Specific Heat Of Calorimeter Lab Report

Specific Heat Of Calorimeter Lab Report
John Yu
Meyer
AP Chem
9 October, 2016
In this experiment, hot water was mixed with room temperature water in a calorimeter to calculate
the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter. The specific heat of the calorimeter was then used to
find the enthalpy of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, ammonia and hydrochloric acid, and
ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide by mixing each, respectively, into the beaker after each
other. The beaker was washed with distilled water after each reaction. The enthalpy of sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid and ammonia and hydrochloric acid were subtracted together to
calculate the enthalpy of ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide to prove Hess' Law.
The lab errors that occurred in this lab would be the heat escaping while the reactants were being
added to the calorimeter because there is an opening and way for the heat to escape in that moment.
This caused the reaction to lose heat and energy to the lab and cause the reaction to report less
energy than there should be. Also, some of the heat was lost from the calorimeter because no perfect
calorimeter can exist. This caused the reaction to lose energy as well. The reactants have not ...
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This lab observed the Law of Energy Conservation that all the energy in the reactions was from the
reactants breaking and forming new bonds. The Law of Energy Conservation was also observed
when the energy lost as heat from the beaker was found in the calorimeter. In the calculations, Hess'
Law was tested and proved with adding the enthalpies of reaction two and three equalling the
enthalpy of reaction one. This lab also observed endothermic reactions through neutralization and
the forming of salts. Thermal equilibrium was observed temperature stabilizing in the calorimeter
with the mixing of hot and cold water. Since the reactions were giving off heat, the enthalpy of the
reactions were negative and the reactions are product
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Baking Soda Vs Vinegar Essay
To begin, did you know when you combine vinegar with baking soda it will create a chemical
reaction that can make a balloon fill up with carbon dioxide gas? The reaction between baking soda
and vinegar is an acid–base reaction as vinegar is a dilute acid called acetic acid. This project is to
see when baking soda and vinegar are combined, if varying the amounts of vinegar will make a
balloon fill up faster.
Therefore, when baking soda and vinegar combine, they create a chemical reaction. A chemical
reaction is a process that includes the rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a
substance, as opposed to a change in physical form or a nuclear reaction. A chemical reaction is
accompanied physical effects, such as the emission of heat and light, the formation of a precipitate,
the evolution of gas, or a color change. Chemical reactions are constantly occurring in the world
around us. Everything from the rusting of an iron fence to the ... Show more content on
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Baking Soda is a bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and vinegar is an acetic acid (HCH3COO). Vinegar
contains acetic acid, each molecule of which contains a hydrogen atom, and an acetate ion. Because
Sodium bicarbonate is alkaline, meaning it falls into the base section of the pH scale, it helps to
neutralize acids.
Each molecule of baking soda contains a sodium atom, a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom, and a
carbon dioxide molecule.
To conclude, there are many reasons why vinegar and baking soda react, some people agree with the
theories and some people disagree with the reasons why they create a chemical reaction. Baking
soda and vinegar erupt because the baking soda and vinegar react to form carbon dioxide gas inside
of the mixture. Baking Soda and Vinegar react with each other because they exchange atoms.
When baking soda and acetic acid react, three new molecules are formed: water (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), and sodium acetate

Magnesium Combustion Lab
Magnesium Metal Strip Combustion Experiment
Introduction
When a chemical change occurs/takes place, new substances are formed in a chemical reaction.
These new products may have very different properties from the substances that were present at the
start of the reaction. Magnesium is a silver–white metal, used to make strong lightweight alloys. It is
used in flash bulbs (flash bangs) and pyrotechnics, as it burns with a brilliant white flame. When
magnesium burns, it is actually reacting with oxygen in the air and not with fire. Magnesium reacts
with oxygen to make a compound called magnesium oxide. The bright light results because this
reaction is exothermic.
Aim
We are examining and identifying this investigative experiment to find out if a chemical change of
combustion has occurred when you place a magnesium metal ribbon in contact with a working, blue
flame from a Bunsen burner which will ignite the magnesium metal strip.
Hypothesis
If we follow the method correctly and successfully then the magnesium metal ribbon will ignite then
combust into a bright, white light because a chemical change ... Show more content on
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The chemical reaction that occurred was a combustion reaction, it is an exothermic reaction in
which something reacts with oxygen and then ignite into a burning white bright light. One of the
products used was magnesium, magnesium is a silvery white metallic chemical element, it forms a
thin layer around itself to help prevent itself from rusting when exposed to air. In the experiment
The magnesium was reacting with oxygen in the air and not with the fire. Fire is the heat and light
produced when things burn. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to make a compound called magnesium
oxide. The bright light results because this reaction produces a lot of

Alkylation of Azole Derivatives Essay
Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................
Background....................................................................................
Previous Work..............................................................................
Results and Discussion.....................................................................
Future Work......................................................................................
Experimental Procedures........................................................................
References..........................................................................................
Introduction Synthesis of molecules is very important in the development of natural products used in
medicine today.1 However, there are many problems with the current synthesis method that conflict
with many of the guidelines in the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry and are potentially hazardous.2
The proposed research plan includes the formation of a salt by allylation followed by the Aza–
Claisen rearrangement which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To achieve this goal, Green Chemistry focuses specifically on preventing waste, designing safer
chemicals and synthetic methods, and saving energy and money.4 This research of azole synthesis is
a study incorporating these practices of green chemistry, consequently improving the current
synthesis method for pharmaceutical production. The benefits of Green Chemistry are countless.
From an economic point of view, businesses can save large amounts of money by eliminating the
costly efforts of excessive pollutant prevention. Also, increasing efficiency of materials used and
improving the yields of reactions is minimizing the cost of materials for production. Using organic
solvents along with reducing pollution creates a safer environment for workers and enhances public
safety. 4 Therefore, these improvements are very important and should be included in the current
synthetic methods used in industries today. Forming C–C bonds at the C2 of azoles is a necessary
step in the beginning of the current azole synthesis method which generally requires using strong
bases, low temperatures, and/or expensive, toxic precious metal catalysts.5,6,7 By substituting these
issues with organic solvents, ambient temperature, and weaker bases, a synthesis method better
suited for pharmaceutical industries is created.
Background Even though previous methods of azole synthesis have

Six Types Of A Chemical Reaction
Some people may ask what exactly is a chemical reaction? A chemical reaction is a process that
involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance. There is six types of
chemical reactions named Synthesis, Decomposition, Single Replacement, Double Replacement,
Combustion, and Acid base reactions.
Synthesis is when two or more reactants combine to form one product. Synthesis always forms a
compound. The equation for synthesis is A + B –––> AB. Water, which is H2O is a good example of
a synthesis reaction. An example of a synthesis reaction is when a metal or nonmetal reacts with
oxygen to form an oxide. One way that synthesis reactions connect to the real world is salt. Salt is a
synthesis reaction of NaCl which is sodium chloride. The equation would be Sodium (Na) +
Chlorine (Cl) –––> Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and this would make it a synthesis reaction.
The opposite of a synthesis reaction would be a decomposition reaction. A decomposition reaction is
when one reactant is broken down into two or more products. This means a compound is broken
down into separate products. The equation would be the opposite of synthesis which is AB –––> A +
B. An example of a decomposition reaction is 2H2O –––> 2H2 + O2. The lab we did in chemistry
class called Electrolysis of Water is a good example of decomposition because decomposition was
produced by passing an electric current through the substance in the container with the screw and
nail inside which represent the

The Effect Of Dehydration Of Cyclohexene
In this experiment, dehydration is carried out using cyclohexanol to obtain cyclohexene. This acid–
catalysed reaction involves E1 elimination mechanism. The dehydration of alcohol will remove
OH– from cyclohexanol to form cyclohexene. Cyclohexene contains a single double bond in the
molecule. It is a six carbon aromatic hydrocarbon. Phosphoric acid is mixed with cyclohexanol in
the round–bottomed flask and is heated. The phosphoric acid act as a catalyst that increases the rate
of reaction but it does not change the overall stoichiometry. The acid catalyst will convert the
hydroxyl group into a good leaving group. It is an equilibrium reaction in which the equilibrium is
forced to the right (alkene). (Department of Chemistry 2014) Boling chips are added to the
distillating flask. If not, the liquid may over boil and shoot out of the ... Show more content on
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E1 reaction is a two–step mechanism which includes the protonation of hydroxyl group and the
formation of carbocation intermediate (rate–determining step).
Questions:
1. Dehydration of cyclohexanol gives cyclohexene. Draw mechanism for the reaction.
2. What alkene(s) will be produced when each of the following alcohols is dehydrated?
a) t–butyl alcohol CH3 CH3 CH3 C OH CH3 C = CH2 + H2O CH3 Ans: 2–methyl–1–propene
b) 3–methylcyclohexanol
Ans: 1–methylcyclohexene, 3–methylcyclohexene and 4–methylcyclohexene.
3. The dehydration of 3,3–dimethyl–2–butanol yields three different products. Write equations to
show how carbocation rearrangements explain two of the products.
Ans: A secondary carbocation is formed initially, it then rearranges to a tertiary carbocation when a
neighbouring methyl group with its bonding electron pair migrates to the positive carbon. The
charge is transferred to the tertiary

Prostaglandin
In 1990, Morrow, Roberts, and colleagues reported the formation of prostaglandin (PG)–like
compounds in vivo, termed isoprostanes, by free radical–induced peroxidation of arachidonic acid
(Morrow, Harris et al. 1990). Analogous to the cyclooxygenase enzymatic pathway, intermediates in
the IsoP pathway are PGH2–like bicyclic endoperoxides. In aqueous media, PGH2 is unstable and
undergoes rearrangement to form –ketoaldehydes, levulinaldehyde derivatives termed levuglandin
E2 and D2 (Salomon, Miller et al. 1984). Levuglandins comprise approximately 20% of the total
rearrangement products of PGH2. Considering that the IsoP endoperoxides undergo rearrangement
in vivo to form E2–IsoPs, D2–IsoPs, and isothromboxanes along with F2–IsoPs (Morrow, Minton et
al. 1994, Morrow, Awad ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1996), Brame and colleagues explored whether such rearrangement also results in the formation of
levuglandin–like compounds. Their findings concluded that –ketoaldehydes are also formed via
the IsoP pathway, and was termed isoketals (IsoKs). Although the characterization of another lipid
peroxidation product is exciting, there are perhaps thousands of other minor oxidation products
formed during peroxidation. What makes the discovery of isoketals remarkable? Is the yield of
isoketals likely to be a consequential lipid peroxidation product? In order to address these concerns,
the yield of levulinaldehyde product from the rearrangement of H2–IsoPs was determined by using
PGH2 as a precursor. PGH2 was used instead of arachidonic acid because of the relative expediency
of obtaining this isomer enzymatically versus isolating the various H2–IsoPs from the mixture
formed by oxidation of arachidonic acid. Incubation of PGH2 in phosphate buffered solution results
in 22% yield of –ketoaldehyde (Salomon, Miller et al. 1984). One note to emphasize, formation of
H2–IsoPs occurs while the arachidonic acid moiety is still esterified to the phospholipids (Morrow,
Awad et al. 1992), therefore, a

Dicumarol Reaction Lab Report
The reaction is rapid (less than 15 seconds stirring time) employing commercially available
reactants and the interfacial reaction system that is currently employed in the synthesis of aromatic
amides and polycarbonates. Thus, the process can employed in the production of grams to tons of
product. Product yields are high, all above 90%, with the exception of the dioctyltin product. It is
possible that the extended chain length of the octyl moiety inhibits rapid close contact of the
reactants resulting is decreased yield. It is instructive to remember that the active form of the
dicumarol is the form as shown in Figure 2 since strong base, NaOH, is added forming the
deprotonation of the aromatic hydroxide groups of the dicumarol. Table 1 also contains the average
chain lengths for each of the products. The products are low to medium polymers with chain length
ranging from 36 to 370 repeat units. There appears to be no trend with ... Show more content on
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The dioctyltin product shows the lowest yield yet the highest chain length. The shortest alkyltin
chain length, the dimethyltin, shows the next greatest chain length. The lack of specific trends is not
unexpected since the reaction is complex and chain length and yield probably depend on a number
of factors including solubility in each phase, rapidity that the reactants enter the reaction zone, and
product solubility since the products are collected as precipitates from the reaction system. Infrared
Spectroscopy Infrared spectral analysis was carried out for all of the samples over the range of
4000–650 cm–1. All band locations are given cm–1. Infrared spectral analysis is consistent with the
proposed structure and with other reported analyses [11–24]. The spectra all show bands
characteristic of both reactants and new bands for the product assigned to the

The Magic Growing Capsules
Our project is testing how various liquids affect the growing rates and growth of Magic Growing
Capsules. We were inspired to perform this experiment because we had done a similar experiment in
6th grade science class working with growing capsules, and we were curious to find out more about
how the substance affects the speed at which the capsules grow. The Magic Growing Capsules are
made of a large polymer, which is a substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or
entirely of a large number of similar units bonded together. When the capsule is submerged in water,
the polymer expands, causing the capsule to turn into a sponge animal. To better our understanding
before we began experimentation, we researched and defined certain

The Effect Of Temperature On The Reaction Rate Of...
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on the reaction rate of hydrochloric acid and
magnesium.
Introduction: Chemistry happens everywhere, not just in a lab. Matter interacts to form new
substances through a process called a chemical reaction. Your body lives and grows because of
chemical reactions, whether by taking medicine or even a breath. A chemical reaction is defined as
the process that involves rearrangement of the ionic structure of a substance. A reaction rate is how
fast or slow a reaction takes place. Chemicals that proceed quickly have a fast reaction rate, whereas
slowly proceeding chemicals have a slow reaction rate. There are many ways to increase the
reaction rate of chemicals, for example temperature. If the temperature of the substance is increased,
the particles would have higher kinetic energy resulting in more & more collisions. A greater
proportion of collisions results in a reaction. Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid are the two
chemicals investigated throughout. Magnesium is an important supplement in the human body as
well as its uses in many lightweight products such as car seats, luggage as well as fireworks and
sparklers. Hydrochloric Acid can be found in the human body as a digestive acid.
Question: Does temperature make a reaction rate change?
Hypothesis: If Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium were placed in hot water then it is expected that the
reaction rate would be faster than the substance placed in cold water.
Justification of

Ring Contraction Of A Ring
RING CONTRACTION
All the carbons of a ring are equivalent (a ring has no ends like an open–chain compound does),1
ring compounds can be classified as either monocyclic or polycyclic compounds.
As the word "contraction" means shrinking, ring contraction can be defined as the process of
shrinking larger ring compounds which are less strained into a more strained smaller ring structures.
Instead of making small strained ring by chemical reaction which is very strenuous to do, ring
contraction is a process of easing the stress of forming smaller strained ring on their own.
A ring contraction reaction is a type of organic reaction in which usually a hydrocarbon ring is
reduced in size.2 Ring contraction reactions are an important method to increase molecular
complexity in a single step, because, in many cases, the reorganization of the bonds occurs with a
high level of selectivity, affording products not easily accessible by other synthetic approaches.2.
and 3.
The smallest ring compound possible is cyclopropane, this is so because we need at least three
carbon atoms to form a ring structure. Cyclopropane is the most strained ring compound due to the
fact that its carbon atoms are sp3 hybridized, sp3 carbon have an angle of 1090, but the carbon
atoms in cyclopropane are strained in an angle of 600. Scheme 1: Mechanism of a typical ring
contraction
METHODS FOR RING CONTRACTION
Ring contraction occurs through rearrangement of carbon atoms to form a smaller ring structure.
Two

Benzoin
Benzoin has a secondary alcohol as well as a ketone functional group which is oxidized into benzil
with nitric acid. Oxidation of alpha–hydroxyketone occurs to form alpha–diketone. Hydroxyl group
adds as a nucleophile on the carbonyl carbon of alcohol with nitric acid to form organic nitrate.
Nitric acid is protonated to form benzil. Rearrangement of alpha–diketone benzil occurs. Hence, the
addition of potassium hydroxide to benzil yields a carboxylic salt. Hydrochloric acid added to the
potassium benzilate produces the final product of benzilic acid. The yellow color of the crystals
determined that benzil was formed. The melting point of benzil is 94–96C (ChemSpider).
However, the melting point achieved was 86C, as seen in Table 3. It was a narrow melting point
range, thus indicating that benzil had impurities, such as solvent or reactant. Benzilic acid has a
melting point of 148–152C (ChemSpider). As seen in Table 4, benzilic acid had a melting point of
145.4C. Benzilic acid also contains solvent or reactant impurities. The overall yield is computed
by multiplying the pure, crude, and benzilic acid. The effect of low overall yield, hence indicates
that the reaction was not successful. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An error in the experiment was the low percent yield, which states that impurities occurred.
Therefore, if the reaction time was increased there would not be as much excess reactant. Another
improvement would be to decrease the proportion of ethanol, which would increase the amount of
crystal formation. Although, the impurities will be the same, the yield will be higher. Allowing more
time for the reaction mixture to cool would be beneficial because the crystals would not be formed
immediately but over a period of time. Another improvement may be to increase drying time
because the low percent yield may indicate that the crystals were still

Decomposition Of Nahco3
The guiding question for the ADI lab was, "Which balanced chemical equation best represents the
thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate?" The goal of the lab was to determine which one, of
the four given, chemical equations best represents how atoms are rearranged during the thermal
decomposition of the compound (NaHCO3). The atomic theory states that a chemical reaction is the
rearrangement of atoms with no atoms being destroyed and no new atoms being produced during the
process. Since that is true it helps to explains The Law of conservation of mass, which states that
mass is conserved during a chemical reaction. The goal of this observational lab was achieved by
conducting and observing an experiment. Before beginning, some dimensional analysis was done to
each of the four given equations (Table 1). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The experiment started by measuring 2 grams (1 ⁄42 of a mole) of the solid substance, NaHCO3, in a
crucible (10.4 grams including crucible) and then placing it on a pipe–stem triangle over a bunsen
burner. The substance was left over the bunsen burner for a total of 13 minutes. In those minutes
observations were made, like a gas releasing from the crucible. After those timed minutes, the
burner was turned off and the crucible, with the remaining substance still left inside, was left on the
pipe–stem triangle to cool. After seven minutes of cooling the crucible was then remeasured, on a
scale, and weighed 1.2 g of NaHCO3 (9.6 grams including crucible). With this it was determined
that the second potential explanation best represented the thermal decomposition of sodium

Part a: Dehydration of 1-Butanol & 2-Butanol/Part B:...
Ashley Droddy
CHM 235LL–Monday, 3/19/2012 & 3/26/2012
Part A: Dehydration of 1–butanol & 2–Butanol/Part B: Dehydrobromination of 1–Bromobutane
& 2–Bromobutane
Abstract
The objective of this experiment is to successfully perform a dehydration of 1–butanol and 2–
butanol, also dehydrobromination of 1–bromobutane and 2–bromobutane to form the alkene
products 1–butene, trans–2–butene, and cis–2–butene. The dehydration reactions react under and
acid–catalysis which follows an E1 mechanism. It was found that dehydration of 1–butanol yielded
3.84% cis–2–butene, 81.83% trans–2–butene, and 14.33% 1–butene, while 2–butanol is unknown
due to mechanical issues with the GC machine. For the dehydrobromination, with the addition of a
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That the more stable alkene trans–2–butene, is the major product at approximately 82%. While, the
two minor products would be 1–butene at 14%, and cis–2–butene at only approximately 4%.
Although, dehydration was not performed on 2–butanol, it would also produce the 3 isomeric
alkenes like 1–butanol via an E2 mechanism. The percentages would probably be very similar as
well. With trans–2–butene, being the major product, and cis–2–butene and 1–butene being minor
products as well. The GC results would appear again very similar to 1–butanol with 3 peaks
representing the 3 alkenes produced, however, 2–butanol has a lower BP, so it takes longer to react
and produce gaseous mixture because it is a secondary alcohol.
Part B: Dehydrobromination of 1–bromobutane & 2–bromobutane Compound | Temperature
(⁰C) | Products | Peak Area(mm2) | % Composition | 1–bromobutane | 90 | Trans–2–butene | ––––– |
–––– | | | Cis–2–butene | ––––– | –––– | | | 1–butene | 17500 | 100 | 2–bromobutane | 80 | Trans–2–
butene | 2469 | 49.95 | | | Cis–2–butene | 3336 | 13.09 | | | 1–butene | 8741 | 36.97 |
–(GC) Calculations for relative amount of products:
1–bromobutane:
Total peak area=17500 mm2
17500 mm2/17500 mm2x100%=100%, 1–butene
2–Bromobutane:
Total peak area=6679mm2
2469 mm2/6679 mm2x100%=36.97%, 1–butene
3336 mm2/6679 mm2x100%–=49.95% trans–2–butene

8741 mm2/6679 mm2x100%=13.09% cis–2–butene
1–bromobutane with a strong base reacts

What Are The Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this investigation was to identify and investigate the relationship between various
factors and the rate of a reaction. The reaction that was tested, used the combination of a potassium
starch solution mixed with a sodium solution, commonly known as the 'Iodine Clock Reaction'. The
two clear solutions are mixed together, which after a given time will form a dark blue solution. The
factors used in this investigation are the concentration of two substances and the temperature at
which the reaction occurred.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Kinetics is essentially the study of reaction rates and how they can be affected. Factors such as
concentration, pressure, temperature, and enzyme activity, are commonly tested regarding their
impact on the rate of a reaction (Khan Academy, 2017). It is important to recognise and understand
the components that affect the rate of chemical reactions as this allows control over the reaction
process.
Chemical reactions progress naturally at different rates. A chemical reaction involves the
rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of substances as they change into other substances
by the breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of bonds in products (Wilbraham, 2002).
Collision theory can be used to explain why chemical reactions proceed at different rates. Collision
Theory states that atoms, ions and molecules must collide in order for a reaction to proceed and
form products (Stubbings, 2017). Thus, the

Pericyclic Reaction Lab Report
Received 00th January 20xx,
Accepted 00th January 20xx
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x www.rsc.org/ Pericyclic Rearrangements
A. N. Authorname,a A. N. Authornameb and A. N. Authornamec
Abstract text goes here. The abstract should be a single paragraph that summarises the content of the
article
Introduction
Pericyclic reactions is a concerted rearrangement of the electrons with a cyclic transition state,
which cause sigma and π–bonds to simultaneously break and form. There are numerous examples of
both unimolecular and bimolecular concerted reactions. Pericyclic reactions are usually
rearrangement reactions. We discuss several categories of concerted pericyclic reactions, including
Diels Alder and other cycloaddition reactions, electrocyclic reactions, ... Show more content on
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For example, heating of (2E,4E)–2,4–hexadiene leads to the formation of a cyclobutene with trans
methyl groups, whereas cyclization with light forms a cyclobutene with cis methyl groups (Scheme
4). Scheme 4
For more understanding of this stereoselectivity the HOMO (High Occupied Molecular Orbital) of
the acyclic conjugated polyene should be considered. Also, the investigation of the p orbitals on the
terminal carbons of the HOMO determine the orientation of the orbitals that the like phases are on
the same side or on opposite sides of the molecule (Figure 1). Figure 1
In general, electrocyclic rearrangement occurs only when like phases of orbitals overlap and form a
bond. Two methods are possible for orbitals rotation. When like phases of the p orbitals are on the
same side of the molecule, the two orbitals must rotate in opposite directions, one clockwise and one
counterclockwise. Rotation in opposite directions is said to be disrotatory. When like phases of the p
orbitals are on opposite sides of the molecule, the two orbitals must rotate in the same direction,
both clockwise or both counterclockwise. Rotation in the same direction is said to be conrotatory
(Figure

Factors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction Of A Chemical...
consumed. They have the ability to increase the rate of reaction in a chemical reaction. Catalysts
achieve this by lowering the amount of energy required for a reaction to take place, which means
that it occurs at a quicker rate. Potentially, molecules that would once have taken years to interact,
can take seconds with the addition of a catalyst. The overall purpose of a catalyst is to ensure that
reactions proceed effectively which is why a range of catalysts are commonly used in many
elements of society. Common examples of where catalysts are used include; plastics, clean energy,
converting energy sources to fuels, digestion and pharmaceuticals (Hamers, 2017).
1.2 Types of Catalysts
Whilst all catalysts do the same thing, there are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is extremely dependent on the way in which molecules combine. When the molecules of a system
combine slowly, the reaction tends to have a slow reaction rate. Likewise, when molecules combine
quickly, the reaction rate is said to be fast. The reaction rate in a system is known as the change in
concentration of the products per unit time and can be denoted using the following equation:
Reaction Rate= (∆ Concentration)/(∆ Time)
(Chemistry LibreTexts, 2016)
Many factors that affect the reaction rate in a system include pressure, temperature, activation
energy and concentration. The temperature of a system particularly affects the rate at which a
reaction happens. Temperature is a form of kinetic energy and with the addition of energy; more
collisions occurs which increases the likelihood that the reactants will exceed the activation barrier.
This is similar to the collision theory, as discuss below.
1.5 Collision Theory
Reaction rate also directly relates the well–known theorem of collision theory. In order for a
chemical reaction to occur, the reactant particles of a system must collide. However, collisions with
too little energy are not likely to produce a reaction. The collision theory states that as more
collisions in a system occur, there will be more combinations of molecules interacting with each
other. The potential combinations result in a higher chance that the reaction will take place and
hence, the

Strong Nucleophilic Substitution Report
Identifying Substitution Reactions of Strong Nucleophilic Compounds and Polar Protic Solvents
with Analytical and Experimental Instruments
Oshi Bonhomme, Courtney Lasher, Olivia Trusty*
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, IUPUI, 402 N. Blackford St., Indianapolis, IN
46202 otrusty@indiana.edu The three reactions investigated through various experimental testing
contain an alcohol leaving group positioned on primary or secondary carbons. The substitution
method (SN1 or SN2) used in the reactions vary and are influenced by various factors. The position
of the alcohol and the number of steps are variables used to identify the substitution method. The
products formed are influenced by the substitution mechanism. The data reported shows ... Show
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In order for SN1 and SN2 reactions to occur, the leaving group must be attached to an alkyne or
alkene (alkyl halides) 3. In nucleophilic substitution, there are two events that occur, development of
a new σ bond to the nucleophile and the σ bond to the leaving group breaks. The timing of these
events determines the type of mechanism2. The main difference between the two mechanisms is that
the SN2 reaction occurs in one step and the SN1 reaction occurs in two steps. The number of steps
in the reactions is influenced by many factors, including the rate law, nucleophile, and solvent. The
rate law (unimolecular or bimolecular) is the rate determining step. For a SN1 reaction has a weak
(neutral) nucleophile and is unimolecular, which means that the rate of the reaction is depending on
the concentration of the substrate. A SN2 reaction has a strong (negatively charged) nucleophile and
is bimolecular, where the rate of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of the substrate and
nucleophile 3. The strength of the nucleophile is important in identifying the type of reactions
because SN1 usually has weak nucleophiles and SN2 usually has strong nucleophiles. The type of
solvent used in the reaction is also an important factor in determining the number of steps because
SN1 reactions favor polar protic solvents (alcohols, carboxylic acids, and water). SN2 reactions tend
to proceed with polar aprotic solvents (DMSO and acetone) 3. Another factor involves the location
of the leaving group. SN2 reactions favor leaving groups in the primary location but can also work
for leaving groups in the secondary location. SN1 reactions favor leaving groups in the tertiary
location and can work for the secondary

Lab Report On The Dehydration Reaction Of 2...
DEHYDRATION OF METHYLCYCLOHEXANOLS
Nicholas Van Horssen
CHMY 321
TA: Michael Giroux
10/31/17
Introduction: The purpose of this lab was to carry out a dehydration reaction of 2–
methylcyclohexanol by heating it in the presence of phosphoric acid and determining which alkene
product would be the major product. Methylcyclohexanols were dehydrated in an 85% phosphoric
acid mixture to yield the minor and major alkene product by elimination reaction, specifically E1.
The alkenes were distilled to separate the major and minor products and gas chromatography was
used to analyze the results and accuracy of the experiment. The hypothesis was the major product of
the reaction would be the most substituted product. This conclusion was made because of ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Distillation of the first product began at 83 °C. A Pasteur pipette was used to remove 1–ml of the
distillate into a vial. A second vial was filled with distillate until it reached 1–ml. As the second vial
is being filled, observe the temperature and remove the apparatus from the heat source if there is an
observed drop in temperature. Once the distillate had been collected into two separate vials, both
distillates were washed with aqueous sodium bicarbonate (1.5–ml, 5%). The aqueous layer (lower)
was extracted from both vials using a pipette and put into a chemical waste bin. The organic
(alkene) layer was then dried with anhydrous calcium chloride pellets (3 pellets per vial). Both
distillates were analyzed using gas chromatography, and each peak shown was identified to be one
of the alkenes. Analysis of the graph was used to determine the major and minor products of the
reaction.
Results: M.W. (g/mol) Boiling point (°C) Density (g/mL)
2–methylcyclohexanol 114.2 166 0.930
Phosphoric Acid (85%) 98.0 – 1.70
1–methylcyclohexene 96.2 110 0.813
3–methylcyclohexene 96.2 104 0.801
Table 1: Properties of the reagents and possible products for the reaction. The boiling point of
Phosphoric acid is not important because it is a reagent.
Figure 2: Gas Chromatography analysis from the first sample. From top to bottom the peaks are
ordered as followed: 3–methylcyclohexanol (A), 1–methylcyclohexanol (B), and 2–
methylcyclohexanol

Hydrazone Reaction Lab Report
The lines in Figures 6 (A) to 6 (F) indicate predicted values, using fitted rate constants for the
reaction. The rate constant valueswere found to increase as expected as the temperature was
increased. The activation energies were determined from the temperature dependency of the rate
constants to be 831, 2494, 3076 and 2660 J/molfor hydrazone, tryptophol, cinnoline derivative, and
polyindole formation, respectively(Table 2). The values indicate the amount of energy required to
cross the energy barrier so that,the reaction can takes place. The activation energy for hydrazone
formation is low(Table 2) indicating that, the reaction takes place at lower temperatures
buttheactivation energy barrier is higherfor tryptophol formation. This indicate that the temperature
of the reaction mixture should be higher for the sigma–tropic rearrangement reaction, but further
increasing temperature also leads to side product formation such as polyindole and cinnoline
derivative, which are still higher activation energy reactions. Thus, by conducting the reaction at
higher temperatures allows the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the current work, the surface tovolume ratio was commissionedat1mm–1. As a result of the
enhanced surfacetovolume ratio, the temperature difference between the reaction mixture passing
through the reactor and reactor wall was insignificant.17Thisbetter heat transfer characteristicresults
in effective cyclization of hydrazone to tryptophol in shorter reaction time. The structures of indole
moiety present in many drug molecules that are widely synthesized in the pharmaceutical industry
are more complex, and one could expect a vast number of intermediates and corresponding reaction
products. However, the typical approachshouldremain similar and can beused in
developingproperkinetic models for other indoles as

LAB 4 Observations of Chemical and Physical Change Part 1
LAB REPORT 4
Observations of Chemical and Physical Change PART 1 – OBSERVATIONS OF CHEMICAL
CHANGE
No credit will be given for this lab report if the Data section is not completely filled out and if the
required photographs are not received. At least one photograph must show the student's face.
OBJECTIVES
1. Observe physical and chemical changes.
2. Define physical and chemical change.
3. Identify the relationship between a chemical change and a chemical reaction.
4. Observe several indicators of a chemical reaction.
5. Associate chemical properties with common items (food, household products).
PROCEDURE
Please complete the entire experiment as instructed in the lab manual except for any modifications
noted below. Fill out the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Define physical change. . A chemical change is usually reversible change in the physical properties
of a substance, as size or shape.
2. Define chemical change. A chemical change is usually irreversible chemical reaction involving
the rearrangement of the atoms of one or more substances and a change in their chemical properties
or composition, resulting in the formation of at least one new substance.

Diel-Alder Reaction Lab
Introduction: The Diel–Alder reaction is a concerted cycloaddition between a diene and a
dienophile. The first people to investigate this were Otto Diels and Kurt Alder, they were able to
reported large variety of the dienes which turned out to be useful and so the procedure was named
after them. This method is an efficient way to build rings that are stereospecific. A Diel–Alder
reaction involves cyclic rearrangement of bonding electrons and forming and breaking bond(s)
simultaneously. The reaction happens with in a single transition state. It has the smallest volume of
all the other starting materials that are use during this reaction. Diel–Alder reaction is updraft
reaction, which is starts when you add heat. During this reaction, it ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This involves breaking bond and creating another ring to it. The lab has revealed that the reaction
occur and it has form the final product of cis–Norbornene–5, 6–eno–dicarboxylic anhydride but it
was as accurate it supposed to due to some mistakes that had happen during synthesis of the
reaction. The data has been collected is prove that reaction has happen but doesn't have a great
product at the end. The crystallization techniques will be applied more accurately to other synthesis
and will make difference in getting final product amount that is suitable for the experiment. Lab did
accomplish as it set out to be but just human errors during the process made product amount and
purity less than

Conversion of Alcohol to Alkyl Halides Essay
Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides Ankita Patel August 6, 2013 Introduction This lab
consisted of the conversion of alcohols into alkyl halides through common substitution methods.
These methods include SN1 and SN2 mechanism, both of which can occur for this type of reaction.
For both reactions, the first step of protonation will be to add hydrogen to the –OH group and then
the rest of the reaction will proceed according to the type of mechanism. SN1 reactions form a
cation intermediate once the H2O group leaves, then allowing a halide (such as Br) to attack the
positively charged reagent1. On the other hand, SN2 reactions are one–step mechanism in which no
intermediate is formed and the halide attaches as the leaving ... Show more content on
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Thus, one could safely assume the product from 1–propanol was 1–bromopropane. This is mainly
due the C–H wag around 1260cm–1 indication it was a terminal alkyl halide. This reaction went
through SN2 mechanism not only because the alcohol was primary but also because there were no
rearrangements. If a rearrangement would have occurred, it would have indicated that it was a SN1
mechanism. Further analysis was then done to determine the exact identity of the product and the
chemical makeup. B B C C AA B B C C AA Figure 2: NMR Spectrum for 1–propanol The results
from the NMR of 1–propanol showed 3 different prominent peaks with the peak at 2.2 cm–1 being
the acetone. Because 1–bromopropane has three non–equivalent hydrogens it was found to represent
this set of NMR data. The other product, 2–bromopropane only had 2 different types of hydrogens
and would have only had 2 peaks. Further analysis of the structure of 1–bromopropane showed that
the hydrogens closest the bromine group were an indication of peak A in the graph. Because of the
electronegativity of the bromine, this peak was located further downfield. There were 2 neighboring
hydrogens so using the n+1 rule gave the 3 peaks. Going down peak B showed the next carbon
which had 5 neighboring hydrogens thus giving 6 peaks. Finally, the carbon furthest away from the
bromine was found at peak C. It had 2 neighboring hydrogens and provided 3 peaks.

Law Of Gratitude Essay
8. The Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude plays out similar to the Law of Cause and Effect or
the natural principle of action and reaction. As we look at the law itself, when we express
thankfulness to the God Force for that which we have "received" (even though it is still in the
unseen), it is an expenditure of force, therefore our gratitude cannot fail to reach God, and when it
does the reaction is an instantaneous move toward you. Consider two properly aligned magnets.
They are two forces moving in opposite directions while moving toward one another. Gratitude
draws you and the Creative Force, God, directly toward each other. If our gratitude is strong enough
and consistent then there will always be a move of that which we are co–creating toward us. When
the God Force moves toward us it brings all that it is. The Law of Gratitude also dictates that if our
heart is not full of gratitude, then something else will take its place. Physics teaches that nature will
not tolerate a vacuum. That is to say that if something is removed then something else must take its
place. If our hearts are not filled with gratitude, then our hearts will be filled with ungratefulness. An
ungrateful heart will take you from what you want as rapidly as a grateful heart will take you toward
what you want. The Law of Gratitude nourishes our faith, because as a grateful heart and mind
continually expects good things, expectation becomes faith. This faith then, becomes both the
cornerstone and the capstone of what it is we are building which comes only from our Universal
Supplier, God. Gratitude toward God has the power ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The eight Universal Laws that I feel you should at least be aware of that take a role in the process of
co–creation or what we like to call manifesting. I do realize that they do have a similarity to one
another and in some respects, one produces the other and so on but it is after all about harmony and
balance don't you

Mento Nucleation Lab
Objective To determine the reaction caused when a mento is placed in diet coke.
Introduction This experiment will discuss the reaction caused when a mento is placed inside a bottle
of diet coke. Reactions between substances can either be physical or chemical. A physical reaction is
a process that affects the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. A chemical
reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the ionic or molecular structure of a substance.
The reaction caused by the mento dissolving in the diet coke can be classified as a physical change
due to the process of nucleation. Nucleation is the the initial process that occurs in the formation of
a crystal from a solution, a liquid, or a vapour, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules
become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which
additional particles ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The control was diet coke.
Hypothesis If a mento is placed inside a bottle of diet coke, the reaction caused is a physical reaction
because the occurrence of nucleation.
Materials 2 litre bottle of Coca–Cola Diet coke, a package of mint Mentos, a bucket.
Procedure The listed materials were taken to an outdoor workstation. The small bucket was then
placed onto the ground. The bottle of diet coke was then placed into the bucket and the cap was
taken off. Then, with caution, one mento was placed into the diet coke bottle. After the experiment
ended, the Mentos wrapper and diet coke bottle were thrown out and the bucket was returned to the
workstation.
Observations When the mento was placed into the diet coke bottle, bubbles began to form due to
nucleation. These bubbles expanded to the point where there was not enough area in the bottle to
contain them, subsequently erupting out of the diet coke bottle and ascending 4 inches into the air.

RDA Fragmentation Research
Still another example showing a RDA fragmentation phenomenon is the mass spectrum of
5,7dihydroxy –4– methoxyisoflavanone.
(C16 H14 O5 M 286)
In this molecular ion cleavage occur through RDA reaction. In the ionization process ene and diene
with charges are formed. The base peak is at m/z 134, is due to the ene and the diene is at m/z 152,
these fractions favor the fallowing mechanism, with the dissociation of ring present in the
compound.
From the study of mass spectrum of Isoflavanone, masses and structures of the fragments ene, and
diene can be ascertained, and from this the structure of compound can be determined. The position
of substituent on the ring, can be determined by preparing the derivatives and studying the mass
spectrum of these derivatives with a known substituent in the fragment ene ... Show more content on
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These substances show a RDA cleavage–phenomenon in their mass spectrum, and through this their
structure and molecular formula are determined.
THE MacLofferty REARRANGMENT FRAGMENTATION PROCESS
Basically the hetero atom, or functional group in a molecule facilitate the fragmentation, and it is
expressed with α–cleavage. In MacLofferty rearrangement the essential feature is the double bond,
with or without heteroatom, with a γ–hydrogen. This type of arrangement is commonly encountered
in the compounds, with C–(carboxylic acid, esters, aldehydes ketones, amides, lactams, lactones)
compounds with C=N (azomethines, or shiffs base, hydrazones, oximes, semicarbazones)
compounds with S=O, (sulfonic acid esters) and compounds with C=C (alkylarene, alkylhetero
cycles, benzyl ethers, olefene).
In MacLafferty cleavage, H–atom at γ–position to double bond, transfer to double bond via six–
member ring formation, and simultaneously double bond moves in between the adjacent atoms, and
a part of molecule fragment detach from the molecule, the mechanism of fragmentation is as

Substitution And Elimination Reaction Lab Report
Substitution and Elimination Reactions Substitution reactions replace a functional group with a new
group. These reactions compete with elimination reactions in which a group is eliminated and a π
(pi) bond is formed. Substitution reactions occur when a nucleophile is added to an
electrophile/substrate. Elimination reactions occur when a base is added to an electrophile/substrate.
The electrophile must contain a leaving group to be considered a substrate. Alkyl Halides Alkyl
Halides are the common substrate used in substitution and elimination reactions. Alkyl Halides are
halogen containing alkane compounds. These compounds are commonly used as the electrophile in
substitution reactions. Naming Alkyl Halides is similar to naming alkanes. Halogen substituents are
named just like alkane substituents, for example if there is a chlorine attached to an ethane the
chlorine substituent will be named using the word chloro–. The other halogens are named using the
words flouro–, bromo–, and iodo– respectively. These possible substituents are listed alphabetically
along with the alkane substituents. When dealing with alkyl halides it is important to note that the
carbons attached to the halogens and the carbons attached to those carbons are involved in the
reaction process, therefore we designate these carbons with special symbols to differentiate them
from the rest of the molecule. The carbon atom that is bonded to the halogen is designated the α
(alpha) carbon. The carbons that are

The And Characterization Of Project Mn ( Bpmp )
Syntheses and characterization of [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] catalysts
BPMP was synthesised via the published procedure [2b] and expected, the piperazine ring adopts
the more stable chair configuration, and the methylpyridyl substituents are found in the equatorial
positions. Reaction of BPMP with Mn(OTf)2 (ratio 1 : 1) in CH3CN under air the atmospheric
conditions this complex [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. Removing of the volatiles and washing with diethyl
ether leads to white solid that analyses as [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. while uncoordinated BPMP was
identified in the ether (washing) phases. The molecular structure is shown in Figure (compare
Scheme 1). The coordination around the manganese atom can be described as distorted trigonal
prismatic, and the piperazine ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This heterogeneous catalyst can be applied to a wide variety of activated and non–activated primary
and secondary alcohols. As shown in Table 3, benzyl alcohol and substituted benzyl alcohols are
converted to their corresponding aldehydes efficiently. In the case of benzyl alcohol, after 30 min,
only benzaldehyde was obtained in 99% yield. In longer reaction times (1h), the obtained products
are 97% p–OCH3 benzaldehyde and 3% p–OCH3 benzoic acid. The results show that the
substituent's have no major effect on the oxidation of benzylic alcohols. A good selectivity
experimental in the case of cinnamyl alcohol and only oxidized in alcoholic group and no epoxide
yield was obtained. Manganese(II)non–heme was also used for oxidation of secondary alcohols and
their corresponding ketones were obtained in good yields. We used hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as
the oxidant and [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] as the catalyst for the oxidation of alcohols. To a mixture of
substrate (1mmol), manganese non–heme catalyst (1mol %), and solvent (CH3CN = 3mL) was
added H2O2 (1.2mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min at room temperature. This
system has shown high catalytic activities for the oxidation of non–activated and activated alcohols
under mild conditions as shown in Table 4. Secondary alcohols were easily converted to the
corresponding ketones in excellent yields and reaction selectivity was over 99% in all cases. Cyclic
alcohols

Analyzing And Determining Subsitution Reactions Through Sn1
Analyzing and Determining Subsitution Reactions Through SN1 & SN2 reactions involving
Alcohol–Containng Compounds to verify production and succsess of alkyl halides. *Harpravjeet
Malhi, Robert Sorg, Heather Reeves Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, IUPUI, 402
N. Blackford St., Indianapolis, IN 46202 hmalhi@imail.iu.edu This experiment was ran to stimulate
real life application scenarios in which products were determined through various techniques
learned from the past. Requiring analytical thinking and preparation, as a product was synthesized
within the right time frame, with limited amount of starting material. The three compounds shown
above are reacted with various reagents, to yield the best halide–containing product. These reactions
are conducted to test the prediction that reaction 1 proceeded through a bimolecular nucleophillic
substitution (SN2) and reactions 2 and 3, went through unimolecular nuclephillic substitution (Sn1),
due to carbocation rearrangements forming 2 products each through a stepwise process. Conducting
various tests through separation and purification methods can test the reactions and their
hypothesized pathway, also Analyzing data through infrared spectroscopy (IR), proton nuclear
magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and gas chromatography (GC) can give a final overall picture to the
synthesized product, along with purity of the product and efficiency of the reactions. Throughout
these experiments many important features of substitution

The Importance Of Chemical Interaction
Kinetics is essentially the study of reaction rates and how they can be affected. Factors such as
concentration, pressure, temperature, and enzyme activity, are commonly tested regarding their
impact on the rate of a reaction (Khan Academy, 2017). It is important to recognise and understand
the components that affect the rate of chemical reactions as this allows control over the reaction
process. Chemical reactions progress naturally at different rates. A chemical reaction involves the
rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of substances as they change into other substances
by the breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of bonds in products (Wilbraham, 2002).
Collision theory can be used to explain why chemical reactions proceed at different rates. Collision
Theory states that atoms, ions and molecules must collide in order for a reaction to proceed and
form products (Stubbings, 2017). Thus, the higher frequency of successful collisions, the faster the
reaction rate will be. Kinetic theory states that particles of matter are in constant motion thus, kinetic
energy is the energy acquired as a result of an object's motion (Wilbraham, 2002). In order for
collisions to be successful however the molecules must acquire a minimum amount of kinetic
energy called their activation energy and they must collide at a precise orientation. The rate of
reaction can be modified with the appropriate knowledge and understandings of the factors affecting
the collisions of

1-Bromo-3-Phenylpropane Reaction
Reaction 1 involved a primary alcohol (OH), weak leaving group in the starting material and a
reaction with a strong nucleophile (sodium bromide) and a polar protic solvent (sulfuric acid). The
reaction was carried out through reflux and the product had a relatively high yield (75%) (Scheme
1). Scheme 1. Substitution of 3–phenyl–1–propanol to form 1–bromo–3–phenylpropane The
reaction was determined to be SN2 after careful reading of the data obtained and the procedure
followed. Increasing the amount of NaBr used in the reaction did not have an effect on the product
yield. The conditions of the reactions were acidic due to the solvent used. The acidic conditions
prevent an E2 substitution reaction from occurring. In this reaction, the OH leaving group is
replaced with the nucleophile Br. The bromine attacks the first carbon and the OH group leaves in
the same step. This is a concerted process or bimolecular substitution mechanism (SN2). The
location of the leaving group (primary) also indicates the reaction is SN2. The data obtained from
1H NMR was found to confirm the correct product was formed. The data showed the correct
location and coupling of hydrogens in the product. There should be a difference of polarities
between the starting material and the product. The product should travel further on the TLC plate
than the starting material because the starting material should be more polar than the product. The
TLC results confirm the product was less polar than the

Alka Seltzer Experiment Lab Report
The scientist's topic reveals around temperature. The scientist trying to figure out which temperature
has the fastest reaction time. The independent variable for this experiment is the different
temperatures being used, the dependent variable is the reaction time for the Alka–Seltzer tablets.
The scientist hypothesis is if reaction time is related to temperature, then placing Alka–Seltzer
tablets in hot water will cause it to react faster the other temperatures involved. The scientist will
place Alka–Seltzer tablets into water and see which temperature has the fastest reaction time. This
experiment has been done many times just simply in different forms. These scientists first began by
researching about what temperature would increase or decrease the reaction rate. One of the sources
state "Particles can only react when they collide" which shows in order for energy to be activated
heat must be applied.So because of the disproportionately large increase in the number of high
energy collisions, increasing the temperature increases reaction rate. The important words and
concepts related to the scientist's experiment and their deffinitions are: ... Show more content on
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Alka–Seltzer–an effervescent antacid and pain reliever first marketed by the Dr. Miles Medicine
Company of Elkhart, Indiana. It was developed by head chemist Maurice Treneer. sodium
bicarbonate– chemical compound with the formula NaHCO₃. It is a salt composed of sodium ions
and bicarbonate ions. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a
fine powder.
Molecule– a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical

The Reaction Of The Alcohols
The alcohols 1–propanol and 2–pentanol were converted into alkyl halides through a certain series
of steps. The first step was reflux, and the purpose of reflux is to add energy to the solution and not
lose any solution to evaporation. This energy helps initiate the acid–catalyzed dehydration reaction
and also promotes rearrangement. The next step was distillation, which functioned to separate
liquids based on boiling points. The distillation utilizes boiling points to separate the alkyl halide
products from many impurities that might exist. Reflux is the first step instead of distillation because
refluxing allows the reaction to progress. If distillation was performed first, separation would begin
before the reaction was allowed time to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, since the voltage adapter connected to the sand bath may not have been working
properly, inconsistent heating patterns could have proposed a problem during reflux. Also, a few
extra drops of water may have invaded the product while the flask was cooling in the ice bath during
distillation. Furthermore, it is possible that not all of the organic layer was drained out of the
separatory funnel during separation, and maybe the drying agent was not allowed enough time to
remove all of the water. Errors will always hinder the success of a reaction, which will greatly effect
the percent yield.
Infrared spectroscopy (IR) is a very useful tool that can read a molecule's functional groups from a
small sample. By monitoring the disappearance and appearance of certain groups, it is possible to
confirm wether compounds have formed. In this experiment, for example, the reactants are alcohols,
whose IRs will show a large and broad absorption around 3500 cm–1. These hydroxide groups are
eventually replaced during the reactions, and the final products will not contain any hydroxides.
Therefore, the IR of the products will not show the large and broad hydroxide absorption.
Monitoring the disappearance of the hydroxide stretch will allow the reaction progression to be
monitored also. The complete disappearance of this stretch will confirm that a new product has been
formed. However, IR

Organic Solvents : A New Approach For Organic Synthesis
"ON WATER" REACTIONS: A NEW APPROACH FOR ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
Technically, water is considered as the universal solvent in Nature. However, the prevalent notion
among today's chemists is that water is often forgotten in organic synthesis; many considerations are
taken in the process of selecting solvents, reagents, and conditions which are water–free. In addition
to the obvious problem that concerns about the surrounding water–sensitive reactants, the main
problem is solubility which is the requirement for reactions to occur, and it is a justification for the
use of many organic solvents at the exclusion of anything else in organic synthesis. Nevertheless,
many living biochemical reactions mostly happen in an aqueous medium. The concern about
environment and safety is another reason that has flamed up the interest in Green Chemistry, which
prompted more researches into alternatives to traditional organic solvents. Therefore, water is a very
promising candidate for the future choice of solvent as it is cheap, reusable, nonvolatile and safe to
handling of exothermic or heat–releasing reactions. Even though water has many advantages in
organic synthesis, the low solubility of organics reagents has prevented the expanding utilization of
water as a standard solvent.
In the past, water was not quite a common choice in the process of organic synthesis. However, one
of the earliest experiments that took advantages of water as solvent was Wohler's urea synthesis in
1828, as well as

Apothecary: What Is A Projectile?
So what exactly is a projectile? A projectile is any object propelled with massive amounts of force
acting upon it. For example, a fire arm is considered a projectile, because the bullet has a small
explosive charge, then that cause a chain of reaction. The powder in the cartage lights and creates
gas and that pushes force on to the bullet tip or full metal jacket, and the pressure propels the bullet
at the intended target. The thing is that the force of the bullet recoils the gun, showing Newton's
third law of motion (action and reaction). Another thing portaging to this experiment is the chemical
reactions do to lighting of the match. And a chemical reaction is a process that involves
rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
''Some Chinese scholars speculate that the invention was made in 577AD by women of the Northern
Qi, who were unable to leave the confines of their city to search for tinder, because it was under
siege by the Northern Zhou and Chen.'' ''In 1826, John Walker, an apothecary in Stockton–on–Tees,
conducting an experiment in his laboratory, stirred a mixture antimony sulfide, potassium chlorate,
gum, and starch with a wooden stick, and subsequently scraped the stick on the stone floor of the lab
to remove a glob of the solution that had dried on the end of it. When the stick burst into flames,
Walker realized he had created something of interest, and made several of the sticks, which he
demonstrated for the amusement of friends and colleagues. One of the observers at a demonstration
in London was Samuel Jones. Jones realized the invention's commercial potential, set up a match
business in London, and cleverly named his product "Lucifer's." The term persisted as slang in the
20th Century. Lucifer's caught on, and following their introduction in London, tobacco smoking of
all kinds greatly increased. However the Lucifer's were unpredictable, often giving off violent bursts
of flame, and emitted an extremely noxious odor of sulfur. Boxes of Lucifer have carried a printed
warning: "persons whose lungs are delicate should by no means use

Enzyme Lab Report
Essay 1: Enzymes have the capability to make specific reactions take place at a faster rate. This
means that enzymes are a catalyst, meaning that is speeds up reactions and is not consumed by the
reaction. Enzymes are good for cells because they do not require an increase of energy to make the
reaction happen. Amino acids make up enzymes, and all the amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
in a straight chain. This chain is called a polypeptide or protein. One example of an enzyme is a
hydrolases. A hydrolases works as a digestive enzyme, breaking down food into the nutrients and
elements we need. It works by breaking apart single bonds and adding in the element water. Another
enzyme is called a lyase. A lyase catalyzes the formation of double bonds, and does this by either
adding or subtracting chemicals. A third enzyme is a transferase, which aids in transferring
molecules to one another. Moreover, another enzyme is called an isomerase. An isomerase functions
by catalyzing the rearrangement of molecular structure. This works by breaking and forming bonds
to rearrange a molecule, while still keeps the same amount and type of atom.
Essay 2: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These two cells are almost completely different in how they function and how they are made up. To
begin, prokaryotic cells are unicellular cells that lack internal organelles. These cells do not contain
a nucleus, instead they have what is called a nucleoid. A nucleoid is a single chromosome of DNA
that is found in the plasma of the cell. This DNA has a circular structure. Furthermore, prokaryotic
cells are, for the most part, bacterial cells. Some examples include streptococcus bacterium (the
strep throat virus) and Escherichia coli bacterium (which is found in warm–blooded organisms'

Bozeman Science: Exothermic And A
The term MRE stands for "Meal, Ready to Eat", its created for people who can't start fire to cook
and it is an instant meal, so it benefits the armies and campers. These kind of meals uses a chemical
reaction such as exothermic reaction to heat up the food. An exothermic reaction causes the
temperature outside goes up because it passes on energy to the objects around. However, the
temperature outside goes down due to an endothermic reaction because it takes in energy from the
object around. As a result of these reaction an exothermic reaction is use instead of an endothermic
reaction, because exothermic reaction causes the surroundings to heat up and yet endothermic
reaction takes in the energy such as heat from the surroundings and for this ... Show more content on
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–When was it written? The credentials are Mr. Kent's Chemistry Page: Endothermic and Exothermic
Process and Bozeman Science: Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions. The Bozeman Science:
Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction was created in 25 September 2013, however, the other
source doesn't have a written date on the website. This source is reliable, because the author is a
teacher has studied for many years and she had evidence to back up. Utility (Usefulness) –Which
focus questions does this information help answer? –How user–friendly is the source? –How
technical is the language? –Does it contain useful graphics/images? This information has massively
help to answer by explain the difference between endothermic and exothermic in common language
which also helped me know why an exothermic reaction can be used to heat food but an
endothermic reaction cannot. Although these include common language, it also has these scientific
such as endothermic, exothermic and chemical bonds, but it doesn't contain graphs or

Millier Reaction Lab Report
Figure 2: Sample Millard reaction (image from "Why Foods Brown")
From there the N–Glycosylamine undergoes Amadori rearrangement, acid or base catalyzed
isomerization, to become ketosamines ("Maillard Reactions"). The resulting ketosamines can then
react with each other to form cyclic structures. These reactions are very complex, relying on
temperature, pH, the exact proteins and sugars involved, and many other factors (Fox). Temperature
is one of the most important since the higher temperatures increase the rate of the reaction as well as
accelerate the evaporation of the water the process generates (Myhrvold), meaning that this reaction
is endothermic. The exact reactions are hard to control, which is why every batch of cookies turn out
a little differently. The products of these reactions can also react with each other leading to even
more diversified and complex taste and smells. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This process is a type of pyrolysis, which is the decomposition of an organic material though
exposure to high temperatures that does not involve reactions with oxygen, water or other reagents
("Caramelization"). The oxidized sugars create long chains of polymers. While these reactions are
very complex, they are very clearly temperature driven. The thermodynamics of both Maillard
reactions and caramelization will still follow the trend of all the other cooking reactions. The heat
does not contribute to a phase change, although that is what it looks like, especially in the case of
caramelization, but rather to making certain chemical reactions that more thermodynamically
favorable. Ultimately, these series of reactions must minimize the Gibbs free energy in this scenario
and the cookie will spontaneously reach this state of

Introduction Of A Primary Alcohol
Substitution
5. Introduction In this experiment, a primary alcohol was converted into a primary bromoalkane
using hydrobromic acid. The reaction was done under reflux and then distilled to obtain a product of
higher purity. The degree of the alkyl halide obtained from the experiment was tested with silver
nitrate and sodium iodide. An infrared (IR) spectra and the weight of the product were obtained for
further analysis. The IR gave information on the present functional groups and product weight was
used to calculate the percent yield.
6. Data and Results The product obtained after reflux was a yellow liquid. With the halide tests, the
product reacted faster with sodium iodide to form a precipitate than with silver nitrate. This
indicates that the degree of the product was primary and that bromine did replace the alcohol group.
The IR of the product showed four peaks at 3326.36, 2932.86, 1465.34, and 1028.73. These peaks
indicate O–H, C–H, C–H3, and C–O bonds, respectively, within the product. 2.032 grams of product
were recovered from the reaction. With this, a percent yield of 27.14% was calculated. 7. Discussion
and Conclusion Nucleophilic aliphatic substitution is the replacement of one group for another at a
saturated, sp3–hybridized carbon atom. This process is often used to interconvert functional groups,
such as in the preparation of alkyl halides. In these reactions, nucleophiles attack the carbon atom–
which the electronegative leaving group breaks its bond

Specific Heat Of Calorimeter Lab Report

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Specific Heat Of Calorimeter Lab Report