increased
in prominence in the latter half of the 20th century.[189] The US-based National Association to
Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA) was formed in 1969 and describes itself as a civil rights
organization dedicated to ending size discrimination.[190] However, fat activism remains a
marginal movement.[191]
The International Size Acceptance Association (ISAA) is a non-governmental organization
(NGO) which was founded in 1997. It has more of a global orientation and describes its
mission as promoting size acceptance and helping to end weight-based discrimination.[192]
These groups often argue for the recognition of obesity as a disability under the US
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). The American legal system, however, has decided
that the potential public health costs exceed the benefits of extending this anti-discrimination
law to cover obesity.[188]

Childhood obesity
Main article: Childhood obesity
The healthy BMI range varies with the age and sex of the child. Obesity in children and
adolescents is defined as a BMI greater than the 95th percentile.[15] The reference data that
these percentiles are based on is from 1963 to 1994 and thus has not been affected by the
recent increases in rates of obesity.[16] Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions in
21st century, with rising rates in both the developed and developing world. Rates of obesity
in Canadian boys have increased from 11% in 1980s to over 30% in 1990s, while during this
same time period rates increased from 4 to 14% in Brazilian children.[193]
As with obesity in adults, many different factors contribute to the rising rates of childhood
obesity. Changing diet and decreasing physical activity are believed to be the two most
important in causing the recent increase in the rates.[194] Because childhood obesity often
persists into adulthood and is associated with numerous chronic illnesses, children who are
obese are often tested for hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and fatty liver.[65]
Treatments used in children are primarily lifestyle interventions and behavioral techniques. In
the United States, medications are not FDA approved for use in this age group.[193]
In other animals
Main article: Obesity in pets
Obesity in pets is common in many countries. Rates of overweight and obesity in dogs in the
United States range from 23% to 41% with about 5.1% obese.[195] Rates of obesity in cats was
slightly higher at 6.4%.[195] In Australia the rate of obesity among dogs in a veterinary setting
has been found to be 7.6%.[196] The risk of obesity in dogs is related to whether or not their
owners are obese; however, there is no similar correlation between cats and their owners.[197]
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http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/weightcontrol.html

Obesity means having too much body fat. It is different from being overweight, which means
weighing too much. The weight may come from muscle, bone, fat and/or body water. Both
terms mean that a person's weight is greater than what's considered healthy for his or her
height.
Obesity occurs over time when you eat more calories than you use. The balance between
calories-in and calories-out differs for each person. Factors that might tip the balance include
your genetic makeup, overeating, eating high-fat foods and not being physically active.
If you are overweight, you are not alone. Sixty-six percent of adults in the U.S. are
overweight or obese. Achieving a healthy weight can help you control your cholesterol, blood
pressure and blood sugar. It might also help you prevent weight-related diseases, such as
heart disease, diabetes, arthritis and some cancers.
Eating too much or not being physically active enough will make you overweight. To
maintain your weight, the calories you eat must equal the energy you burn. To lose weight,
you must use more calories than you eat. A weight-control strategy might includ
 Choosing low-fat, low-calorie foods
 Eating smaller portions
 Drinking water instead of sugary drinks
 Being physically active
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/exerciseandphysicalfitness.html
There are 1,440 minutes in every day. Schedule 30 of them for physical activity!
Regular exercise is a critical part of staying healthy. People who are active live longer and
feel better. Exercise can help you maintain a healthy weight. It can delay or prevent diabetes,
some cancers and heart problems.
Most adults need at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity at least five days per week.
Examples include walking briskly, mowing the lawn, dancing, swimming for recreation or
bicycling. Stretching and weight training can also strengthen your body and improve your
fitness level.
The key is to find the right exercise for you. If it is fun, you are more likely to stay motivated.
You may want to walk with a friend, join a class or plan a group bike ride. If you've been
inactive for awhile, use a sensible approach and start out slowly.
If you're very overweight and can't lose pounds with a healthy diet and exercise, surgery
might be an option for you. The surgery is usually for men who are at least 100 pounds
overweight and women who are at least 80 pounds overweight. If you are somewhat less

overweight, surgery still might be an option if you also have diabetes, heart disease or sleep
apnea.
Weight loss surgery limits the amount of food you can take in. Some operations also restrict
the amount of food you can digest. Many people who have the surgery lose weight quickly. If
you follow diet and exercise recommendations, you can keep most of the weight off. The
surgery has risks and complications, however, including infections, hernias and blood clots.

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