Fossils Lab

Fossils Lab
Title: Lab 3: Microfossils Lab and Field Trip to North Manzanilla beach
Introduction: Fossils are defined as a physical trace or evidence of life from a prior geological time
period which has been preserved. Examples of fossils include burrows, indentations or bite marks,
footprints or other impressions, coprolites, hard animal body parts such as bone, shells or horns or
mineralized plant remains embedded in stratified rock.
Examination of the fossils and the strata in which they were found and compilation of this data into
what is known as the fossil record provides a comprehensive picture of the morphology and
physiology of the organism, how they evolved over time and even of the terrain and vegetation
cover at that time period. Lower strata ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In general a higher proportion of the species were bivalves. The larger fossils with sturdier shells
were found in the sand like strata where the sediment was not as compact and the pressure from
higher layers was less.
The most likely environment in which these organisms lived would not be terrestrial or freshwater
but a coastal marine environment with varying levels of salinity since the sea water would advance
and retreat with the tides. The gastropods would require moisture from the ocean to prevent
desiccation while the bivalves would be able to survive longer periods exposed since the shell could
be closed temporarily until conditions were favourable.
The fossils in the lower silty layers were most likely formed below water by normal geological
processes. The sea level rose covering the organisms and the layers of silt settled above them. In the
upper sandy layers the fossils could have been formed above water by a sudden catastrophic event
as a result of ongoing erosive processes. The conditions in which the fossils formed were likely a
result of wave action which eroded the coast line until it was unstable. When the sea level receded
there was a landslide covering the
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Creationism Vs Genesis History
For centuries there has been a feud that almost every scientist has been part of; the creation vs
evolution controversy. Ever since 1859, when Darwin wrote "On the Origin of Species," the
argument on whether Earth was created by a higher being, or just evolved from atoms, has been one
of the most discussed topics. Of late, the evolutionary standpoint has been discussed more the
creationist standpoint. However, "Is Genesis History?" is a documentary that brings light to the
creationist standpoint. "Is Genesis History," proves there is a higher being out there, known as God,
that actually created the earth in 6 days, and the earth is only 4,000 years old! With the Bible, we
can explain many of the "proofs of evolution," on how it actually ... Show more content on
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Was the world created in six days? The answer to that question is yes, a most definite yes. Just take
a look at the Grand Canyon; layers of sediment are proof of how the flood brought different layers
of dirt. As you go farther down the Grand Canyon, you can see the different levels of sedimentary
rock. You can see that the different layers line up with each other, almost as if someone drew a line
and said: "OK no more shales, now it is time for phosphates." "Is Genesis History?" explained, that
if the water was to have carved out the Grand Canyon, there would be more signs of erosion
between the different layers of sedimentary rocks, the farther you went down the Canyon. However,
that's not the case; the top layers of the Grand Canyon are actually more eroded the bottom layer of
rocks. The top layers of the Grand Canyon share the same type of sedimentary rock as most of the
top layer of North America. Sediment was carried by the flood and then that sediment was carved by
the water draining into the ocean. The Grand Canyon, one of the most iconic natural landmarks, is a
"living" proof that the world was created in six days.
Another interesting proof of the Great Flood, which in turn proves Genesis is telling the truth, are
fossils. There is a layer of rock that is spread all over North America, known as the Nautiloid Bed.
This layer of rock

The Oldest Sedimentary Rocks : Evidence For The Origin Of...
1. Analysis of the oldest sedimentary rocks provides evidence for the origin of life
List the atmospheric gases believed to have existed on early earth
The atmospheric gases believed to have existed on early earth are: water vapour hydrogen methane
ammonia Describe the hypothesised conditions and environment of early Earth
Early Earth is predicted to have been a very hostile environment. Due to high levels of tectonic
activity, there were thought to have been many volcanic eruptions. These eruptions mixed with high
temperatures caused an out–gassing of volatile molecules and initiated gases such as methane,
ammonia, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to exist. However, even after the introduction of
these gases, oxygen was still not present. The absence of oxygen meant that the earth had no ozone
layer, and was therefore exposed to large amounts of UV radiation. Early Earth was under very
dangerous conditions and was unstable.
Relate the conditions on early Earth to the origin of organic molecules
Although early Earth was hostile, it provided a great environment for the production of organic
molecules. Events such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, meteorites, radioactivity in the Earth's crust,
and the easy access of ultraviolet light, are thought to have provided the energy for these molecules
to produce. Therefore, the conditions of early Earth were critical in the commencing of the first
organic molecules.
Describe the contribution of the Murchison meteorite

Bondi Excursion
In this part all the stops in Bondi excursion will be discovered. The route was starting from Hugh
Bamford Reserve, we then walk down to the North end of Bondi beach. The following content will
cover the observation and description of the main soil, rock and structure types. Some of the
geological characteristics like surface colour, weathering degrees and others features will also be
discovered.
From the Sydney geological map, we can find that Bondi is mainly situated on Hawkesbury
Sandstone. That is Rh–medium to coarse grained quartz sandstone, very minor shale and laminate
lenses.
A high cross sectional cutting of Hawkesbury Sandstone is exposed and subject to weathering in this
stop. The cross bedding in the middle might indicate that coarse sand grains and some large quartz
formed the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The result of iron in the rock is the yellow to orange colour. And the dark stains on the surface of the
sandstone are the result of runoff from the soil. In addition, some vegetation growing on the outcrop,
but they are not as much as the one at stop 1.The small amount of plant leading to less shrink joints,
expansion and less sand or clay on the sandstone.
As pebbles can be seen on the Hawkesbury Sandstone, that means pebbles were deposited when the
sand particles were deposited. Some pebbles chopped out of the Hawkesbury sandstone indicates
that they gradually weather out over time.
The presentation of water flow mark and a trace of sand on the rock surface are the result of wind
and sand erosion.
There is an old basaltic dyke that intruded along to the sandstone and it continues south. The dark
clay colour material is the result of weathering of basalt. This dyke is one of the few dykes over that
area, and the formation of the dyke has influenced the rocks through contact

The Effect Of Diagenetic Recrystallization On Metal Isotopes
RESEARCH INTERESTS AND HIGHLIGHTS:
My research primarily involves elucidating the effect of diagenetic recrystallization on metal
isotopes (Mg, Ca, and Sr) in marine carbonates and evaluating their reliability as geochemical
proxies to reconstruct the paleoclimatic conditions and chemical evolution of seawater through
geologic period. Geochemical cycling of Mg on the earth's surface involves transfer of Mg from
continental rocks to the ocean followed by reincorporation of Mg into the lithosphere via
hydrothermal exchange at the mid–oceanic ridges and through precipitation of carbonate minerals.
Since the exogenic cycle of Mg is directly linked to the global carbon cycle it is invaluable for
reconstructing the climatic variability (e.g. pCO2 and temperature). The Mg isotopic composition
(δ26Mg) of seawater is useful to decouple long–term variability of Mg concentration and δ26Mg of
the input and output fluxes to the ocean. The δ26Mg of marine carbonates is a promising proxy for
seawater δ26Mg. However, diagenetic recrystallization of calcite, which is known to impact the
trace elemental and isotopic composition of carbonates significantly, can complicate the carbonate–
based geochemical proxy interpretation. Therefore, it is critical to quantify the diagenetic effect on
the concentrations and isotopic composition of trace elements (e.g. Mg, Ca, Sr) in carbonates to
facilitate accurate proxy reconstruction.
My doctoral research is focused on quantifying the effect of

Importance Of Tourism In England
Many people would say that England isn't a wonderful place to go travel just because there is so
much security that goes on there, then others will say it's a fabulous place to travel just because they
lived there and there are many things to do in England. On that note, who is really right about it?
There are many things that are geologic about England, but the main geologic features about
England are their sedimentary rocks. This feature is very popular in England just because there is so
many in different regions and you can witness them as quick as possible, many people find the rocks
as art to themselves and that's a hobby to them to figure out everything about the rocks and how
long it was there for. There are always other geological features in England like Cheddar Gorge,
Jurassic Coast, Whin Sill, London Basin, and even Lizard Complex, a lot of humans could take trips
to those places if they can and will take pictures if they want and post them on social media.
Humans will not make concerns for the future just because they really won't have a way to make a
big difference with it. The climate in England is very well balanced just because they have warm
summers and even cool winters, the climate is a mild temperature not much lower than 0 C in the
winter and not much higher than 32 C in the summer. The warmest month in England will definitely
be July and August, but the coolest month will have to be both January and February. There are
many months you can go and

Painted Hills Research Paper
The Painted Hills, a unit of the John Day Fossil Bed National Monuments, is a beautiful
phenomenon exhibiting different time periods throughout Eastern Oregon's history. 40 million years
ago,during the Eocene epoch, the creation of painted rocks began. At the time, weather condition
were tropical/sun–tropical. This is validated by the consistent ash fall in the area which fossilized
organisms like palm trees, avocados and crocodiles.This time is when the rocks/the Clarno
formation were created throughout the Oligocene epoch, climate became temperate. Starting the
Miocene epoch, climate changed dramatically due to the rising Cascades. The plants and animals
were different than before. Oak trees and deer replaced the palms and crocodiles . Low silica
eruptions occurred in this time covering the area ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the most common bunchgrasses are basin wildrye and blue–bunch wheatgrass. They are
typically found on the sloped areas. In the lower land cheatgrass and medusahead rye are invasive
nonnative grasses, and must be maintained in order to preserve the native plants. Near the streams
visitors will find cottonwoods, willows, alder, and hawthorn trees. Once it's April the wildflowers
begin to take bloom. In more recent years bitterroot has bloomed covering the most land. Other
wildflowers found in this area are gold bee plants, prairie stars, fiddle neck and false dandelion.
Climate Painted hills are affected by the rainshadow effect in Eastern Oregon. The area is very dry
and arid, good for preserving fossils. Precipitation varies from 9–16 inches a year with snow in the
winter time. The coldest time of the year is in January with temperatures ranging from 42ºF to 24ºF.
July and August tend to be the hottest with temperatures from 86ºF to 52ºF. Vegetation is sparse but
you can expect to find wildrye or sage brush. The previous climates gave coloration to the painted
hills. Importance to Science

Geological Structures Within The Earth
Geology Geological structures within the earth can determine a multitude of variables when
determining such things as formations, permeability, porosity, lithology, mineralogy, saturation and
normal/abnormal/subnormal pressure which in turn can provide the necessary information for
reservoir pay zones. The foundation for hydrocarbons is based off of the organic theory which states
that the hydrocarbons formed through an anaerobic environment (lacking oxygen) over time with
high pressures and relatively low temperatures (300°F – 392°F) with carbon based materials such as
algae. The basis for algae is the fact that the ocean contained around 95% of plankton in the ocean
and reservoirs for hydrocarbons are found in sediments made up of ... Show more content on
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Petroleum engineers deal only with sedimentary basin rocks in oil and gas drilling, and these
sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's
surface and within bodies of water. Permeability in these rock is a measure of the ease with which
fluid flows through a porous rock, and is a function of the degree of interconnection between the
pores. Permeability can be separated into three parts: absolute, effective, and relative. Absolute is
when pore spaces are 100% saturated with the same fluid, effective is when the permeability of a
flowing phase that does not saturate 100% of the rock, and relative which is the ratio of effective
permeability to absolute permeability of the same rock. When permeability is low the degree at
which fluids can flow through the rock is low and therefore not a good means of producing
hydrocarbons. Even if a reservoir has a high saturation, a low permeable rock will have no means of
obtaining the porous medium. However this is not the only cause with saturations of rock. The
irreducible water saturation also plays a part in the production of hydrocarbons. This is when water
is held against the rock grains by surface tension and cannot be produced which is determined by
grain structure, i.e. size and mixture. Normal pressure below the earth has a linear relationship with
temperature and depth, i.e. as depth increases the temperature and pressure increases, however

The Niagara Escarpment
This Niagara Escarpment is very important to humans, animals and plant life. This escarpment is
home to many over 479 species of wildlife including 300 species over birds, 53 mammals, 36
reptiles and amphibians and 90 fish. A few endemic species that are found in this area include the
Hooded Warbler, the Sap Sucker Woodpecker and the Tussock Moss Caterpillars. It is also home to
over 100 varieties of special interest floras, including 37 types of wild orchids making up almost
40% of Ontario's rare floras.This Escarpment is surrounded with a rich mosaic of forests, farms,
recreation areas, scenic views, cliffs, streams, wetlands, rolling hills, waterfalls, mineral resources,
wildlife habitats, historic sites, villages, towns and cities. Some ... Show more content on
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This escarpment is considered one of the natural wonders in Canada and a great place for a little
family trip. This allows families to spend time together while exploring one of the oldest and the
largest geological areas. There are several landforms to visit at Niagara Escarpment.Some of these
include, limestone cracks, crevices and Lake Crawford, a rare and unique meromictic lake. A
meromictic lake means that the lake has layers of water that do not intermix. This also means that
whatever goes into the water stays down due to the lack of oxygen underwater in meromictic lakes.
Due to this the lake is not used for water supply.The escarpment is also a great place to learn about
its geological history and to see wildlife, landforms and orchids that are not seen anywhere else.
Several landforms found here include dried out waterfalls, fossils, steep slopes, limestone and
dolostone. Endemic species found in Niagara Escarpment include the Blue Jays, Turkey Vultures
and Hooded warblers. Various orchids that can been seen are the Calypso Orchid , Ram's–head
Lady–slipper and Alaska Rein Orchid. Its history dates back 430–450 millions years when the area
was flooded with a shallow sea. Rivers and bodies of water would carry sand and take it to the
ancient seas. They would also carry silt and clay creating sediment. At this time organic material
rich with lime was accumulating. During the span of a million years,

Yosemite Valley Research Paper
Geology of the Valley
Yosemite Valley is full of stunning and breathtaking sights. However, millions of years of geologic
changes have occurred to make Yosemite Valley what it is today. Even from the initial formation of
California, Yosemite has been evolving. Each part of the geologic history of Yosemite plays a very
significant role, because even if one small thing did not occur, then the Yosemite that we know
today would not be familiar to us.
The beginning of Yosemite's geologic historic was about 500 million years ago. Back then, North
America lay near the equator and California was covered by a tropical sea. Rivers from North
America flowed into the ocean, flushing great amounts of sediment off land. As the layers of
sediment grew ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Erosion continues to alter the geology of Yosemite Valley, causing many alterations in the landscape.
Erosion causes frost wedging, which is an occurrence of when water freezes and expands in the
crack of rocks, which wedge them and break them apart. Also, earthquakes are relatively common in
the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range and tend to also play an important role in the changing
landscape of Yosemite Valley. The most considerable form of erosion that is acting on Yosemite
right now is rock falls. While most of them are pretty insignificant, large rockfalls prove to be
catastrophic and help to sculpt Yosemite

Physical Geography of the North East
Project 1: My Physical Geography
My name is Thomas and I Study Journalism at Uconn. What makes me unique is that I play the
didgeridoo. What I would like to get out of taking this class is a better understanding of what the
world is made of and how people live in there part of the globe. I am from Bedford, New York.
Bedford is about an hour north of New York City.
2. Weather and Climate:
Bedford New York is located in North Eastern United States. The average temperature there is
around 85 degrees Fahrenheit during the summer and around 25 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the
winter. Bedford is located further inland than most other locations so temperatures do fluctuate,
because of its distance from major oceans. Bedford ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We receive enough precipitation that allows us to store water in reservoirs that can last year round.
The local area and surrounding towns contain several lakes which provide water for NYC and its
boroughs. It is a rich surrounding in Bedford, that is largely rural, filled with deciduous trees making
up small forests. I remember one year we grew pine trees, in the back yard, and I distinctly
remember one Christmas going out and actually lopping off the top of one of those trees to put
inside. This leads me to describe the area as relatively wooded, area that does show clear signs of
human development there, but nothing as great as an urban center, but more just a light
infrastructure.
3. Biogeography and soils
If I haven 't already in subsequent chapters let me dive into the biological geography in this next
paragraph. Bedford is a series of hardwood forests, followed by open grasses that are maintained by
man. There does though leave a large amount of natural vegetation and wildlife. Bedford has mostly
hardwood deciduous forests surrounding it. The ample amount of rain and the short winters allow
for these forests to take place. The wildlife though, much like the forests are not of much noticeable
variety, we don 't have any large predators living near us, such as wolves, or coyotes. In fact I don 't
ever hear about bear sightings either. The most common animals that I see are the squirrels and the
deer population. Granted on occasion

Geological and Dispositional History of the Starved Rocks,...
Geological and Dispositional History of the Starved Rocks, Illinois Describe the clastic and
carbonate facies you have discovered. Starved Rock State covers about 200 miles and some 470
million years, from Ordovician sandstones to Pleistocene glacial till. The Ordovician St. Peter
Formation sandstone was deposited across the midcontinent during the second major marine
transgression of the Paleozoic Era. The first transgression deposited Upper Cambrian to Lower
Ordovician clastics and carbonates. The clastic to carbonate rock transition is consistent with
gradual sea level rise over the North American craton. Sea level dropped late in the early
Ordovician, exposing the carbonate strata to processes of cave development. The St. Peter ... Show
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There are coarsening–upward sequences preserved, with flooding surfaces represented by low–relief
erosional contact of trough–cross–stratification (runnel) upon low–angle planar bedding (swash
zone). Starved rock and St. Peter Sandstone are an erosional remnant of Ordovician period. These
remnants contain Pennsylvanian clastics that survived the washing out of the Illinois River at the
end of the Ice Age. Evidence for swift, turbulent, and deep water includes gravel bars and erosional
features as high as 160 feet above the current level of the river, massive cross bedded sand, and
gravel deposits along the river course. Identify the likely sedimentary environment where it might
have been deposited. There are 18 canyons at Starved Rock that were formed by glacial melt water
and stream erosion. Starved Rock State Park is located along the south side of the Illinois River, one
mile south of Utica and midway between the cities of LaSalle–Peru and Ottawa. The park is best
known for its fascinating rock formations, including the St. Peter sandstone. It is located down in a
huge low inland sea more than 425 million years ago and later brought to the surface. The areas
along the river are mainly forested; much of the area is a flat, gently rolling plain. The upland
prairies were created during an intensive warming period several thousand years after the melting of
the glaciers. The Illinois River Valley in the Starved Rock area is a major

Coral Reefs Provide About Earth's History
Objectives:
How do coral reefs form?
What evidence do limestone deposits from coral reefs provide about Earth's history?
Vocabulary:
Algae: aquatic based plants that contains chlorophyll, lacking roots, stems, and leaves that can be
anywhere from microscopic to having a long and distinguished form
Calcium: the chemical element of atomic number 20, a soft gray metal
Calcite: a white or colorless mineral consisting of calcium carbonate. It is a major constituent of
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, marble, and chalk, can occur in crystalline form (as in Iceland
spar), and may be deposited in caves to form stalactites and stalagmites
Coral Reefs: A structure of calcite skeletons built up by coral animals in warm, shallow ocean water
Limestone: a hard sedimentary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also provide evidence of past environments
Coral reefs have been forming in the ocean for more than 400 million years
There used to be coral reefs in central parts of North America which today are pieces of sedimentary
Reefs that formed million years in the United States are exposed in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana,
Texas, New Mexico, and many other

FIELD REPORT ON AFIKPO BASIN AND ITS
FIELD REPORT ON AFIKPO BASIN AND ITS' ENVIRONS By KPE, MARILYN GEORGE
U2010/5565058 Submitted to DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY FACULTY OF PHSICAL SCIENCE
AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT COURSE TITLE: GEOLOGICAL MAPPING PROJECT
COURSE CODE: GLY 414.2 COURSE LECTURERS: Dr. Mrs Oloto Rev. Richmond Ideozu Mr.
Kingsley Okengwu Mrs. John Onwualu NOVEMBER, 2014 DEDICATION This report is dedicated
to Jah Almighty for giving me life and seeing me through my endeavours. Also, the George's family,
my friends, course mates and well wishers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I ... Show more content on
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Murat 1972 noted that the Nkporo formation was deposited by the upper campanian transgression
into the newly subsided Anambra depression and Afikpo syncline following the abakaliki folding
phase.over 2000m sediments where eroded from Abakiliki anticlinorium and deposited in the
Anambra basin (Burke 1972). 1.1 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY Finding a location was very
difficult because most of the names of the villages on the map were either wrongly spelt or have
been changed over–time. Most of the track roads were not accessible by vehicles so we had to trek
for long kilometers to get to an outcrop. Fig. 1. Location and accessibility map of the study area. 1.2
AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY Our primary aim was to study the Geology of Afikpo ie;
the lithology and how the structures are laid down and to produce a detailed Geologic map of the
area. This we did as a group but locating the outcrop and recording the necessary information on our
topographic map. 1.3.0 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA 1.3.1 RAINFALL, CLIMATE AND
VEGETATION The mapped area is in the equatorial climate region i.e it has two climate conditions,
the rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season runs from April to September while the dry season runs
from October through March. The temperature range of the area is between 25°C and 27°C. The
vegetation of the area is dominated by

Absolute Age Determinations
The Grand Canyon a geologic wonder. Containing many important geologic resources, including a
huge fossil record ranging from Precambrian stromatolites to Ice Age mammal bones and dung
found in caves a great exploration of geological history ranging from thousands to millions of years.
Through relative dating and absolute age determinations we are able to learn a lot from this wonder.
Both techniques have value in their own individual situation but when utilized together they are able
to develop the geologic time scale and to discern the ages of rocks. Relative dating or "the pancake
method" simply defines the superposition of the oldest on the bottom and the newest on the top, also
a study of a material and compare it to other similar materials in order to in order to establish a
timeline similar to a progression. This comes first, that comes next, this comes last, a bit vague,
which is why modern scientists have developed many methods by which to determine the absolute
age of Earth materials. Now, absolute age "is a measure of how old it actually is in years. Some
scientists prefer to call it calendar age, because the term suggests that the age can be plotted on a
calendar. The absolute age of a material is much more desirable when constructing the timeline of
our planet because it does not rely on comparisons to other materials. Instead of saying a material is
older or younger than something else, scientists can simply report the age in years. Imagine it this
way: If you have any siblings, using relative age dating would be like saying, 'I am older than my
brother but younger than my sister,' but using absolute age dating would be ... Show more content on
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A wide variety of Grand Canyon rocks exist when someone's objective is really just to learn how
long ago these rocks formed, it is very confusing to sort through subdivisions of geologic periods,
the numeric ages are an important translation for the public for the age of rocks at Grand Canyon
and are useful for interpretive

Sedimentary Rock Evolution
Analyzing the change in species over time utilizes the support from many disciplines of science in
order to come to the most plausible explanation of said change. Geology more specifically, the fossil
record is one such discipline that elicits profound insight on speciation. The fossil record is best
described as life's evolutionary story as it clearly shows sequential change in organisms throughout
time by providing a starting point and in many cases transitional fossils as benchmarks for
comparison. Sedimentary rock is crucial to this process as it is what cements organisms in time at
their time of death. Sedimentary rock is common on Earth and formed by the weathering of older
rocks. As this weathering occurs organisms that have died are buried in the sediments produced and
preserved as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These fossils can range from footprints left by an organism or skeletal structures such as the pelvic
girdle of a fish. Fossils allow scientists to expound on the evolutionary history of an organism by
providing features to follow throughout time. Scientists have pieced together the evolution of flight
in birds and the structures needed to accomplish this task by documenting changes that took place in
the forelimbs, clavicle, and pelvis from current birds back to their pre–winged ancestors.
Additionally, the evolution of paired appendages and subsequent loss in some vertebrates has been
well documented in the fossil record and specifically the stickleback. After the recession of the
glaciers, populations of stickleback were scattered in isolated lakes throughout the northern
hemisphere. Fish in lakes with no predation lost their pelvic spines since there was no evolutionary
advantage to maintain them. By analyzing the fossils of stickleback scientists were able to see this
change occurred over the span of

Investigating Secondary Dispersion Patterns of Indicator...
Picturing the Subsurface With GIS:
Data Visualization Techniques for Geophysical Images Using ArcGIS
By Lucas Donny Setijadji
Geoscientists try to understand the earth's crust using geophysical methods such as gravity and
magnetic surveys. Mining geologists also use geophysics to search new mineral deposits. In areas
such as the Nevada Great Basin, geoscientists rely more on geophysical images than on geologic
maps.
The Great Basin area holds one of the biggest mineral concentrations in the world.
Economically, gold is the most prominent commodity. The most important gold deposits are hosted
by carbonate rocks, called the Carlin–type and Carlin–like gold deposits. Carlin–type and
Carlin–like gold deposits are unique geologically, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The goal is to separate the regional trends and residual anomalies. The digital separation processes
sometimes involve the transformation of data from the space domain into the wave–number
(Fourier) domain. This filtering process requires specific geophysical software such as the
MAGMAP product from Oasis Montaj©.
The filtering algorithm applied to the gravity map was a band–pass filter to find
intermediatewavelength gravity anomalies. These anomalies represent deep–seated geologic units
and structural configurations (Figure 2). Meanwhile, the upward continuation filter for 1 km was
applied on the aeromagnetic map to eliminate the noise from shallow magnetic sources. The result
represents magnetic bodies at a significant depth below the surface (Figure 3).
Figure 2–The IntermediateWavelength Gravity Anomaly Map After
Application of Band–Pass Filtering
Figure 3–The Magnetic Anomaly
Map After the Application of 1 km
Upward Continuation Filtering
Data Integration With GIS and Some Concerns
Geophysical processing software usually lacks GIS functionality. Spatial analysis is much easier
when done in a GIS environment. Transformation of geophysical images to a GIS format can be as
simple as exporting the images that contain spatial information into geoTIFF format. In a GIS
analysis, geophysical images are often treated as a type of evidence map, the same as other thematic
maps such as mineral

The Juniata Formation : A Record Of Appalachain Mountain...
The Juniata Formation: A Record of Appalachain Mountain Building and Receding Seas
Introduction
Found in the Appalachian Region, the Juniata Formation extends from central–southern
Pennsylvania to Tennessee (Davies 2010). Though the thickness of the Juniata Formation is far from
constant across its lateral extent, it is approximately 2000 feet thick in northern Pennsylvannia and
thins towards the southwest (Crowder 1980). Named for the Juniata River running through southern
Pennsylvania, this formation consists of sediments from the Taconic Orogeny in the late Ordovician
period (Crowder 1980). Figure one displays the characteristic layers of alternating red sandstones
and shales, which are divided into three distinct units (Darton ... Show more content on
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Shale becomes more predominate at near the top of the formation (Thompson 1970b). Thompson
noted that this formation is largely composed of micrite, pelmicrite, and pelsparite, with a significant
portion of dolomite also present (1970b). Indications of paleosol formation, sub–vertical burrows,
and, in the clay–rich layers, abundant hematite flakes are common of Juniata sediments (Davies
2010 and Thompson 1970b). Each of the three genetic units in this formation, however, have unique
lithologic compositions and sedimentary structures (Figure 2). Figure 2: Idealized stratigraphic
column of the Juniata Formation in southwest Virginia (Crowder 1980)
Unit AApproximately 17 meters thick, Unit A defines the lowest third of the Juniata Formation.
Fragments of marine fossils, including bryozoans, brachiopods, and gastropods, are commonly
found in the bottom–most portion of this unit of structureless mudstone and quartz arenite. Quartz
grains in the sandstone beds of Unit A are typically immature and fine–grained, though the
sandstone packages tend to coarsen upwards. Though typically structureless, intermittent bedding of
the sandstone and shale packages is observed in this unit, and some areas display

Flat Iron Mesa in San Juan County
Flat Iron Mesa is located in the heart of the Moab and Canyonlands area and enters San Juan
County. It is surrounded by the Hatch Wash Canyon to the west and the La Sal mountain range
towards the east. The vast features of the mesa and surrounding canyons demonstrate the remarkable
effects of millions of years of erosion on a landscape of mostly sedimentary rock. The mesa's
extensive landscape is covered with biological soil crust as well as an abundance of ephemeral
pools. The potholes throughout the mesa are naturally occurring basins in deposits of sandstone that
progressively collect rainwater and wind–blown sediment which gradually erode the underlying
rock; leaving a series of circular impressions along the mesa's floor. Weathering, geologic processes
such as erosion, and climatic shifts allow for this immense desert ecosystem to continually evolve
and change which has taken place for millions of years. This geologically wealthy environment is
composed of alternating flat–lying layers of soft and hard deposits of mostly sedimentary rocks.
Interchanging slopes and cliffs along the landscape helped form these layers of rock which can be
seen fully exposed in areas of the mesa. Deposition of this landscape mainly occurred during the
Permian, Pennsylvanian, Triassic and Jurassic time periods. The assortment of warm hues of
sandstone were produced by varying levels of iron oxide minerals during formation. For hundreds of
millions of years, geologic material

The Coquina Rock: Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks
Type of Rock
The rock coquina is originally a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments.
The sediments are formed by the mechanical or chemical activities of the natural activities like
running water, blowing wind, glaciers etc. this which causes disintegration and decomposition of the
pre–existing rocks. The products of decay are transported to some depositional sites by the natural
agencies, where they get deposited and with subsequent compaction form sedimentary rocks
(Hefferan, O'Brien, 2010). . The sedimentary rocks usually accumulate under a great variety of
conditions. This shows the variation in rock, chemical structure as well as in texture. Weathering is
the most important process that operates in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rock Composition
The most common chemical sedimentary rock is limestone. Composed mostly of the mineral calcite
(CaCO3), limestones are formed by biochemical processes in shallow seawater (Jahnert, 2012).
Coral and algae are especially important limestone builders. Coquina is a form of biochemical
limestone. It is an allochemical rock, meaning it is made up of mostly broken down shells, skeletal
remains, and gravel (sand). Most coquinas are composed of invertebrate seashells, usually mollusks,
and shells of saltwater organisms but freshwater versions exist as well (Schmidt, 1979). Other
variations of limestone result from the deposition and cementation of calcium‐rich shells, shell
fragments, corals, algae, and the remains of tiny marine organisms. (Hefferan, O'Brien, 2010). ).
Coquina contains little to no matrix (cement) and what matrix does exist is composed of firm
microcrystalline calcite. Under the Folk Classification, coquina contains allochmes. Allochems are
types of fossils with sparite cement which would make it biosparite. Coquina rock has the ability to
absorb large amounts of water. This absorption of water makes the surface of the coquina constantly
damp.
According to the Dunham Classification, which is a produced classification of carbonate rocks,
coquina falls under grain–supported and lacks mud. Everything that keeps the rock held together is
mostly the shells themselves. Every rock has specific mineral properties that

Questions On Environmental Summer Assignment
3) Environmental Summer Assignment Essays
a) E–Waste
In the 21st century, everyone feels the need to be up to speed with all of the new gadgets and
technology. When new technology is released, people drop everything they're doing to run out and
buy it. But what happens to their fairly used devices that have been labeled "out of style"? They are
thrown away and become electronic waste. Types of it, E–Waste as it is better known as, includes
unwanted or broken circuit boards, computers, monitors, mp3 players, keyboards and DVD players.
Approximately 82% of these end up in landfills or incinerators. Most people fail to realize that
electronics are made from valuable materials that can be recycled, such as gold, silver, aluminum,
copper, nickel, and sometimes–even platinum! Some E–Waste products are extremely hazardous to
humans and to our environment. Polyvinylchloride, mercury and lead are all harmful substances
found in electronics. Fortunately many states and countries have created laws and made it very well
known to their citizens on how to deal with E–waste.
The hazardous side effects of E–Waste have the most impact on labor workers in other countries.
Where health regulations are not enforced, most of the labor workers are frail children with no
protection from the harmful chemicals that use their bare hands to take apart the electronics in order
to salvage valuable and reusable electronic parts. In Guiyu, China where child labor is the norm,
approximately 82% of

Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sedimentary rocks are made from different pieces of rocks and sediments. This happened through
the process of erosion and weathering. Every now and then animals get buried under sediments and
formed with the rock. As the tissues decay, the bone stay preserved in the rock because of the carbon
that release from the corpse. Sedimentary rocks can tell scientists about the fossil's habitat by the
size and formation of the rock. For example, one direction ripple marks indicate that the rock
formed under a river while ripple marks that move back and forth indicate the rock is formed in an
ocean. If a fossil is found in a rock that has one direction ripple marks it is most likely that the
animal might have once lived in a river. 2. Complete skeletons

Drilling Process Of Natural Gas
Natural gas is useful for multiple purposes. The gas is used everywhere including homes all around
the world, but no one questions where it comes from. Natural gas is found in the Marcellus shale
which is a rock of sediment most prominently located in northeastern America. The sedimentary
rock is thousands of feet down in the earth making it hard to obtain. Mankind was finally able to
reach this rock through a technique called fracking which is simply a kind of drilling. Once a desired
location is found, they begin the drilling process by going straight down. As the drill is proceeding
downward, lubricant and air must be pumped to aide with creating a clear, smooth path. Cement
castings are put into the hole to form the walls of the well ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
When the water goes into the well not only is it mixed with chemicals, but it comes back up with
other particles, too. This wastewater can be radioactive and can be taken back to a sewage treatment
that doesn't even check for radioactivity. The sewage treatment plant should check for radioactivity,
but since some are unregulated, they don't. Some companies even take the wastewater and put it
back into the streams disposing it improperly. Drilling also causes both air and noise pollution.
When drilling, many harmful gases can be released into the air. A study was conducted around a
hospital with nearby heavy drilling and there was a twenty–five percent asthma rate in young
children. Drilling is around the clock and it doesn't help that it is very noisy, too. Although the
benefits are good, the inconveniences out way the good because there is an abundance of them and
there are possible harmful long–term effects that could arise in the future. There are hundreds of
chemicals used to drill into the Marcellus Shale. Some of these chemicals can be dangerous to the
environment such as hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is harmful because it is toxic to all forms
of life. It is carried through the air infecting it. This acid is a component of acid rain and can decay
structures such as building and bridges. Another chemical is naphthalene which is a surfactant. A
surfactant reduces surface tension. High levels of this

The Wells Creek Impact Structure
The Wells Creek Impact Structure: Impact Melts produces shock metamorphism in the target rock.
Michael A. Burklow
Department of Geology, University of Tennessee at Martin, Martin, Tennessee 38237, USA
Abstract
The Wells Creek structure was formed by a meteorite impact in Cumberland, Tennessee (36°〖23〗
^ ' N,87°40 'W) which is the northern part of Middle Tennessee. This region is known as the
highland rim. The younger and older strata is exposed in two areas in the highland rim which means
the older sediment has been eroded and much of the younger sediment remains. The impact
produced a variety of structural features. The circular central block contains a circular core of
megabreccia about 1520 meters (Ford, 2012). The impacted breccia is monomitic breccia, which is
the result of rock deformation from the impact event. The breccia from Wells Creek is homogenous
breccia that has been under intense movement and very high confining pressures. The angular Horst
is an upthrown block between the two fault blocks and the inner Graben is a downthrown block near
the central block (Ford, 2012). The larger impact structure is an anticline which is boarded by a
second ring Syncline of the wells creek basin structure (Ford, 2012). The shock wave releases are
large amounts of energy from the central point of impact moving outward forming ring anticlines
and synclines. The impacted breccia matrix consists of angular fragmented chert, limestone, and
dolomite. The wells creek

Belconnen Earthquake
On Saturday, the 3rd of November a 6.0 earthquake hit the Westfield Belconnen mall in Canberra.
The earthquake frightened many in the mall and went outside. The damage that was caused inside
the epicenter was moderate. Pictures and books in stores fell down. Dishes, glass wear and windows
were broken during the earthquake. Some of the heavy furniture was moved around during the
earthquake. Plaster in the mall varying between considerable and large amounts. Chimneys cracked
and some of the walls cracked. Some tiles and bricks were loosened and the corner to the 1st
entrance way came off. Major destruction was caused to the weakest parts of the mall. Water pipes
in the mall were ruined and the electricity stopped for about an hour, which was disruptive for shops
that had electrical appliances or stores that sold game consoles and computers. Stores that had food
in them had to shut down and remove the food. They then had to find other places to store the food
since fridges weren't working. There was also some damage that was outside of the epicenter. The
damage spanned ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Homes may be destroyed. Transport and communication links may be disrupted. Water pipes may
burst and water supplies may be contaminated. Shops and business may be destroyed. Looting may
take place. The damage to transport and communication links can make trade difficult. The built
landscape may be destroyed. Fires can spread due to gas pipe explosions. Fires can damage areas of
woodland. Landslides may occur. Tsunamis may cause flooding in coastal areas.
Long–term impacts Disease may spread. People may have to be re–housed, sometimes in refugee
camps. The cost of rebuilding a settlement is high. Investment in the area may be focused only on
repairing the damage caused by the earthquake. Income could be lost. Important natural and human
landmarks may be

Lab Exercise # 1: Grain Analysis
Question 1 of 33 3.03/ 3.0303 Points
Questions 1 through 5 are based on Lab Exercise #1: Grain Analysis.
1. Bag A contains A.well–sorted sand. B.clay.
Correct C.a moderately sorted mix of sand and silt. D.a poorly sorted mix of gravel and sand.
Answer Key: C Feedback: The correct answer is C. a moderately sorted mix of sand and silt.
Bag B contains
Correct A.well–sorted sand. B.clay. C.a poorly sorted mix of sand and silt D.a poorly sorted mix of
gravel and sand.
Answer Key: A Feedback: The correct answer is A. well–sorted sand.
Bag C contains A.well–sorted clay. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Answer Key: C Feedback: The correct answer is C. fizzes during an acid test.
Specimen #15 is A.quartz chert. B.shale.
Correct C.limestone. D.conglomerate.
Answer Key: C Feedback: The correct answer is C. limestone.
Which of the following is a diagnostic feature of Specimen #17? A.It fizzes when tested with acid.
B.It is a very coarse–grained sedimentary rock.
Correct C.It is a fissile sedimentary rock. D.It is obviously the product of a high–energy depositional
environment.

Answer Key: C Feedback: The correct answer is C. It is a fissile sedimentary rock.
Specimen #17 is A.conglomerate. B.gyprock. C.quartz chert.
Correct D.shale.
Answer Key: D Feedback: The correct answer is D. shale.
Specimen #16 is composed of
Correct A.silica. B.calcium carbonate. C.grains of sand–sized particles. D.gypsum.
Answer Key: A Feedback: The correct answer is A. silica.
Which of the following is a diagnostic feature of Specimen #16? A.It effervesces when tested with
acid. B.It is a very coarse–grained sedimentary rock. C.It is a fine–grained sedimentary rock.
Correct

petro hw #3 Essay
1. What is the first priority of a petroleum engineer? (5 points)
The first priority of a petroleum engineer is safety.
2. What are the 5 elements of a petroleum system labeled on the illustration above? Green indicates
hydrocarbon fill and E refers to the anticlinal structure. (10 points)
A. Top Seal Rock (impermeable shale)
B. Reservoir Rock (Porous sandstone)
C. Source Rock (Organic–Rich shale)
D. Potential migration route (Non–sealing fault)
E. Anticlinal Trap
3. Name the four major disciplines of Petroleum Engineering. (4 points)
Reservoir Engineering, Production Engineering, Petrophysics (Formation Evaluation), and Drilling.
4. What are the three main purposes of drilling fluid (mud)? (6 points) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(10 points)
There are clastics, nonclastics, and evaporites. Clastics include sandstone, which is a reservoir, and
shale, which is a source, trap, and also a reservoir. An example of a nonclastic is carbonate, which is
a reservoir. An example of an evaporite is salt, which is a trap.
10. The seismic reflection coefficient R for the interface between two layers of rock is given
(approximately) by the following equation for normal incidence (sound raypaths hit the interface
between two rock layers at a right angle), where ρ1 is the density of layer 1 (top), ρ2 is the density
of layer 2 (bottom), v1 is the velocity of sound in layer 1 (top) and v2 is the velocity of sound in
layer 2 (bottom):
Calculate the reflection coefficient R if ρ1 = 2.1 gm/cm3, ρ2 = 2.2 gm/cm3, v1 = 1500 m/s, and v2 =
2000 m/s. (5 points)
The reflection coefficient is 0.17
11. Why do Petroleum Engineers care about Plate Tectonics? (4 points)

It tells them about the creation of structures and basins. It also helps them identify places where
there are potential reservoirs or source rocks.
12. Flow from a pressured "zone" (interval of porous rock) encountered while drilling is controlled
when the mud weight in the wellbore provides a pressure that equals or exceeds the pressure of the
zone. There is a pressured zone at 8000psi penetrated while drilling at 15,000ft

Mesa Verde National Park On The Colorado Plateau
Mesa Verde National Park on the Colorado Plateau contains many geological aspects of interest,
including its sedimentary rock layers, its canyons, its alcoves utilized by ancient people and how
these alcoves were formed. Mesa Verde National Park is located in the southwest corner of
Colorado, close to the Four Corners area, on top of a high mesa overlooking the Mancos River
(Harris et al. 2004). The park, covering 81 square miles, consists of several main sedimentary
formations that are characteristic to the park (Encyclopedia Britannica 2015). Canyons are carved
into the sedimentary rock, with the cave dwellings found high on their steep walls. These dwellings
are an especially unique aspect to the Mesa Verde National Park, and are built out of large alcoves.
The alcoves were produced by weathering and erosion of the sedimentary rock type. To better
understand how these alcoves formed, we must understand the geology of Mesa Verde National Park
and how it has developed over history.
First, we must examine the sedimentary formations; when they were formed, how they were formed,
and what materials they consist of. About ninety–three to one hundred million years ago, the
Western Interior Seaway rolled through the North American continent, eventually reaching the
geographical area of today's Mesa Verde National Park (National Park Service 2005). This sea
deposited a thick, hard sandstone base that is called Dakota Sandstone, although this layer is not
exposed in the park

Unit D1 Volcanor
Unit D was differentiated into two basaltic tephra subunits (D1 and D2) and a diatomaceous marl
(D3). The maar tephra apron is comprised primarily of unit D1 (Figures 4 and 6), which has been
described in detail by Fisher and Waters (1970:166–169). The D1 subunit is thickest at the maar rim
and becomes progressively thinner towards the distal portions of the apron. It is thinly and distinctly
bedded and composed predominantly of ash and finely fragmented sedimentary rock interbedded
with occasional, scoria–rich layers of coarse ash and very fine lapilli. These deposits are interpreted
as pyroclastic base surge deposits associated with a phreatomagmatic, maar–forming eruption based
on the presence of low–angle cross–bedding, round accretionary ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Although the luminescence ages appear somewhat younger than the radiocarbon–based age
estimates for the two eruptive phases, the 2–sigma ranges of the dates indicate that they are
consistent (Figure 8). Because they are from the same geological context, the two luminescence ages
for the C3 basalt flow associated with the initial eruptive phase can be statistically combined using
the OxCal v. 4.2 program (Ramsey, 2009) to reduce the standard error, resulting in a luminescence
age estimate of 12,720 ± 610 yr (Figure 8). The 2–sigma range of this combined luminescence age
falls within the 2–sigma radiocarbon–based age range estimate of 13,560–13,330 cal yr BP.
Likewise, the two luminescence ages of 10,250 ± 805 yr and 10,420 ± 765 yr associated with the
second, phreatomagmatic eruptive phase overlap with the 2–sigma radiocarbon–based age estimate
of 12,160–11,720 cal yr BP. The luminescence sample associated with Zuni Salt Lake lacustrine
highstand deposits at profile 13–5, which must post–date the phreatomagmatic eruption based on
stratigraphic relationships, produced an age of 10,935 ± 980 yr, in better agreement with the
radiocarbon evidence associated with the second eruptive phase. It is possible that we
underestimated the soil moisture associated with the UIC–3476 and –3421 luminescence samples,
which could explain why the two luminescence–based maar eruption ages are

World 's Increasing Demand For Energy Essay
World's increasing demand for energy is fulfilled by different sectors (like Oil, Coal, Natural Gas,
Hydro, Nuclear and others). Fossil fuels remain the dominant source of energy powering the world
economy, supplying 60% of the energy increase out to 2035. Within that, gas looks set to become
the fastest growing fossil fuel, spurred on by ample supplies and supportive environmental policies.
1.1 BACKGROUND
From the advert of the modern oil and gas industry, petroleum geologists and engineers have
followed a conventional route for exploration; look for hydrocarbon source rocks, find reservoir
quality rocks where hydrocarbons can accumulate, identify a trapping mechanism and then drill a
well. But a revolution is taking place in the exploration and production (E&P) industry. Rocks that
in the past were of little interest, other than as potential source rocks, are today being actively
pursued as potential reservoirs. When considering unconventional resource plays, the focus is on
finding organic shale's. This development represents a fundamental shift in the way exploration
companies consider resource plays. Engineers and geologists studying shale gas resources find that
reservoir can lead to process adaptation and refinement of techniques. It is important to integrate
data from many sources and at many scales to optimally drill, complete and stimulate wells to
produce hydrocarbons from their source rocks. The two other type of existing unconventional gas
resources are

Copper Sulfide, It Chemical Weight
1. Argentite's composition is silver sulfide, it molecular weight equals 247.80gm. It is used as an ore
of silver; reduce metal availability. It is a popular mineral, the polishing on sterling silver. Important
specimens have been found in mines. Its specimen deposits can be found in several areas such as
Mexico, Great Britain and Kongsberg.
2. Asbestos is found in fibers which belong to two types of mineral groups and refers to six types of
naturally occurring mineral fibers. It has been historically used in industrial and construction
applications.
3. Calcite is a major component of sedimentary rocks. It is common and is found everywhere.
Calcite is used as a construction material, pharmaceutical, agricultural soil treatment and ... Show
It is of fine grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with
oxides and matter.
6. Dolomite is a rock of calcium magnesium carbonate with the chemical composition of (CAMg)
(CO3)2. Its uses are cement manufacture, ornamental stone, an oil and gas reservoir and
construction. One of the largest rocks on Earth is a mountain range in northeastern Italy which is
part of the Italian Alps. There was a unique dolomite occurrence in Spain, and in the Congo of Zaire,
which produced colorless transparent crystals resembling the Iceland Spar.
7. Feldspar is called a rock shaping mineral and is usually making up a huge part of the rock and the
earth's crust. Its composition is basic, X(AI,Si)4O8 and is used mostly in industrial mineral;
ceramics and glass making. New Mexico, Virginia and Oregon are known locations of deposits.
8. Galena uses an ore of lead, its composition is lead; sulfide, PbS. Galena is metallic on fresh
surfaces. It is also easy to smelt and weathers easily. Galena are sometimes mined. A cubic galena
crystal with attached calcite crystals was collected at the Sweetwater Mine in Missouri.
9. Gypsum is the world's primary ore of lead; it is mined from a huge number of deposits in many
countries. It is an evaporate mineral and is found in sedimentary deposits in layers associated with
halite, anhydrite,

The Waterway And Wild Trout Fishery
The Motueka is a nationally important waterway and wild trout fishery. The river drains and area of
2076km2 of mountainous and hilly land that is located about 40 km west of Nelson, South Island,
New Zealand. The catchment elevation ranges from sea level up to around 1600 to 1800 meters. The
river rises in the southeast of the catchment and flows north into Tasman Bay about 116 kilometers.
The main stem of the Motueka River rises in the Red Hills and flows north to the sea. The Motueka
River is joined from a succession of small and medium–size tributaries draining hilly land underlain
by Moutere gravels and some of much larger tributaries originating in a complex combination of
sedimentary and igneous rocks which form the mountainous terrain of the Arthur Range on the
western boundary of the catchment. The Motueka Catchment is a large rural. It delivers up to 90%
of the freshwater to a large and productive coastal bay. The whole catchment was originally covered
in beech forests and podcarp. The major productive land uses are content 25% of exotic forest, 35%
of native plants, 19% of smaller areas of pastoral grassland, 12% scrub and 7% tussock grasslands
and increasing dairying. More than half of the catchment has been cleared with in exotic, plantation
forestry and few in dryland pasture or cropland. The Motueka River flow generation is controlled by
rainfall distribution and geology. The largest contributors to river flow in the lower Motueka are the
west and southeast

The Field Classification Of Niger Delta Basin
Field Classification
Basin: Niger Delta Basin, Offshore Nigeria Basin Type: Passive Continental Margin, Divergent
Reservoir Type: Deep Water Turbidites Reservoir Environment of Deposition: Channel sands
Reservoir Age: Miocene Hydrocarbon Type: Oil and Gas
Trap types: Stratigraphic and Structural Trap Styles: Fault block and Flank of Mud Diapir
Discovery: 1995 Water Depth: 1311m
Reserves: 1235MMBO + 951BCF Author: Mohammed Malah, 9741320
2 Introduction
The Bonga field is located in the Niger Delta region offshore Nigeria (Fig 1a), First discovered by
Shell Nigeria Exploration and Producing Company Limited (SNEPCO) about 20 years ago when a
wildcat well was drilled some 120km off the coast of the Niger Delta in water depths of ... Show
A floating production (Fig 2), storage and offloading system (FPSO) with a processing capacity of
22500b/d and storage capacity of 2million barrels was targeted for the production of the Bonga field
through a series of subsea manifold and riser systems via waterflood (Chapin et al 2002). Fig 2:
FPSO and High–rate waterflooding systems of the Bonga field from http://tle.geoscienceworld.org
4 Geologic setting
The delta complex in the Niger Delta developed as arcuate–lobate buildups across the Anambra
Basin and Cross River margins protruding to the late Cretaceous continental margin into the deep
ocean while developing a thick sedimentary apron and salient petroleum system elements
(www.indigopool.com).
The opening of the Atlantic ocean and the separation of the African continent from the South
American plate lead to the deposition of thick successions of sedimentary deposits at the continental
margin and southwards onto the oceanic crust as it was cooling (Solomon et al 2007).
The Miocene aged reservoirs within the Bonga field reside in a large anticlinal structure about
230Km2 wide where they tend to trend seaward away from the continent in a south to south–west
direction (Fig 3) (Swinburn et al 2002). Fig 3: Geologic setting of the Bonga field modified from
www.mabonltd.com
5 Stratigraphy
The Niger Delta during the Cenozoic until the Middle Miocene grew through pulses of
sedimentation over an oceanward–dipping

Evidence for the Biblical Flood
"And God said to Noah, "I have determined to make an end of all flesh, for the earth is filled with
violence through them. Behold, I will destroy the earth. Make yourself an ark..." (Genesis 6:13–14,
English Standard Version) "For behold, I will bring a flood of waters upon the earth to destroy all
flesh in which is the breath of life under heaven. Everything that is on the earth shall die." (Genesis
6:17, ESV) "And of every living thing of all flesh you shall bring two of every sort into the ark to
keep them alive with you. They shall be male and female." (Genesis 6:19, ESV) "Noah did this; he
did all that God commanded him." (Genesis 6:22, ESV) "In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in
the second month, on the seventeenth day of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(1995–2013) Finally, many evolutionists use the Grand Canyon as proof for millions of years, but
evidence shows it actually formed from the overspill from two post–Flood lakes. (Creation Today,
n.d.) Obviously, all of this evidence creates major problems for evolution, but is fully explained by
Noah's Flood. One of the biggest pieces of evidence for the Flood is the Cambrian explosion. The
Cambrian explosion is taught by evolutionist to be a sudden burst of evolution caused by an increase
in favorable environments. An evolutionist article states, "Fossils provide solid evidence that
organisms from the past are not the same as those found today; they show a progression of
evolution... The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form
over millions of years. For example, scientists have recovered highly–detailed records showing the
evolution of humans and horses." (Evidence of Evolution, n.d.) In reality the fossil record shows
that there was a sudden and nearly simultaneous appearance of all known phyla as well as species
from the most distant parts of the family tree during the Cambrian period, instead of a gradual
evolution. (Wieland, n.d.) (Wise, 2009) Fossils have been found worldwide in Precambrian rocks,
but they were too bizarre and different

Interior Plains Geography
The Interior Plains stretches from the Arctic Ocean almost to the Gulf of Mexico, the Plains are
often covered by shallow seas within the land. Sediments from the Canadian Shield and also the
rocky mountains were collected in the seas in the Plains over millions of years, eventually the
sediments were compressed by weight of layers above to become sedimentary rock. Parts of the
rock deposited in the area consists of coral reefs that formed close to the surface of the seas in the
Palaeozoic era. Today, the reefs are thousand of metres below the surface of the land, they contain
much of the oil and gas found in Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Interior Plains is covered by
various types of grasses which means it is great for farming and great habitat for animals. ... Show
The overall land of the Interior Plains slopes gently downwards from the west to the east. Below the
surface of the Interior Plains are mineral deposits, the swamps that are on the edge of the ancients
seas that once covered Saskatchewan produced plants that were eventually changed to coal which is
mined today. A lot of the Interior Plains is marked up by glaciations, the glaciers left deposits that
produced rounded, gently rolling landscape. The glaciers melted water formed a large lake, when the
land rose the water from the ancient lake drained into the ocean and what is left of that large ancient
lake are smaller lakes known as lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, Winnipegosis , and Cedar

What Are The Major Global Events Occurred During The...
1. a) What are the major global events that occurred in the Proterozoic? (3)
Three global events occurred during the Proterozoic: The oxygen revolution: During the
Proterozoic, biotic system were being established, which gave rise to biomass of the prokaryotic
organisms like the "benthic and planktonic photosynthesizing organisms" Due to the vast developing
diversity of environment, organisms could well adapt to these various environments, which
increased the input of oxygen on Earth. Hence, in order for the oxygen to be accumulated in the
atmosphere, Iron and Sulfur like oxygen–sinks had to be depleted.
Neoproterozoic ice ages: During these ice ages, two major glaciers were formed. One of which was
formed before 600 Ma, and the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When oxygen and nitrogen combine in water, it forms nitrate, which is an essential chemical for
eukaryotic algae; however, cyanobacteria do not need nitrate for their survival, contrary, they use
elemental nitrogen. This way, even after the evolution of true algae, even though in fewer quantity,
cyanobacteria remained widespread, and oxygen was accumulated.
c) How do geologists know that the glaciation was widespread early in the
Proterozoic? (2)
Glaciation that are widespread can be identified based on the subglacial tillite, which is a thick layer
of sediments that settle down beneath glaciers or ice caps. On top of this subglacial tillite layer is
deposited marine carbonate, also known as cap carbonate. Based on their paleolatitude designated
by glacial sediments' paleomagnetism, it can be determined that these deposits are from equator
region. The interaction between two types of sediments, marine (like carbonate) and subgacially
deposited sediments, indicate that the glaciers had approached marine coastlines.
2. a) What reasons are there for the Wopmay orogen being referred to as a
"modern–style" orogen? (4)
It is said during the Archean period, the temperature of Earth was higher than compared to during
the Wopmay orogen tectonism. This was the case because of the heavy, widespread and firm crust of
the Earth. Likewise the Cordillera found in modern day west part of Canada, orogeny has three
structurally

Stratigraphy Of Ototoka Beach, Whanganui
Stratigraphy of Ototoka Beach, Whanganui Abstract This report aims to give an insight into the
Stratigraphic history of the formations observed at Ototoka beach, Whanganui and to apply the use
of various geological methods in examining individual sedimentary units in order to work out the
environment that would have existed at the time of their deposition millions of years ago, and
therefore we have constructed a history of environmental changes for the area over a large scale of
time, such as the rise and fall of sea level and the co–occurring increase and decrease of
temperatures as a result, which has given us a better understanding of how the planet's environments
change over time and how ours is changing at the present day. Introduction/Background We
conducted our study at Ototoka Beach in Whanganui (Figure 5). The aim of our project was to work
in groups to measure a section along the beach using pace and compass techniques whilst describing
sediments, and collecting Micro and Macro paleontology samples for further study. We combined
the data we collected on the fieldtrip with data we were given along with published literature to
form an understanding of the stratigraphic record of Ototoka Beach. Regional Formations at Ototoka
Beach (In Order): Lower Okehu Siltstone, Butler's Shell Conglomerate, Upper Maxwell Formation,
Mangahou Siltstone, Middle Maxwell Formation, Pukekiwi Shell Sand, Lower Maxwell Formation
Aswell as conducting our own personal research at Ototoka

glg 101 weathering worksheet Essay
Associate Level Material
Weathering Worksheet
Answer the lab questions for this week and summarize the lab experience using this form.
Carefully read Ch. 7 of Geoscience Laboratory.
Complete this week's lab by filling in your responses to the questions from Geoscience Laboratory.
Although you are only required to respond to the questions in this worksheet, you are encouraged to
answer others from the text on your own.
Questions and charts are from Geoscience Laboratory, 5th ed. (p. 117–130), by T. Freeman, 2009,
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted with permission.
Lab Questions:
7.1 The nature of the boundary with bedrock serves to distinguish regolith from sediments. Describe
the difference in the boundaries between ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(This topic is covered in the exercise Metamorphic Rocks on page 110.)
Coal is a sedimentary material the amount of pyrite in coal is related to the amount of disposal
organic material that was compressed and formed
7.15 Dissolution of limestone is facilitated by a humid climate. What are the two things associated
with humid climates that promote the dissolution of limestone? Hint: These two things, both of
which can be easily observed from a car window, are illustrated in Figure 7.19.
H2o co2 and h2co3 help in the dissolution of limestone and which produces bi carbonate which
helps in the forming of caves and landscapes.
7.18 How is it that a cave is born within the saturated zone, but then somehow finds its way into the
unsaturated zone? Hint: The answer is evident in Figure 7.21.
Because the desolation and erosion depends the valley with time reducing the water table and
allowing the water from the cave to diapate.
7.19 Agitation (as in shaking) liberates CO2 from soda pop. So what one or two actions of cave
water do you think might be accompanied by agitation of the water? Hint: We're looking for a
simple cause of turbulence...as in the case of rain water.
The release or agitation of the water would release the co2 causing the water to rise and evaporate.
7.20 Name two uses of plants in addition to food. Hint: You can probably see both from your desk.
Provide oxygen and filter groundwater
7.22 Ref. Figure 7.24. Why the patchy occurrences of high rainfall

Marcellus And Utica Shell And Fracking
Marcellus/Utica shell & Fracking
What is Marcellus Shale? It is a marine sedimentary rock buried thousands of feet beneath the earths
surfaces. Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups and is formed in four main ways: by
the deposition of the weathered remains of other rocks; by the accumulation and the consolidation of
sediments; by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution.
Marcellus Shale is found throughout the Allegheny Plateau region of the northern Appalachian basin
of North America. It stretches from upstate New York south through Pennsylvania to West Virginia
and west to parts of Ohio. Marcellus shale was named after a town in upstate New York, the rock
itself is millions of years old, formed from mud and other natural materials. Its made up of the
formation of black shale that may contain lime stone beds and concentrations of iron pyrite and
siderite. The Sedimentary beds and structure is very well developed. Lighter colored shales in the
upper portion of the formation tend to split into small thin edged fragments after exposure. The
fragments may have and leave rust stains from exposure of pyrite to air, and tiny gypsum crystals
from the reaction between both of the fragments pyrite and the limestone particles. Fresh exposures
of the pyriteiferous shale may develop the secondary mineralization of orange limonite and the pale
yellow efflorescence or bloom of sulfur, associated with acid

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