BY HEMANT SHARMA RINCIAL RCON SAWAI MADHOPUR

1. TOOLS / INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
2. INTERVIEW
3. OBSERVATION
4. CHECKLIST
5. RATING SCALE
6. LIKERT SCALE
7. BIOHYSIOLOGIC
8. PROJECTIVE
9. Q- SHORTS
10. VIGNETTES
CHECKLIST
 A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of
performance or attributes which are checked by an evaluator for the presence
or absence.
 Checklist is constructed by breaking a performance and quality of a product,
which specifies the presence or absence of an attribute or trait which is then
‘checked’ by the traitor or observer.
HOW TO CREATE A CHEKLIST
 CLEAR AND CONCISE: Each item in checklist should be understood by
everyone and also it should be concise.
 STRUCTURE ITEMS LOGICALLY: Checklist should guide the person logically and
if checklist agenda long than group it or divide it into different sections
according to their category to make it more comprehensive.
 ACTIONABLE ITEMS: All items of checklist should be achievable.
 CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVE: Objective of checklist should always clear, than
checklist becomes more meaningful and useful.

2.  DON’T SKIP AN ITEM: All items in the checklist must be covered before
considering it done.
METHOD OF FORMATION OF CHECKLIST
1. CHECKLIST FOR EXHAUSTIVE SYSTEM: list of behaviors or events from
category systemon left side and space for tallying the frequency of duration of
occurrence of behaviors on right side. The task of the observer using this
approach is to Place all behaviors in only one category for each element.
2. CHECKLIST FOR NON – EXHAUSTIVE SYSTEM: listing of categories of behaviors
that may not be manifested by the subjects. The observer watches for instance
of behavior and marks besides the appropriate behavior.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHECKLIST
 It clearly describes the characteristics or behavior which is to be observed.
 It is used when researcher to calculate the particularly characteristics in study.
 No confusion in content.
 All contents should be in series of events.
 The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into groups of
related items.
 These lists of the items are formulated on the basis of the judgment of experts
and each item is evaluated with respect to the number of favorable and
unfavorable responses.
 Avoid negative statement whenever possible.
 Avoid lifting statements verbatim from the text.
 Ensure that each item has a clear response: yes or no, true or false.
 Checklists must have a quality of completeness and comprehensiveness.

3. SAMLE FORMAT OF CHECKLIST
SR.NO CONTENT/CHARACTERISTICS TALLY OR TICK MARK REMARK
YES NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
ADVANTAGES OF CHECKLIST
 A checklist allows inter individual comparisons.
 They provide a simple method to record observations.
 They are adaptable to subject matter areas.
 It is useful in evaluating learning activities expected to be performed.
 They are helpful in evaluating procedure work.
 Properly prepared checklists allow the observer to constrain the direct
attention.
 Checklists have objectively to evaluate the characteristics.
 Decreases the chances of errors in observation.
 It decreases the chances of error in observational methods.
DISADVANTAGES OF CHECKLIST
 Checklists don’t indicate quality of performance so the usefulness of
checklists is limited.

4.  Only a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluated.
 Only the presence or absence of an attribute, behavior or performance or
parameter may be assured.
 It has limited use in qualitative observations.
 Checklists are not easy to prepare.
 Need of proper training to observer before using this technique.
RATING SCALE
 Rating is the term used to express opinion or judgment regarding some
performance of a person, object, situation and character.
 Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which describes varying
degree of the dimensions of an attitude or a phenomenon being observed.
 A rating scale is a tool in which one person simply checks off another person’s
level of performance.
 It could be a 3- point, 5- point or 7- point rating scale.
 Rating scales measure how much or how well something happened, where
generally quantitative and qualitative terms are used to judge the
performance.
 A wide variety of attributes may be assessed by using rating scales.
TYPES OF RATING SCALES
1. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE:
2. NUMERICAL RATING SCALE
3. COMPARATIVERATING SCALE
4. RANKORDER SCALE

5. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE:
In this scale, the performance is printed horizontally at various points from lowest to
highest. It includes the numerical point on the scales. It is anchored by two extremes
presented to the respondents for the evaluation of a concept or object.
Example:How much are you satisfiedwith infection control in your hospital ward?
1 2 3 4 5
Very low low neither high very high
Satisfied satisfied low or high Satisfied Satisfied
Satisfied
NUMERICAL RATING SCALE
It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points and defines only
numbers except at the extremes. In these scales, each statement is generally
assigned a numerical score ranging from 1- 10 or even more.
E.G.: - PAIN ASSESSMENT NUMERICAL SCALE

6. COMPARATIVE RATING SCALE
In this type of rating scale, the rater makes a judgmentabout a person’s attributes by
a comparing with another similar person. The respondents under this method
directly compare two or more objects and choice among them.
RANK ORDER SCALE
It is required to rank the subjects / persons specifically in relation to one another.
Ranking is the placement of a series of variables in ascending or descending order or
the placement of an item in a category of more or less than some other items – one
individual may be ranked than another in a language exam.
Example: Ranking the five students of B.Sc. Nursing Programme at RCN SWM by
percentage of marks in 4th
year exam. Ranking is used as an ordinal scale only.
Ranking tell us that one is higher than the other.
89% Vikas 85% Amita 81% Soyal 76% shahrukh 69% sonu
Rank
I II III IV V

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF A RATING SCALE
 They are value judgments of the attributes of one person by another person.
 These scales are most commonly used tools to carry outstructured
observations.
 They are generally developed to make quantitative judgments about
qualitative attributes.
 They provide more flexibility to judge the level of performance or presence of
attributes among subjects.
 CLARITY: it mustbe constructed using short, concise statements in simple and
unambiguous language.
 RELEVANCE: the statement should be relevant to the phenomenon and
should be exactly in accordance with the variables understudy.
 VARIETY: monotony of the statements must be avoided and variety and
difference statements must be ensured.
 OBJECTIVITY: it must be objective in a nature so that it is convenient for the
rater to judge the attributes or performances of the subjects under study.
 UNIQUENESS: each statement constructed must be unique in itself so that the
attributers can be judged appropriately.
ADVANTAGES OF A RATING SCALE
 Rating scale is easy to administer and score the measured attributes.
 They have a wide range of application in nursing educational; evaluation.
 Graphic rating scale in easier to make and less time- consuming.
 Rating can be easy used to a large group.
 They are also used for quantitative methods.
 Assessment of interest and attitudes and personal characteristics.
 They are used to evaluate performance, skills and product outcomes.
 Rating scales are adaptable and flexible assessment instruments.

8. DISADVANTAGES OF RATING SCALES
 It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about aspects of an individual.
 Misuse can result in a decrease in objectivity.
 There are chances of subjective evaluation thus the scales may become
unscientific and unreliable.
BIOHYSIOLOGIC METHOD
It involve the collection of biophysical data from subjects by using the specialized
equipments to determine biophysiological processes that have relevance for nursing
care..
For e.g. Blood pressure measurement by using special equipments such as
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.
USE OF BIOHYSICAL MEASURE IN NURSING RESEARCH
 Exploration of the ways in which nursing action affects the health outcome of
patients.
 Evaluation of a specific nursing procedures or intervention.
 Improve the measurement and recording of Biophysiologic information which
gathered by nurses.
 Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems

9. TYPES
IN VIVO
 Measurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselves
 May use complex instrumentation system with computers
 May be simple – thermometer, pulse oximetry, stethoscope
IN VITRO
 Measurements performed outside the organism’s body
 Specimens collected and tested outside body
 Blood chemistries, microbiologic, cytological specimens
ADVANTAGES
 Accurate precise & sensitive
 Objective
 Instrument used are valid and reliable
 Biophysiologic measures are not expensive but there can be expensive tests
DISADVANTAGES
 Interferences that create artifacts in Biophysiologic measures.
 High degree of interaction among the major Biophysiologic system.
LIKERT SCALE

10.  Likert-typeor frequency scales use fixed choice responseformats and are
designed to measureattitudes or opinions.
 Itis a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs
questionnaires.
 Itis the mostwidely used approach to scaling responses in survey research.
 Likert scales are a non-comparativescaling technique and are one-dimensional
in nature.
 When responding to a Likert questionnaireitem respondents specify their
level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree - disagree scale for a
series of statements.

11. I believe that ecological questions are the most important issues facing human
beings today. Strongly agree / agree / neither agree nor agree / disagree / strongly
disagree each of the five (or seven) responses would have a numerical value which
would be used to measure the attitude under investigation.
WHEN TO USE LIKERT SCALE
 We can use it to get an overall measurement of a particular topic, opinion, or
experience and also collect specific data on contributing factors.
 Choose a particular scale (3 point, 5 point, 7 point, etc) and use it as your
standard to cut down on potential confusion and fatigue. This will also allow
for comparisons within and between your data sets.

12. ADVANTAGES
 Likert Scale questions use psychometric testing to measure beliefs, attitudes
and opinion.
 Working with quantitative data, it is easy to draw conclusions, reports, results
and graphs from the responses.
 Likert Scale questions use a scale, & people are not forced to express an
either-or opinion, rather it allows them to be neutral.
 It is very easy and quick type of survey and it can be sent out through all
modes of communication, including even text messages.
LIMITATION
 They are uni-dimensional, because they only give a certain amount of choices.
 Participants may not be completely honest.
 Participants may base answers on feelings toward surveyor or subject.
 Scale requires a great deal of decision-making.
 can take a long time to analyze the data
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
 Projective techniques should be used when the required information cannot
be accurately obtained by direct methods.
 Projective techniques, originally developed for use in psychology, can be used
in an evaluation to provide a prompt for interviews.
 In psychology, a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person
respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and
internal conflicts projected by the person into the test.

13.  This is sometimes "objective test" or "self-report test" in which responses are
analyzed according to a presumed universal standard (for example, a multiple
choice exam), and are limited to the content of the test.
 Projective tests have their origins in psychoanalytic psychology, which argues
that humans have conscious and unconscious attitudes and motivations that
are beyond or hidden from conscious awareness.
 A test that provide the subject with a stimulus situation giving him an
opportunity to impose upon on it his own private needs and his particular
perception and interpretation
TYPES
1. ASSOCIATION
In association techniques, participants are given a stimulus and are asked to respond
with the words, images, or thoughts that come to mind. It is critical that these
thoughts are immediate and unfiltered. Vocabulary list, facial reaction or non-
reaction, physical movement, drawings, and photos are some useful cues.
Example: Word Association test
WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
 The subject is presented with a list of words.
 Half of them emotional tones or conflictual associations and others half
comprising neutral words.

14.  Subject is required to respond to each word by offering the first word that
comes to his mind.
 In evaluation word association test, two factors are noted:- reaction time
response word
2. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
 The focus is in the product of the subject.
 It requires participants to produce, to construct, something at direction,
usually a story or picture from a stimulus concept. This technique requires
more complex and controlled intellectual activity.
 Example: vision board collage
 Thematic apperception test (TAT )
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT)
 TAT is a projective measure intended to evaluate a person's patterns of
thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and emotional responses to
ambiguous test materials.
3. COMLETETION TECHNIQUE
 In which the subject is asked to finish a partially developed stimulus, such
as adding the last words to an incomplete sentence.
 Examples: Perfectly cooked pancake is ___________________________
 The best thing about this place is _________________________
 I can never go out without _____________________________
4. EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUE

15.  In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual
situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the
situation.
 The subjectexpress his needs, desires, emotions ,and motives through working
with , manipulating ,and interacting with materials ,including other people ,in a
manner or style that uniquely express his personality.
ADVANTAGES
 They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if
they knew the purpose of the study.
 Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to
strong social norms.
 It may be useful for young children, illiterate and person with language
handicaps or speech defects.
 Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a
subconscious level.
DISADVANTAGE
 Require highly trained interviewers.
 Lack of test reliability and validly of projective technique.
 Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses.
 There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
 They tend to be expensive.
 May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.
Q – SHORT

16.  Q methodology was first described by the American psychologist William
Stephenson in 1935 in the article It is basically a systematic study of
participant’s viewpoints.
 Q methodology provides a foundation for the systematic study of
subjectivity, a person’s viewpoint, opinion, beliefs, attitude and the like.
WHAT DO IN Q-SORT
 Typically, in a Q methodological study people are presented with a sample of
statements about some topic, called the Q-set.
 Respondents, called the P-set, are asked to rank order the statements from
their individual point of view.
 These individual rankings (or viewpoints) are then subject to factor analysis.
 It correlates persons instead of tests.
 By correlating people, Q factor analysis gives information about similarities
and differences in viewpoint on a particular subject.
 Q type analysis is useful when the object is to sort out people into groups
based on their simultaneous.
ADVANTAGE
 Smooth the way explorative study.
 Provides comprehensive study of small sample population.
DISADVANTAGES
 Time consuming
 Costly
 Only applied small sample
 Cannot be used to test hypothesis.