This document discusses fats and fatty acids. It begins by explaining the history of the lipid hypothesis and the subsequent demonization of dietary fat. However, it notes that not all fats are equal and some fats like omega-3s are essential. It then provides detailed information on different types of fatty acids like saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, omega-3s and omega-6s. The document discusses the functions of omega-3s and risks of trans fats. It also outlines food sources of fats and diagrams the omega-6/omega-3 metabolic pathway. In summary, the document provides a comprehensive overview of fats and fatty acids, their classification, functions, food sources and

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Fat – Friend or Foe?
After the advent of "lipid hypothesis",
which linked the consumption of dietary fat
with increased risk of heart disease and other
health problems, fats were so highly defamed by
the medical establishment that many people
started thinking that the best answer to the "fat
problem" is to stay away from it as far as
possible. Food processing companies quickly
took advantage of this era of “fat phobia”, and
soon flooded the market with "low fat" and "no
free" products, promising to put an end to heart
disease and obesity, but the incidence of these
diseases is still skyrocketing.
The truth is that not all fats are equal. While the consumption of some ugly fats (trans-fats)
are, really, a risk factor for many health problems, some other fats, including alpha-linolenic acid
ALA (head of the omega-3 family) and linoleic acid LA (head of the omega-6 family), are so
important for health that they have been termed "essential fatty acids" (EFAs). Our body need
them to perform vitally important functions, but is unable to produce them. Therefore, we must
get them from our food. That's why any attempt to indiscriminately reduce or eliminate all fats
from our diet inevitably leads to an EFA
deficiency, which may be very dangerous to
health.
For all the good it does, fat is often blamed to
cause obesity, because it contains 9 calories per
gram, while carbohydrate and protein contain only
4 calories. Yet, it's a mistake to relate dietary fat
with body fat. You can get fat eating carbs and
protein, even if you eat little dietary fat.
In 1956, Hugh Sinclair, one of the world's
greatest researchers in the field of nutrition,
suggested that an upsurge in the so-called
"diseases of civilization" e.g. coronary heart
disease, strokes, type-2 diabetes, arthritis and
cancer - was caused by modern diets being
extremely poor in essential fatty acids (EFA) and
full of processed foods rich in trans-fatty acids.
Although Sinclair's opinions were not supported
by his pears, and he was even criticized by some
of them for his bold hypothesis, later research
convincingly shown that he was, indeed, correct.
In fact, he is now praised for insights that were far
ahead of his time.

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What is a fatty acid?
Fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long unbranched aliphatic carbon chain, which is either
saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of 4 to 28 carbons.
There is always even number of carbons. First Carbon from carboxyl end is called α, second β,
third γ, fourth δ ….. and the last carbon is called ω or omega and the last end is called omega
end.
Fatty Acids - Nomenclature
CN:M
Carbon Number of Carbon atoms Number of Double Bonds 1-6
The good fats
When unsaturation of fatty acids occur, two adjacent
hydrogen atoms are removed on the same side of the fatty acid
chain and a double bond is placed between two adjacent carbons.
This is called cis configuration and causes the chain to bend by
350
. Here energy rich pi-electrons are accumulated, these are also
called electron clouds. Chain becomes weaker at the double bond.
Cis fatty acids are thermodynamically less stable than the trans
forms. They slip over each other and are liquid at room
temperature. They have lower melting points than the trans-fatty
acids or their saturated counterparts.
Classification of Fatty Acids
One system of fatty acid classification is based on the number of double bonds.
 Saturated fatty acids: Zero double bonds - Stearic acid is a typical long chain saturated
fatty acid.

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 Monounsaturated fatty acids: 1 double bond - Oleic acid is a typical monounsaturated
fatty acid.
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids: 2 or more double bonds - Linoleic acid is a typical
polyunsaturated fatty acid.
Chain Length of Fatty Acids
Very Long chain FA 23 – 28 Carbons - A very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) is a fatty
acid with aliphatic tails longer than 22 carbons. Unlike most fatty acids, VLCFAs are too long to
be metabolized in the mitochondria, and must be metabolized in peroxisomes.
Long chain FA 13 – 22 Carbons - are most important and vital fatty acids for us like ALA,
LA, EPA, DHA etc.
Medium chain FA 6 - 12 Carbons - MCFAs are caproic acid (C6), caprylic acid (C8),
capric acid (C10) and lauric acid (C12). Coconut oil is composed of approximately 66%
medium-chain fatty acids.
Short chain FA 4 - 6 Carbons - like Formic acid, Propionic acid, Isobutyric acid, Butyric
acid, Isovaleric acid & valeric acid. These are produced in the large bowel as a result of bacterial
fermentation of soluble fiber.
Omega-3 Fats
Alpha-Linolenic Acid ALA
 Short Formula - 18:3 n-3

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 That means it has a chain of 18 carbons, 3 sis double bonds and first double bond is
located after 3rd
carbon from omega end.
 Melting point -110
Celcius
Eicosapentaenoic acid EPA
 Short Formula - 20:5 n-3
 That means it has a chain of 20 carbons, 5 sis double bonds and it is an omega-3 fat.
 Melting point -560
Celsius
Docosahexaenoic acid DHA
 Short Formula - 22:6 n-3
 That means it has a chain of 22 carbons, 6 sis double bonds and first double bond is
located after 3rd
carbon as it is an omega-3 fat.
 Melting point -500
Celcius
Alpha-Linolenic Acid ALA Docosahexaenoic acid DHA
Omega-6 Fats
Linoleic Acid LA
 Short Formula - 18:2 n-6
 That means it has a chain of 18 carbons, 2 sis double bonds and first double bond is
located after 6th
carbon from omega end, so it is an omega-6 fat.
 Melting point -50
Celsius
Arachidonic Acid AA
 Short Formula - 20:4 n-6
 That means it has a chain of 20 carbons, 4 sis double bonds and first double bond is
located after 6th
carbon from omega end, so it is an omega-6 fat.
 Melting point -490
Celsius

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Linoleic Acid LA Arachidonic Acid AA
Functions of Omega-3 fats
Omega-3 fats have live, energy rich pi-electrons, also called electron clouds. Electrons are
key to health and longevity. This is the biggest “Anti-entropy Factor”. Electrons are extremely
important to the body’s overall energy exchange potential “the flow of life force or prana.” The
recent research has brought some extremely interesting and promising results in terms of the
potential of omega-3 fatty acids to prevent and treat many modern diseases. Functions of omega-
3 fats are summarized as follows:
 Anti-clotting (thrombolytic) effect: Omega-3s help to avoid thrombosis (formation of
blood clots) by preventing platelets (thrombocytes) from sticking together and forming
blood clots. Blood clots, may result in stroke, heart attack, or pulmonary embolism (PE),
are the no#1 cause of death, but most of them are preventable by including omega-3 fatty
acids into one's diet.
 Lowering the risk of heart disease, including coronary heart disease and
atherosclerosis. Omega-3 fatty acids have been proven to benefit heart health,
particularly through their vasodilatory (widening of blood vessels) and anti-atherogenic
(preventing the formation of artery-blocking atherosclerotic plaques) effects.
 Lowering the level of LDL cholesterol in the blood.
 Alleviating hypertension. Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to lower mild
hypertension when it is due to cardiovascular disease, specifically atherosclerosis.
 Reduction in heart irregularities. Omega-3 EFAs have been shown to lower heartbeat
rates and prevent arrhythmias (disturbances of the normal rhythm in the heart's beating),
thus decreasing the chances of a sudden death from a heart attack.
 Alleviation of circulatory problems. Circulatory problems such as varicose veins and
Raynaud's disease benefit from omega-3 supplementation. Omega-3s stimulate blood
circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin, a compound involved in clot and scar
formation.

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 Helping to alleviate depression and mood disorders. Persons with depression and
mood disorders may also benefit from omega-3 supplementation.
 Reducing aggression. A new study of teenagers has found that omega-3 EFAs relates to
lower hostility rates in teenagers. Hostility has been shown to play a role in the
development and manifestation of heart disease.
 Helping patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia and
dyspraxia. Persons who suffer from ADHD, dyslexia and dyspraxia (absence of ability
to perform coordinated skilled movements) benefit from omega-3 intake.
 Helping to improve memory and learning skills, and prevent Alzheimer's disease.
Studies have proven that omega-3 fatty acids improve brain function and that the intake
of omega-3s is linked to a lowered risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. Studies also
suggest that omega-3 EFAs may have a protective effect on the nervous system.
 Prevention of allergies in children. Studies have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acid
intake by prospective mothers during pregnancy may protect their babies against the
development of allergies. Omega-3s have been found to protect against symptoms of hay
fever, sinus infections, asthma, food allergies, as well as allergic skin conditions such as
hives and eczema.
 Improving the condition of those who suffer from inflammatory skin disorders such
as psoriasis and eczema. In the skin of persons with psoriasis and other inflammatory
skin disorders the amount of compounds causing inflammation is many times greater than
normal. Omega-3 EFAs inhibit the production of these inflammatory compounds,
improving the health of skin, nails and hair.
 Alleviating rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other inflammatory forms of arthritis,
affecting, in particular, persons with psoriasis and gout. Omega-3 fatty acids reduce
the amount of compounds causing inflammation, and increase the formation of anti-
inflammatory substances such as PGE3.
 Improving the immune status. The intake of omega-3 fatty acids has been proven to be
beneficial for the body's immune function. Research has also linked the intake of omega-
3s to lowered risk of breast cancer and prostate cancer.
 Alleviating certain symptoms of PMS. Premenstrual symptoms such as pain, cramps
and bloating are often alleviated by resorting to omega-3 supplementation. Omega-3 fatty
"Nobody seemed to notice that a crime has been committed: It was the case of the
missing nutrient. The nutrient was essential; it was a nutrient we human beings
needed in order to stay healthy. It started to disappear from our diet about 75 years
ago and now is almost gone. Only about 20% of the amount needed for human health
and well-being remains. The nutrient is a fatty acid so important and so little
understood that I call it "the nutritional missing link"….Food grade linseed oil & fish
oil are the best sources of this special fat—Omega 3 essential fatty acid—which
modern food destroys."
Donald Rudin, M.D. (The Omega 3 Phenomenon)

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acids are converted into hormone-like substances (type 3 prostaglandins, or PGE3),
which help to control contractions of the uterus.
 Improvement of visual acuity. Research has shown that omega-3 EFAs is linked to
lowered risk of age-related macular degeneration - an eye condition which is the leading
cause of severe loss of vision in people over 50.
Trans-fats – The ugly fats
A trans-fatty acids, by contrast, has its hydrogens on opposite sides of the double bond. As a
result, they do not cause the chain to bend, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty
acids. Trans fats are “anti-human”, electron-poor, directed into the past, life functions are
paralyzed, lacks energy and strength because the electrons that are in harmony with the
sun as “life-element” are missing. Most trans-fatty acids are not found in nature and are the
result of hydrogenation.
 Increase cancer risk factors.
 Elevate cardiovascular risk factors.
 Interfere with insulin function.
 Decrease testosterone.
 These are solid at room temperature.
 Change the fluidity of cell membranes.
 Interfere with the healing fats.
 Trans fat is the biggest enemy of mankind.
Food Sources
Fast Food - Most fast foods including their Indian fried foods are fried in partially
hydrogenated oils, refined oils, which increases their trans fat content. Burgers, fried chicken,
fried cheese sticks, biscuits and fish sandwiches also contain high trans fats.
Baked Goods - All processed and packaged baked goods are a top source of trans fats
because most manufacturers use partially hydrogenated oils to extend the shelf life of the
products. Packaged cookies, donuts, pies and pastries can contain 2 to 3 grams of trans fat per
serving.
Margarine (Vanaspati) - All margarines are a significant source of trans fat in the average
diet. They are often cheaper than real butter, and can contain less saturated fat, making them

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appear to be better for you. These products can contain trans fat, however, while real butter
doesn't.
Additional Sources - Packaged snacks, such as potato chips, French fries, pizza and cheese-
flavored curls, can contain high trans fats.
Even when the food label lists the trans fat content of a processed food as zero, a serving
may contain up to nearly half a gram of trans fat by law. Small amounts of some "trans-fat-free"
foods can really add up. For example, a box of cookies labeled "0 trans fats" could actually have
half a gram per serving. Thus four cookies could contain close to 2 grams of trans fat -- the upper
limit suggested for many adults.
Omega-6 / Omega-3 Metabolic Pathways
The Omega-6 / Omega-3 Metabolic Pathway is nicely explained in the picture. It turns out
that Both the omega-3 and omega-6 pathway utilize the same enzymes, so both have to compete
for these enzymes. The omega-6 class Dihommogamma-Linoleic Acid (DGLA) can be
converted to either the anti-inflammatory PG1 or into arachidonic acid (AA). Conversion of
DGLA into PG1 does not require any enzymes, but conversion of DGLA into AA requires the
enzyme delta-5 desaturase.
In diets high in omega-3, most of the delta-5 desaturase will be used in the omega-3
pathway; so very little delta-5 desaturase will be available to convert DGLA into arachidonic
acid, and subsequently, into PG2. Thus DGLA ends up being converted into the anti-
inflammatory PG1.
Don’t heat any oil in the kitchen because high temperature frying and
deep frying produce trans fats and dangerous chemicals. Best medium for
frying is water.
Lothar Hirneise

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Prostaglandins - Overview
Prostaglandins were first discovered and isolated from human semen in the 1930s by Ulf
von Euler of Sweden. Thinking they had come from the prostate gland, he named them
prostaglandins. It has since been determined that they exist and are synthesized in virtually every
cell of the body. Prostaglandins, are potent but short-lived chemical messengers and are either
locally active (Paracrine) or act on the same cell (Autocrine) within which they are synthesized.
Prostaglandins and related compounds are collectively known as eicosanoids. Most are
produced from arachidonic acid, a 20 carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid (5,8,11,14-
eicosatetraenoic acid).
Prostaglandins all have a cyclopentane ring, and a letter code, based on ring modifications
(e.g., hydroxyl or keto groups). A subscript refers to the number of double bonds in the two side-
chains. Thromboxanes are similar but have instead a six-member ring.
Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes
from platelets (thrombocytes) and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their
names. The lipoxins are anti-inflammatory eicosanoids synthesized through lipoxygenase
interactions (hence the derivation of the name).

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Examples of eicosanoids are prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and
epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. They have various roles in inflammation, fever, regulation of blood
pressure, blood clotting, immune system modulation, control of reproductive processes and
tissue growth, and regulation of the sleep/wake cycle.
Good – Anti-inflammatory
Series 3 prostaglandins
Series 1 prostaglandins
Bad – Pro-inflammatory
Series 2 prostaglandins
Prostaglandins - Functions
 Cause constriction or dilatation of blood vessels.
 Cause aggregation or disaggregation of platelets.
 Sensitize spinal neurons to pain.
 Constrict smooth muscle.
 Regulate inflammatory mediation.
 Regulate movement of calcium and other minerals & nutrients in the cell.
 Control hormone regulation.
 Control cell growth.
 Regulates cellular communication.
Series 1 prostaglandins
 Series 1 prostaglandins are Anti-inflammatory, Thrombolytic - Decreased platelet
aggregation (blood clotting), pain reliever and control cellular activities.
 The strong anti-inflammatory properties help the body recover from injury by reducing
pain, swelling and redness.
Series 2 prostaglandins
 Series 2 PG seem to be involved in swelling inflammation, clotting and dilation.
 Series 2 prostaglandins are "fast lane" i.e. involved in intense actions and play a role in
swelling and inflammation at sites of injury. This is not at all a "bad" effect, but an
important protective mechanism - the body's way of immobilizing the affected site to
prevent further injury and facilitate healing.
 Series 2 prostaglandins also seem to play a role in inducing birth, in regulating
temperature, in lowering blood pressure, and in the regulation of platelet aggregation and
clotting.
Series 3 prostaglandins
 The Series 3 prostaglandins are formed at a slower rate and work to attenuate excessive
Series 2 production. Their response is "less vigorous".

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 The omega-3 pathway might therefore be likened to the "slow lane“.
 Adequate production of the Series 3 prostaglandins seems to protect against heart attack
and stroke as well as certain inflammatory diseases like arthritis, lupus and asthma.
Good Prostaglandins Bad Prostaglandins
Decreased platelet aggregation (prevents
blood clotting)
Increased platelet aggregation (helps in
blood clotting)
Vasodilatation (widening of blood
vessels)
Vasoconstriction (narrowing of vessels)
Anti-inflammatory effect Pro-inflammatory effect
Immune system enhancement Immune system suppression
Increased oxygen flow Decreased oxygen flow
Decreased cell proliferation Increased cell proliferation
Decreased pain Increased pain
Widening of respiratory passages Narrowing of respiratory passages
Increased endurance Lowered endurance
N-6/N-3 ratio out of balance - road to aging, disease & death
Both groups of prostaglandins perform vitally important functions and supplement each
other through complex and multi-faceted interactions. For centuries ratio of Omega-6 and
Omega-3 was perfect e.g. 2:1 or even 4:1 (very ideal ratio). But after the global switch to
industrial agriculture and processed foods it is 20:1 or more (!!!).
This throws the body into the state of chronic inflammation, giving rise to a whole array of
clot- and inflammation-related chronic diseases, including thrombosis, arthritis, diabetes,
atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, cancer and asthma.

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Balanced N-6/N-3 ratio – road to health, Ultra wellness & longevity
There is only one crucial condition that must be fulfilled if the entire system is to work well
and promote health, rather than disease. This condition is BALANCE. For the prostaglandin
pathways to run smoothly, the intake of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids must be well-balanced,
within the 1:1 to 4:1 range.
"Our immune system, which is vital for destroying cancer cells, requires EFAs,
vitamins C, B6, and A, and zinc to function, and requires an exceptionally rich
nutrient supply of ALL essential nutrients for its high level of complex cellular
activities. Deficiencies of EFAs and toxic, man-made synthetic drugs that interfere
with essential fatty acid functions can create the conditions of fatty degeneration
collectively known as cancer."
Udo Erasmus