2. Elena Pasquinelli
• Réhabilitation
• Philosophie
• Philosophie des sciences cognitives (PhD: illusions haptiques)
• Percro Lab-SSSA, Enactive Network of Excellence
• Groupe Compas
http://www.groupe-compas.net/
3. Le Groupe Compas
Depuis quelques décennies, deux courants ont engendré une véritable révolution
dans les sciences de l’EDUCATION :
les avancées des SCIENCES COGNITIVES
et l’irruption des NOUVELLES TECHNOLOGIES
Compas a pour ambition de créer des synergies entre ces deux courants à travers:
un think tank / think for doing: site web, séminaire, participation à
projets, expertises
4. • Equipe Compas:
• Comité de pilotage: Daniel Andler, directeur; Elena Pasquinelli, Responsable
scientifique; Roberto Casati, conseiller scientifique
• Senior Advisors: Edith Ackermann, Elisabeth Caillet, Bastien Guerry, Gabriel
Ruget, Denis Meuret, Manuela Piazza, Pierre Saurel François Taddei, David
Wilgenbus
• Partenariats:
• Institut de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure, Microsoft Partners in Learning
• Département Etudes Cognitives, ENS
6. Sciences cognitives
• Les sciences cognitives
ressemblent plutôt à une
photo de famille qu’à une
entité homogène et univoque
• disciplines multiples
• neurosciences, AI,
psychologie
expérimentale,
cognitive et du
développement
7. “Mankind likes to think in terms of extreme
opposites. It is given to formulating its
beliefs in terms of Either-Ors, between
which it recognizes no intermediate
possibilities. When forced to recognize that
the extremes cannot be acted upon, it is
still inclined to hold that they are all right in
theory but that when it comes to practical
matters circumstances compel us to
compromise.” (John Dewey, 1938)
http://books.google.com/books?id=UE2EusaU53IC&dq=joghn+dewey+1938+experience+and
+education&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=ZJlhS7vkI5yInQOUnrXGDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. Sciences cognitives classiques vs nouvelle vague
le cerveau n’est pas un ordinateur
situated et les processus cognitifs ne sont
Mainstream: vision pas nécessairement centralisés
cognitiviste,
distributed (dans le cerveau)
computationaliste,
représentationaliste de la
cognition la cognition ne se limite pas à la
pensée logique et symbolique et
les processus cognitifs ne sont pas
“Boiled down to its
essence, cognitive
embodied limités à des opérations formelles
science proclaims that in sur des symboles (représentations)
one way or another our
minds are
computers” (Dennett, la cognition ne se limite pas à
1993) enactive représenter la réalité comme un
miroir; à nouveau elle ne se sert
extended pas que de représentations pour
son fonctionnement
9. Rodney Brooks,
1991
• On ne peut pas séparer les composantes perceptives et
d’exécution de celles ‘centrales’ quand on parle
d’intélligence; la décomposition correcte n’est pas celle
entre systèmes (centraux ou périphériques) mais celle entre
fonctions ou sous-systèmes qui produisent une certaine
activité. Une activité est un pattern d’intéraction avec le
monde.
• “ When we examine very simple level intelligence we find
that explicit representations and models of the world simply
get in the way. It turns out to be better to use the world as
its own model.... the agent can use its perception of the
world instead of an objective world model. The
representational primitives that are useful then change
dramatically from those in Artificial Intelligence. The key idea
from situatedness is: The world is its own best model.”
• Créatures sans représentations centrales du monde
10. Kevin O’Regan &
Alva Noe, 2001
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubNF9QNEQLA
• “Indeed there is no "re"-presentation of the
world inside the brain: the only pictorial or
3D version required is the real outside
version. What is required however are
methods for probing the outside world --
and visual perception constitutes one mode
via which it can be probed.”
• Les expériences de change/inattentional
blindness sont exemplaires dans ce sens
• C’est à l’activité motrice qui revient le
rôle d’unificateur de l’expérience: activité http://viscog.beckman.illinois.edu/djs_lab/demos.html
motreice et perceptive forment des
contingences sensorimotrices
11. Mitchell Resnick,
1997
• On n’a pas besoin de faire recours
à des représentations centrales,
de contrôles centralisés, pour
expliquer des comportement
complèxes
• “a flock of birds sweeps across
the sky. Like a well-choreographed
dance troupe, the birds veer to the
left in unison. Then, suddenly, they
all dart to the right and swoop
down toward the ground. Each
movement seems perfectly
coordinated. ... How do birds keep
their movement so orderly, so
coordinate?”
12. Clark & Chalmers,
1998
•“We will advocate an externalism about mind, but
one that is in no way grounded in the debatable
role of truth-conditions and reference in fixing the
contents of our mental states. Rather, we advocate
an “active externalism”, based on the active role of
the environment in driving cognitive processes.”
•Notion d’échafaudage externe: un expériment
mental sur la cognition étendue et distribuée.
•Otto et son carnet. “The information in Otto's
notebook, for example, is a central part of his
identity as a cognitive agent. What this comes to is
that Otto himself is best regarded as an extended
system, a coupling of biological organism and
external resources”
13. Edwin Hutchins, 1995;
David Kirsh, 1995
• L’unité significative pour les processus cognitifs (et les
représentations) est plus large que l’individu
• par exemple, la mémoire d’un système complèxe comme une
cabine de pilotage d’avion est distribuée sur toute une série
d’objets disponibles + la mémoire des deux pilotes
• Les actions aident à distribuer une partie de la charge
cognitive sur la perception (qui résulte d’una action qui modifie
le monde)
• “In musical composition (Lerdahl & Jackendoff, 1983), marine
navigation (Hutchins, 1990), and a host of expert activities too
numerous to list, performance is demonstrably worse if agents
rely on their private memory or on their own computational
abilities without the help of external supports.” (Kirsh, 1995)
14. Kirsh, 1991
• Le rôle des actions épistémiques
ne peut pas être nié, mais
l’éliminativisme par rapport aux
représentations semble être
excessif: il ne permet pas
d’expliquer toute une série de
comportements humains
adaptatifs qui employent les
concepts, comme la prévision,
l’anticipation du futur.
15. Smith & Thelen, 2003
• “The first assumption of the dynamic approach is that
developing organisms are complex systems composed of
very many individual elements embedded within, and
open to, a complex environment. As in many other complex
systems in nature, such systems can exhibit coherent
behaviour: the parts are coordinated without an executive pattern.
Rather, the coherence is generated solely in the
relationships between the organic components and the
constraints and opportunities of the environment. This
self-organization means that no single element has
causal priority. When such complex systems self-organize, they are
characterized by the relative stability or instability of their
states. Development can be envisioned, then, as a series of
evolving and dissolving patterns of varying dynamic
stability, rather than an inevitable march towards
maturity. Take infant crawling as an example....”
16. Van Gelder, 2001
• “Dynamicists also emphasize SITUATEDNESS/EMBEDDEDNESS. Natural cognition
is always environmentally embedded, corporeally embodied, and neurally
“embrained.”
• “The differences between the dynamical and classical approaches should not be
exaggerated. The dynamical approach stands opposed to what John Haugeland has
called “Good Old Fashioned AI” (Haugeland 1985). However, dynamical systems
may well be performing computation in some other sense .... Also, dynamical
systems are generally effectively computable. (Note that something can be
computable without being a digital computer.)
• Thus, there is considerable middle ground between pure GOFAI and an equally
extreme dynamicism”
17. Thompson, Palacios,
Varela, 2002
• La théorie enactive est proposée par Varela comme
une alternative aux sciences cognitives classiques; elle
inclue la théorie écologique de la perception de Gibson
• “1) that animals select properties in the physical world
that are relevant to their structure (body-scaling,
sensor-motor capacities, etc.), shaping these
properties into environments that have behavioral
significance;
• and 2) that environments select sensory-motor
capacities in the animal and thereby constrain animal
activity”
• “The first step for perceptual theory is to refuse to
separate perception from action, or, more generally,
from perceptually guided activity.”
21. (et non seulement)
Philosophie de l’Education
• “... business of philosophy
of education does not
mean that the latter should
attempt to bring about a
compromise between
opposed schools of
thought, to find a via
media, nor yet make an
eclectic combination of
points picked out hither
and yon from all schools. It
means the necessity of the
introduction of a new order
of conceptions leading to
new modes of
practice.” (Dewey, 1938)
22. apprendre utiliser le contexte et les autres
en faisant comme facilitateurs
apprentissage par d’apprentissages
manipulation
apprentissage comme activité
physique et
contextualisée et sociale
métaphorique de
l’information
(constructivisme)
apprentissage par
design et création expérience &
(constructionnisme)
construction
principes éducatifs
compatibles
23. Education traditionnelle vs progressive
The subject-matter of education To imposition from above is opposed
consists of bodies of information expression and cultivation of individuality;
and of skills that have been
worked out in the past; therefore, to external discipline is opposed free activity;
the chief business of the school is
to transmit them to the new to learning from texts and teachers, learning
generation. through experience,
In the past, there have also been to acquisition of isolated skills and techniques
developed standards and rules of by drill, is opposed acquisition of them as
conduct... means of attaining ends which make direct
vital appeal;
Finally, the general pattern of
school organization (by which I to preparation for a more or less remote future
mean the relations of pupils to is opposed making the most of the
one another and to the teachers) opportunities of present life;
constitutes the school a kind of
to static aims and materials is opposed
institution sharply marked off from
acquaintance with a changing
other social institutions” (Dewey,
world.” (Dewey, 1938-1997)
1938)
24. John Dewey, 1938
• “There is always a danger in a new movement that in
rejecting the aims and methods of that which it would
supplant it may develop its principles negatively rather than
positively and constructively ... I take it that the fundamental
unity of the newer philosophy is found in the idea that there is
an intimate and necessary relation between the processes
of actual experience and education.”
• “all genuine education comes about through experience...
• any experience is mis-educative that has the effect of
experience
arresting or distorting the growing of further experience. An
experience might be such as to engender callousness; it may
produce lack of sensitivity and of responsiveness”
25. Expérience
• L’expérience modifie le sujet et ses expériences
futures, et en même temps elle prend quelque
L’expérience
chose des expériences passées
est continue
• Il faut ouvrir la voie à la capacité et au desir de
faire de nouvelles expériences, et des expériences
variées qui permettent la croissance
• Les expériences ne se déroulent pas dans un L’expérience est
corps ou un esprit en isolement, mais en contacte en interaction
avec le monde des objets et le monde social
• Il faut savoir exploiter et tenir en compte les objets
et conditions sociales qui entourent l’apprenant
26. • L’expérience qui nous intéresse est celle qui est
faite par l’apprenant au moment de
l’apprentissage, pas celle prévue et préparée en à
l’avance, le présent, non le futur: avec ses L’expérience
motivations, intérêts, problèmes à resoudre: est maintenant
“when preparation is made the controlling end,
then the potentialities of the present are sacrificed
to a suppositious future”
• L’expérience éducative est comme un laboratoire
ou workshop et elle s’inspire de la méthode Méthode
scientifique, adaptée à lâge de l’apprenant scientifique
adaptée
27. Jerome Bruner, 1973
• La connaissance se génère par l’expérience et les
connaissances acquises (inspiré du constructivisme
de Piaget) constructivisme
• "The concept of prime numbers appears to be more
readily grasped when the child, through
construction, discovers that certain handfuls of
beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and
columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out
in a single file or in an incomplete row- column
design in which there is always one extra or one too
few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child
learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the
child to go from this step to the recognition that a
multiple table so called, is a record sheet of
quantities in completed multiple rows and columns.
Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a
construction that can be visualized."
http://books.google.com/books?id=nlCiHwAACAAJ&dq=bruner&ei=F69hS-SuB5DMywSsx8UW&client=safari&cd=7
28. Jerome Bruner, 1966
apprentissage par voie
• Il existe trois formes de
symbolique,
représentations et trois manières
d’acquérir des connaissances : iconique,
• symbolique enactive
• iconique
• enactive: learning by doing,
représentations liées à l’action et
aux habilités motrices
(procédurale)
• la connaissance enactive est pour instruction basée sur
toute la vie (à différence de la phase l’étude de la cognition:
senorimotrice chez Piaget)
http://books.google.com/books?id=F_d96D9FmbUC&pg=PR8&dq=jerome+bruner+1966+theory+of+instruction&ei=w3ZgS-L-NKHiyQSNjNSsBw&client=safari&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
29. Seymour Papert &
Idit Harel, 1991
• Une forme d’éducation qui passe par le design, la
création, et non par l’observation et l’instruction
• qui met l’accent sur la tangibilité (comme les
représentations enactives de Bruner et son
constructivisme) constructionisme
• mais aussi sur l’accès personnel à la construction et
au design au sens métaphorique: la simulation, la
programmation, la création d’objets virtuels
• et en même temps sur la nature contextualisée et
sociale de la construction de la connaissance, qui
inclut d’autres acteurs sociaux et n’est pas une
expérimentation solitaire
• tout en considérant l’importance de la motivation,
donc de la personnalisation, de l’existence
d’objectifs et de plaisir
30. Papert, 1980
(Ackermann)
• “Constructionism— N word as
opposed to the V word— shares constructivisme
contructivism’s view of learning as
“building knowledge structures” ->
through progressive internalization constructionisme
of actions… It then adds the idea
that this happens especially
felicitously in a context where the
learner is consciously engaged in
constructing a public entity,
whether it’s a sand castle on the
beach or a theory of the universe”
http://books.google.com/books?id=qaYX8_oXmdQC&q=papert+mindstorms&dq=papert+mindstorms&ei=f7thS8GNEpG-MonlmOwN&client=safari&cd=1
32. Rôle de la
technologie
“computers provide a
context for the
development of concrete
thinking” (Turkle & Papert,
1992)
33. apprendre utiliser le contexte et les autres
en faisant comme facilitateurs
les technologies d’apprentissages
digitales permettent
les technologies digitales
de simuler, manipuler
constituent un outil qui étend la
même si de manière
cognition, en sens social et en
abstraite, et de créer
tant qu’outils
des contenus
expérience &
construction
outils compatibles
34. Resnick, 1997, 1993
(Papert)
• “create tools that engage learners in
construction, invention, experimentation. This
process involves at least two levels of design:
educators to design things that allow students
to design things” (Resnick: Turtles, termites
and traffic jams)
• “the turtle makes possible a new approach to
thinking about geometry, contrasting sharply
with the Euclidean methods traditionally
taught in the classroom. ... The turtle
connects to the children’s experience in the
world - children can ‘play turtle’, imagining
themselves as the turtle...”
• Lego/logo
38. Mobile learning
• Le téléphone portable pour
prendre des notes multi-modales
dans l’apprentissage des langues
(Kukulska-Hulme, et al., 2009)
• Le téléphone portable pour créer
des jeux localisés ou des cartes
Create a scape
multimodales www.futurelab.org.uk/projects/
create-a-scape
• Le téléphone portable pour
Frequency 1550 http://
l’apprentissage de l’histoire et des freq1550.waag.org/
cartes géographiques en
intéraction
39. mobilité tous
anytime,
anywhere
toujours
autonomie
personnalisation
42. Game-based Learning
Tim Rylands http://
www.timrylands.com/
• Jeux COTS utilisés en classe
grâce à la médiation de
l’enseignant
• Jeux COTS utilisés à la maison
Kurt Squire & Firaxis http://
www.firaxis.com/educators/
• Jeux éducatifs utilisés en classe Federation of american
ou à la maison Scientists http://
www.fas.org/programs/ltp/
games/index.html
• Jeux développés par enseignants
Mark Greenberg
http://homepage.mac.com/
markgreenberg2/Personal2.html
43. James Paul Gee,
2007, 2005
• “good learning principles are built into their very designs …
Many of these principles -with or without a game - could well be
used in schools to get students to learn things like science, but too
often today schools are centered on skill-and-drill and multiple-
choice tests that kill deep learning“
• “I care about these matters both as a cognitive scientists and as a
gamer. I believe that we can make school and workplace learning
better if we pay attention to good computer and video games. This
does not necessarily mean using game technologies in school and
at work, though this is something I advocate. It means applying the
fruitful principles of learning that good game designers have
hit on, whether or not we use a game as a carrier of these
principles.”
http://books.google.com/books?id=4dh6QgAACAAJ&dq=james+gee+good+video+games&ei=IHhgS8XHCqCSyQTtqvW1Bw&client=safari&cd=2
44. contexte
agent
significatif
action et
propos
perception
plaisir expérience
45. stimulant mais
bon ordre faisable
just in time,
on demand
bac à sable, modélisation
fish tank et facilitation
46. styles
d’apprentissage
cycles
d’expertise
personnalisation
et maîtrise
47. • A quoi ressemble un bon jeu vidéo? 3.Different styles of learning work
(Description des jeux vidéo en termes better for different people... at least
de leurs principes éducatifs, et des some games customize the game to fit
principes éducatifs incarnés par les their learning and playing styles or at
bons eux vidéo) least they allow different styles of
learning
• (“Good game designers are practical
theoreticians of learning”) 4. Deep learning requires an extended
commitment which is recruited when
people take on a new identity they
1.good video games give people value and in which they become
pleasures … Pleasure and learning: heavily invested ... good games offer
For most people these two don’t seem players identities that trigger a deep
to go together. But that is a mistruth we investment.
have picked up at school, where we
have been taught that pleasure is fun
and learning is work, and thus that 5.For humans perception and action
work is not fun are deeply interconnected ... video
games inherently involve action.
2.Good learning requires that learning
feel like active agents...in a video
game, players make things happen.
48. 6. The problems learners face early on 7. Learning works best when new
are crucial and should be well- challenges are pleasantly frustrating
designed to lead them to hypotheses in the sense of being felt by learners to
that work well, not just on these be at the outer edge of, but within, their
problems, but as aspects of the ‘regime of competence’. That is, these
solutions of later, harder problems, as challenges feel hard, but doable.
well. And problems in good games Furthermore, learners feel - and get
are well ordered…early problems are evidence - that their effort is paying off
designed to lead players to form good in the sense that they can see, even
guesses about how to proceed when when they fail, how and if they are
they face harder problems making progress.
8. Expertise is formed in any area by
repeated cycles of learners practicing
skills until they are nearly automatic,
then having those skills fail in ways that
cause learners to have to think again
and learn anew
49. 9.They use this verbal information best 10. Fish tanks are good for learning: if
when it is given just in time (when we create simplified systems, stressing
they can put it to use) and on demand a few key variables and their
( when they feel they need it) ... interactions, learners who would be
Players don’t need to read a manual to otherwise overwhelmed by a complex
start, but can use the manual as a system … get to seem some basic
reference after they have played a relationships at work and take the fist
while … Game manuals, just like steps towards their eventual mastery of
science text books, make little sense if the real system (e.g. they begin to
one tries to read them before having know what to pay attention to)… Good
played the game. games offer players fish tanks, either
as tutorial or as their first level or two…
With today’s capacity to build
simulations, there is no excuse for the
lack of fish tanks in schools.
11. Sand boxes: if learners are put into
a situation that feels like the real thing,
but with risks and dangers greatly
mitigated, they can learn well and still
feel a sense of authenticity.
50. 12. People learn and practice skills best
(and practice is necessary in order to
gain mastery) when they see a set of
related skills as a strategy to
accomplish goals they want to
accomplish.
13. People learn skills, strategies, and
ideas best when they see how they fit
into an overall larger system to
which they can give meaning.
14. Humans do not usually think through
general definitions and logical
principles but in terms of their
experiences, of what they have seen
and done. And this is the main
principle of video games.
51. Un intérêt croissant
• European Schoolnet, le réseau des Ministères de l’Education européens a récemment
publié un rapport sur « Electronic games in Schools » - Jeux électroniques à l’école, qui
fait partie du projet « Games in school » - Jeux à l’école
• les jeux sérieux ont fait récemment l’objet d’un appel à projets de la part du Ministère
Français de l’Economie : Donjons et Radon
• le Learning and Teaching Scotland – l’organisation gouvernementale écossaise pour le
développement du curriculum - a constitué un centre spécialement dédié aux jeux vidéo
et à la mesure des résultats de leur utilisation comme instruments d’apprentissage dans
les écoles : The Consolarium
• Le 9 février 2009 la Commission du Marché Intérieur du Parlement Européen a adopté un
Rapport d’Initiative qui soutient que les jeux vidéo n’ont pas qu’une valeur récréative, ils
peuvent être utilisés dans des buts éducatifs et médicaux
52. L’éducation peut profiter d’une science de
l’apprentissage
spécialement quand il s’agit d’introduire (ou de en pas introduire)
de nouvelles stratégies et de nouveaux instruments
53. Un modèle pour une science de l’apprentissage
qui vient de la médecine
1. Evaluation des résultats basée sur
des données observables,
reproductibles, non interprétées sur
la base de l’intuition
• Attention à la manière dont les mesures sont
conduites
Médecine fondée sur les faits/
Evidence Based Medicine = l’adoption 2. Recours à des sources
d’une méthode scientifique dans le scientifiques
choix de la thérapie
• Meta-analyse de la littérature
• Sélection (large) des savoirs pertinents
Davidoff F, Haynes RB, Sackett DL, Smith R. Evidence-based medicine. British Medical Journal
1995;310:1085-6
3. Personnalisation par rapport aux
utilisateurs finaux
54. systèmes d’évaluation des méthodes éducatives
statistiques tests randomisés
de comparaison entre groupes expérimentaux et de
contrôle
http://ltsblogs.org.uk/consolarium/2008/09/25/
dr-kawashima-extended-trial-summary-results/
http://www.pisa.oecd.org/pages/
0,2987,en_32252351_32235731_1_1
_1_1_1,00.htm
http://www.unicog.org/
main/pages.php?
page=NumberRace
55. savoirs pour l’éducation
Kirsh, D. and P. Maglio, Some Epistemic Benefits of
Action: Tetris a Case Study,Proceedings of the Fourteenth
Annual Cognitive Science Society, Morgan Kaufmann.
1992.
Science Jung, R. & Haier, R. (2007). The Parieto-Frontal Integration
Andrew N. Meltzoff, et al. (2009) Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: Converging neuroimaging
Foundations for a New Science of Learning evidence. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES 30, 135 -
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