Conrad Waddington's Background Explanation Of Epigenetics

Background Explanation Of Epigenetics By Conrad Waddington
DNA than the their less depressed counterparts (Reiche, Vargas Nunes, & Kaminami Morimoto, 2004).
Background Explanation of Epigenetics
Epigenetics
What is epigenetics? Epigenetics is a term that was coined by Conrad Waddington that describes the heritable changes in the cellular phenotypes that
are observed independently of alterations that occurs in the DNA sequence (Dawson & Kouzarides, 2012). He proposed that there was a link between
development and genetics, which is where the field of epigenetics came from. The word epigenetics itself was derived from a Greek word epigenesist.
Epigenesist is the theory of development that proposed the early embryo was undifferentiated. The broad meaning of epigenetics would be defined as
the unfolding of the genetic program for development. However, Waddington's definition of epigenetics was not much different than that of
embryology (Holliday, 2006). Over time the definition of epigenetics has evolved into the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occurs
independently of the changed in the primary DNA sequence (Sharma, Kelly, & Jones, 2010). Ernst Hadorn, another scientist that became important in
the study of epigenetics for his research with Drosophila, and the discovery of the imaginal discs. These discs were completely undifferentiated cells
that existed during development. Hadorn later went on to determine that each of these imaginal disc developed into symmetrical parts of the adult
structure. This led Hadorn and
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In September 1944, World War II was close to an end, and...
In September 1944, World War II was close to an end, and the German troops were retiring from their conquered countries throughout Europe. The
Netherlands was the last country retained by the Nazis which around this time was stricken by the Allied Forces, to which the exiled Dutch
government responded with a railway strike. The intents of the Allied Forces with the help of the strike were futile, which gave the German
government the opportunity to order a food embargo to the Netherlands as a lesson for their disobedience. The embargo coincided with a cruel winter
which rendered poor crops starting a season of famine in the region. The daily calorie intake went from 2,300–2,900 to 1,000 initially, 580 calories for
the crude winter months.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By the time these people reached their 50's researchers focused on cardiovascular and physiological functions, they found high levels of obesity,
cholesterol and type II diabetes. The study continues until present day. Epigenetics is the study of reactions that switch part of the genome at specific
locations and time, and what factors influence them. A cell has a sum of signals that help on stabilizing thegene expression; these are epigenetics tags
that are accumulated through cell development. While for decades scientists thought the new embryo's epigenome was made from scratch it is now
know that parents' epigenetic tags play an important role in the life of the new creature. Most of the epigenetic tags are erased during the process of
development in a process called "reprogramming" leaving the majority of the cell in a blank state though a few genes make it through the process
without successful removal of the tags. The study greatly helped in understanding the mechanism of nutrition and epigenetic inheritance to the child
while in the womb. It has been shown through animal studies that a methyl rich diet of the mother gives a progeny with a highly methylated DNA.
Specifically, studies in mice have shown that diet affects the Agoutigene (present in all mammals) when the gene is not methylated the mice shows a
yellow coat, a fatter complexion and is likely to develop diabetes and cancer. Unlike the healthy mice

Essay On Epigenetic Resetting In Plants
Embryonic epigenetic reprogramming by a transcription factor in plants
Abstract: Epigenetic modifications have important roles in flowering which requires vernalization (cold winder) for many plants. Epigenetic marks that
accumulated during vernalization need to be removed to ensure proper development of the offspring. However, the knowledge about the key gene
required for such resetting and the underlying mechanism is limited. Here, the author demonstrated that LEAFY COTYLEDONI (LEC1) could de
novo activate FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) expression in the pre–embryo by establishment of active chromatin, thus reversing the silenced state at
FLC. Besides, the active chromatin state can be transmitted to post–embryonic life. Taken together, these... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To understand the timing of FLC activation in embryogenesis, the author first examine when FLC is reactivated using an FLC:: GUS reporter line.
They found that FLC expression was activated in pro–embryo within 1 day after pollination and onwards from both non–vernalized parental plants and
vernalized parental plants, despite that FLC expression is lower from vernalized plants than that from none–vernalized plants. These results were
further confirmed by in situ mRNA hybridization. Then the author postulated that LEC1, a master embryo transcription factor and expressed in the
pro–embryo and throughout embryogenesis, is a good candidate required for embryonic de novo FLC activation. To support their hypothesis, the
author first introduced loss of function null lec1 allele in FRI–Col and found that this FLC–dependent later flowering phenotype was suppressed. Next,
they crossed lec1 with FLC:: GUS line and found that FLC expression was suppressed in the pro–embryo stage and onwards. These results suggest that
LEC1 reactivate FLC expression in early embryogenesis and onwards in non–vernalized plants. To explore whether LEC1 could reactivate FLC
expression after parental vernalization, the FLC expression was traced for two generations in LEC1/lec1 seedlings by FLC–GUS reporter. FLC was
fully activated in LEC1/lec1 before cold and silenced after vernalization, and the

Determining the Underlying Causes of Asthma Essay
Asthma is the most common worldwide chronic condition that affects both young and old. It is a condition in which the air way passages are narrowed
leading to symptoms of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and cough (Bijanzadeh, Mahesh, Nallur 1). Asthma is caused by increased
infiltration of inflammatory cells into the airway, constriction, airway smooth–muscle hypertrophy, and mucous hypersecretion in the bronchiolar walls
of the lung (Bijanzadeh, Mahesh, Nallur 1). Most asthma attacks are short, a few minutes to a few hours, and the person recovers completely this is
called episodic asthma disease. However, those who have acute severe asthma is much more serious because the asthma attacks lasts for days or
weeks, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the people involved in this study observed the degree of expression of asthma within genetically similar populations they discovered that asthma
between children of similar genetic ancestry that live in different environments have significant differences in prevalence rates (Subbarao, Mandhane,
and Sears 182). The results included Chinese children who lived in China had a lower prevalence rate, Chinese who were born in China but migrated
to Canada had an intermediate rate, and Chinese students who were born and lived in Canada had the greatest prevalence rate (Subbarao, Mandhane,
and Sears 182). In addition, the non Chinese children living in Canada still had a greater prevalence rate compared to the Chinese children living there
(Subbarao, Mandhane, and Sears 182). This result from this study strongly supports their hypothesis of gene–by–environment interactions in which
people with similar genetic makeup inherit sensitivity to the effects of various environmental risk factors.
However on the other hand whether genetics plays an important role in the development of asthma has been strongly accepted as numerous family and
twin studies have been made. "Genome–wide linkage studies and case–control studies have identified 18 genomic regions and more than 100 genes
associated with allergy and asthma in 11 different populations" (Subbarao, Mandhane, and Sears

Epigenetics
ONE of biology's hottest topics is epigenetics. The term itself covers a multitude of sins. Strictly speaking, it refers to the regulation of gene
expression by the chemical modification of DNA, or of the histone proteins in which DNA is usually wrapped. This modification is either the addition
of methyl groups (a carbon atom and three hydrogens) to the DNA or of acetyl groups (two carbons, three hydrogens and an oxygen) to the histones.
Methylation switches genes off. Acetylation switches them on. Since, in a multicellular organism, different cells need different genes to be active, such
regulation is vital.
What has got a lot of people excited, though, is the idea that epigenetic switches might be transmitted down the generations. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The term itself covers a multitude of sins. Strictly speaking, it refers to the regulation of gene expression by the chemical modification of DNA, or of the
histone proteins in which DNA is usually wrapped. This modification is either the addition of methyl groups (a carbon atom and three hydrogens) to the
DNA or of acetyl groups (two carbons, three hydrogens and an oxygen) to the histones. Methylation switches genes off. Acetylation switches them on.
Since, in a multicellular organism, different cells need different genes to be active, such regulation is vital.
What has got a lot of people excited, though, is the idea that epigenetic switches might be transmitted down the generations. Some see this as contrary
to Darwinism, since it would permit characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime to be passed on to its offspring, as suggested by a rival
theory of evolution put forward by Jean–Baptiste Lamarck. This is an exaggeration. The DNA sequence itself is not being permanently altered. Even
those epigenetic changes that are inherited seem to be subsequently reversible. But the idea that acquired characteristics can be inherited at all is still an
important and novel one, and a worrying example of the phenomenon has been published this week in BioMed Central Medicine.
In this section * Lake monsters * A third–world dimension *

Nicotine And Epigenetic Analysis
In this article, nicotine is utilized to figure out whether it causes emotional distress, for example, anxiety and depression. These emotional symptoms
might be brought about because of epigenetic mechanisms or alterations, for example, histone acetylation. Nicotine is a profoundly addictive part of
tobacco. The chronic utilization of nicotine is believed to increment emotional side effects such as anxiety and depression. Anxiety and depression is
seen in dependent smokers as withdrawal indications. Epigenetics is the study of alteration of gene expression which causes changes in an organism.
Mechanisms can be methylation, histone acetylation and alteration in microRNAs. Studies recommend that epigenetic changes, for example, histone
acetylation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The outcomes utilizing histone deacetylase inhibitors demonstrate the inclusion of epigenetic histone acetylation in the weakening of nicotine and
additionally immobilization stress induced anxiety and depression like behavioral modifications. The selective CB1 agonist AC, similar to histone
deacetylase inhibitors, gave anxiolytic and antidepressant like impacts against these behavioral adjustments, which recommends the association of the
endocannabinoid system, and the selective CB1 antagonist SR antagonized the impacts of AC. Some weakening impact of SR was seen on the
anxiolytic and antidepressant like impacts of histone deacetylase inhibitor–induced histone acetylation, at the same time connected with both function
of the endocannabinoid system, one of the targets for histone deacetylase inhibitors, and stressor induced emotion related behaviors. Be that as it may,
against the antidepressant like impacts of histone deacetylase inhibitors, the lessening impact of SR was restricted in the nicotine treatment

Epigenetics Essay
Epigenetics, involves the expression of phenotypical characteristics in an individual without directly altering the genetic code. Instead the phenotypes
manifest through the use of external factors, such as, trauma, stressors, environment and chemical exposure that result in the silencing and alteration of
gene expression without altering or mutating the genetic code. This essay will look into the importance of the study of epigenetics through the effects of
epigenetics on genes, as well as the effects of experience and inheritance on the development of epigenetic based phenotypical characteristics.
The first major effects of epigenetics on genes can be seen in the role of DNA methylation in mammalian epigenetics. DNA methylation provides a
method of gene control in an organism, where it assures proper gene expression, as well as silencing of genes within cells, it does this through the
manipulation of chromosome architecture, where it affects the packaging of the DNA by the binding of a methyl group to cytosine (Kullis & Esteller,
2010). The effects of this can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The expression of these phenotypes and their acquisition can then clearly be seen in the effects of chemical compounds such as arsenic, nickel and
BPA on the development of cancer as well as the effects of life experiences, such as childhood abuse, on the manifestation of depression. While, lastly
it can be seen how the possible acquisition of epigenetic phenotypes by an individual can behave similarly to genetic code and be passed through the
germ–line to subsequent individuals. Therefore, this epic influence on survival through epigenetic expression, emphasizes the importance of the study of

Addiction, Addiction, Depression, Poverty And Mental Illness?
Addiction, Depression, Poverty and Mental Illness; Doomed by Epigenetics Similar to other causality dilemmas, the question of which comes first:
poverty, low SES, or mental instability, is discussed when modeling the development of psychological problems in human beings. Low socioeconomic
status (SES), a marker dependent on income level, education and occupation, is often used interchangeably to title poor individuals as well as those
with psychological health issues. Factors such as stress, negative environment, low quality of living, exposure to noise pollution and violence can all
lead to bad health problems and play a role in the development of mental illnesses. Often, it is assumed that a positive family history for mental illness
is one of the strongest predictors of the future development of depression and other psychological issues. Yet, we have an understanding that not all
individuals with this risk factor later suffer from depression. From a biological stand point, one's biological brain functions can also be another
considerable co–factor for mental development. The highlighted biological mechanism researchers focus on is epigenetic modification, specifically
methylation of gene regulatory regions, in parts of the brain. The amygdala, the portion of the brain that deals with one's emotion behavior, and
motivation, undergoes various biological mechanisms that later in turn shape that brain and other processes in this region. Serotonin, a hormonal product

Beckwith вЂ“ Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS)
Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) (OMIM:130650) is a heterogeneous condition both in its clinical presentation and its molecular etiology.
Clinical diagnostic criteria include at least several of the following signs: macrosomia (somatic overgrowth), macroglossia (omphalocele, umbilical
hernia, diastasis recti), ear creases and/or pits, hemihyperplasia (asymmetric overgrowth), visceromegaly, renal malformations, neonatal hypoglycemia,
cytomegaly of the fetal adrenal cortex, cleft palate (rare), facial nevus flammeus, and cardiomegaly or structural cardiac anomalies (Weksberg et al.,
2010). About 5–20% of children with BWS have an increased risk of embryonal tumors (Sunil Sinha, 2014). These tumors most commonly include
Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The epigenetic changes as methylation at H19 seen in patients with BWS who develop Wilms' tumor are also seen in patients who develop Wilms'
tumor without BWS. This indicates that the timing of epigenetic change may determine whether one develops a syndrome like BWS or a cancer. For
example such a change in an early embryo can present as BWS and cancer predisposition whereas such a change in an embryonic precursor for an
organ generates predisposition to cancer in that organ. Common pediatric embryonal tumor types can also be associated with BWS including
rhabdomyosarcoma, adrenal cortical carcinoma, gonadoblastoma and neuroblastoma. We have recently shown that BWS cases with these tumors
exhibit loss of methylation at DMR2 and not at DMR1. These data indicate that there are likely to be two distinct cancer–predisposing regions on
11p15 (Rosanna Weksberg et al.,

Dna And The Human Body
Each cell in the human body has the same exact genetic material, with a few exceptions, and yet each cell does something different than all the other
cells. Contained within the nucleus, the entire genome can be found, and within the genome, there is all the information needed to construct a specific
organism. The genome is composed of deoxyribose nucleic acids, also called DNA, which breaks down into smaller units called genes. Agene has a
specific sequence of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine molecules that will code for a specific polypeptide. Polypeptides can then go on to
become proteins for the cell to use. The genome is the same in every cell, but with about 200 different cell types, there must be something telling the ...
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Such things (include?)like the histone modification or methylation of DNA. Some sources debate that 'epigenetics' refers to all environmental factors
which cause the alterations to occur. Things like the smoke from cigarettes, the food that you eat, the environment inside the placenta, you amount of
sleep you get, and your exercising habits[3]. As epigenetics becomes more prominent in science, the debate evolves and the definition changes.
Scientists are considering the effects of these epigenetic modifications as well as what creates the modifications. Several mechanisms cause these
alterations to gene expression. The most commonly considered factors are DNA methylation, histone modification, and the effects of non–coding
RNA. With DNA methylation, methyl groups (CH3) are added directly to the DNA. These methyl groups attach to the fifth carbon of the cytosine
nitrogenous base by a protein called DNA–methyltransferase. The most common location for these methylations is at CpG sites, which are locations
with a high amount of cytosine–guanine base pairs. The methylated cytosine is called a 5–methylcytosine (5–mc)[4]. The bound methyl group
protrudes into the major grove of the DNA double helix and does not allow for any proteins to bind. DNA can either be hypermethylated, with a high
number of methyl groups attached, or hypomethylated, with a low number of methyl groups attached. Hypermethylation typically causes genes to

Difference Between Absolute And Relative Continuity
1.Describe the difference between absolute and relative continuity. Explain why it is important to differentiate the two. Provide two of YOUR OWN
real–world examples of the difference between the two types of continuity. The concept of continuity is difficult and includes several different
meanings that are distinguished mostly by different ways of measuring continuity. There are two that need to be specifically differentiated: relative and
absolute continuity. Relative continuity is the degree to which individuals hold their rank order in a specific sample from one assessment time point to
another specific time point. Relative continuity is measured by the correlation coefficient for the scores taken at the two different time points or... Show
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An example of maturation would be acquiring a language, because language acquisition is something that happens to an individual innately during a
certain time in development, it is not something an individual can do or learn. Environmental learning refers to developmental change that is brought
about mainly by influences in the external environment and that can be described by mechanisms of learning. An example of environmental learning
would be a child who see's their older sibling get into trouble for having dessert before completing dinner, will first finish their dinner and then eat their
dessert. Constructivism can be defined as the belief that the mind actively participates in gathering knowledge of the world while interacting with the
environment, rather than passively gaining such knowledge through direct perception. Constructivism states that children act as active participants in
their own development and help establish their own fate by virtue of the meanings they impose on the world. An example of constructivism would be a
person attending zumba classes at the gym. While attending zumba classes at the gym, the person is actively participating in and learning how to do
zumba, while also interacting with other people in the environment. The person would By watching

Introduction:. Epigenetics Studies The Biological Information
Introduction:
Epigenetics studies the biological information that can be inherited in addition to the DNA, through biochemical changes such as methylation and
histone modifications that can affect gene expression and lead to a particular phenotype [9]. Epigenetic plasticity can be influenced by internal and
external factors, such as the in utero environment of early development [9]. The intrauterine environment can have short and long term effects on the
health and future disease state of offspring. To look into the effects of the intrauterine environment, several factors need to be taken into account. This
discussion will include the effects of maternal environmental conditions on the health of offspring, including type 1 and 2 diabetes, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The outcomes of gestational diabetes can be studied by looking at the health of offspring of these mothers over time. In one study, intrauterine exposure
to gestational diabetes mellitus was related to metabolic syndrome in children of mothers with and without GDM and with conditions such as
large–for–gestational–age (LGA) and appropriate–for–gestational age (AGA) [2]. Through biochemical testing of the experimental groups of children,
components of metabolic syndrome could be detected, such as obesity by BMI, blood pressure, and glucose levels [2]. It was found that, in a
controlled study, the LGA/GDM group correlated to maternal obesity environments by having higher occurrence of insulin resistance, which would be
expected with weight gain and exposure to diabetes [2]. This suggests that metabolic factors due to the intrauterine environment contribute to disease in
later life through epigenetic changes.
Many research studies have looked into the mechanisms that lead offspring exposed to GDM to be at higher risk for diseases, metabolic and chronic
[13]. It was found through research that the mechanism with GDM exposure evaluated the methylome of the offspring using epigenetics [13]. In this
study, 30 out of 44 newborns were exposed to GDM and their DNA methylation was measured at more than 485,000 CpG sites with over 3000 genes
from placenta and cord blood samples [13]. Though the results were not

An Interesting And Informative Video
This was an interesting and informative video, which talks about epigenetic. I would define epigenetic as a change in the observable physical traits
of an organism without a change in the inherited genetic of a cell. In the video, there were people (twins) and rats as an example just to show and
explain how epigenetic works, which is amazing. The twins' participants in the video, look alike. Even though, their spotting image are incredible,
they also have their differences. Like one of the twin asked an important question, which was if one of them has a disease, will it be possible for the
other one to have the same disease and actually, there might be a chance for the other twin to develop the same disease, which shows me how
mysterious epigenetic is.
There are two articles that I found, which gave a lot of informations about epigenetic and explained how the process of epigenetic works and how
weird it can be. The process of epigenetic works by chemical tags, which is known as epigenetic marks that are tied to the deoxyribonucleic acid and
which permit to either use or ignore specific gene. The most important epigenetic mark is a methyl group and it was said that in the midst of each
generation there is a cell called primordial gene cell, where the epigenetic marks are removed from. The deoxyribonucleic acid methylation is also
removed in primordial gene cell, which are changed to hydroxymethylation and it also restarts the gene of each generation.
From the second article

Out-Of-Pocket Medical Treatment
Imagine taking the time, making the effort, spending the money to raise a child then see this child murdered in public due to policy of public insurance
companies. Proper treatment to rehabilitate individuals developing mental health problems is a significant out–of–pocket medical expense. Shouldn't
the public insurance companies be brought up on murder charges for negligence? We see it in the news over and over. Some shooting happened out in
public due to mental instability. Tax payers ask what could be done to prevent this problem. No better idea than increasing security has not been
thought up. It is very difficult to keep anything 100% secure as one individual took a run across the White House lawn before security caught up to
them. Here ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When this condition is not treated around this age some loss of ability typically occurs that is not congruent with one's potential. The human body is
very forgiving at repairing itself. The biggest obstacle for this condition is getting it properly treated as insurance companies refuse to cover the cost of
proper treatment. The proper treatment has been available to the public for 27 years. Yet public insurance companies refuse and neglect to cover this
treatment. I feel any insurance company should be obligated to pay a good portion of the cost of doctor appointments along with what the doctor
prescribes. The cost of the supplements makes up most of the cost of receiving proper treatment. Typically the cost for proper treatment increases the
longer an individual goes without proper treatment. The form of the supplement and whether or not the supplement can be bought without a
prescription should not matter. From my experience, public insurance companies will refuse to cover any pharmaceutical grade supplements prescribed
or suggested by doctors with medical degrees. To make matters worse politics have influenced the rise in cost for treatment. Making it un–affordable
without

WhatВґs Epigenetic Landscape?
For 70+ years now we have been working on our Epigenome but not really understood what it is or what it can do for us but, thanks to the works of
Dr. Conrad H. Waddington "Epigenetic Landscape" 1939, which was followed up and expanded on by Dr. Adrian Bird and Danny Reinberg (1975~)
we know that it does exist and it has far reaching implications for future development in medical research and biological development fields.
п‚§Risk assessment
п‚§Prevention
п‚§Progression analysis
п‚§Prognosis and biomarker development
Epigenetics ~ is the term coined to explain a variety of "bizarre" phenotypic phenomena in different organisms that can't be elucidated by Mendelian
Genetics. It is like a bridge between geno and phenotypes ~ giving explanation to how cells carrying identical DNA differentiate into different cell
types and how this differentiated state remains stable; o More recently it has evolved to mean "modifications" to DNA that affectgene expression but do
not involve base changes
п‚§These changes are regular and naturally occurring but can be heavily influenced by several factors such as;
Age
Environment & life style
Or disease state.
"According to Dr. Lipton, the true secret to life does not lie within your DNA, but rather within the mechanisms of your cell membrane."
"If Genetics was the recipe then Epigenetics would be the Chef who would create his own idea of how to present the dish", ~ Eliza Hazlerigg
There are 4 main mechanisms of modification and regulation

Three Main Pathways Of Epigenetic Modification
Epigenetic Modifications in Cancer Scientists have known for several decades that cancer may be caused by mutations in the DNA of cells. These
mutations may result from exposure to certain substances (e.g. radiation, benzene) or they may occur spontaneously in the process of cell division,
especially in the context of aging. Recently, researchers have discovered another level of inherited cellular information separate from the genes
themselves. Epigenetics is the study of modifications to genes that change their patterns of expression. Epigenetic processes can silence a gene or even
an entire chromosome. They can cause normally silent genes to be expressed, and can change the process of transcription so that the nucleotides are
transcribed in a different order. Normally, epigenetic information is stabilized early in development and is maintained as cells divide. However, over
time, mutations or epigenetic drift may change the inherited pattern. This type of event often results in disease such as cancer (Jones & Baylin 2002).
There are three main pathways of epigenetic modification. The first pathway involves methylation of the cytosine in CpG dinucleotides, a process
which is catalyzed by DNA methyl transferases (DNMT). Second, modifications can be made in the histone proteins which give DNA its structure.
Third, small, noncoding micro–RNAs (miRNA) can alter the messenger RNAs so that they degrade and cannot produce the proteins coded by the
corresponding DNA. Although

A Study Of Changes Throughout Gene Expression
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression which may be inherited with no changes to the DNA sequence itself– it may account for
non–Mendelian population inheritance patterns. Transgenerational inheritance requires a chromosomal or epigenetic change in the germline allowing
the information to be passed on from one generation to another (Anway et al 2005a). In order for epigenetic marks to be passed down, the gametes
need to conserve their epigenomes by avoiding two reprogramming events; in the gamete and zygote. DNA demethylation is avoided in some genes
called imprinting genes which retain their sex–specific patterns. The environment and external factors may cause additional information to be added on
top of the genome. It has generally been accepted that epigenetic marks are removed and re–established in the preceding generation, thus not inherited.
Nevertheless, many studies carried out on model organisms are challenging this concept and suggesting that this may not be entirely correct. There may
be an incomplete clearing of epigenetic marks resulting in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The present generations where being synthesised in
the womb of their grandmother. Therefore, does the food my grandmother ate affect my development? Could the air we breathe affect our
grandchildren? Many questions are still unknown in the transgenerational epigenetic inheritance field (Youngson and Whitelaw 2008). Phenotypic
variation and disease caused by

Autism In Children: A Qualitative Study
It is alarming to see how many are diagnosed with autism each year. In order to reduce the number of children affected by this disorder, we need to
first understand what causes it. Researchers have been working diligently over the years, but the exact mechanism of what causes autism is still
unknown. The extensive research has been able to rule out factors that do not contribute to autism and has made advancements in possible causative
factors. As of right now, it appears that the source is possibly multi–factorial, just like the disorder. Theories that are believed to be a part of the cause
include genetic, environmental, maternal age, viruses, toxins, and medical conditions. In order to test the theory of maternal age and its' association to
autism, the largest–ever multinational study of parental age was performed. This study aimed to see if parental age was an independent factor in the
risk of autism. Researchers examined the rates of autism for over five million children born between 1985 and 2004. The age, sex, and birth year of
the parents were obtained from birth and/or civil registers. Additionally, they followed up on the child's development between 2004 and 2009 (Large,
2015). The study found that children born with father's over 50 years of age had an autism diagnosis that was 66% higher than children born to fathers
in their 20's and there was a 28% higher rate of autism for fathers in their 40's versus 20's. Furthermore, teen mom's had an 18% higher autism

Biochemical Approaches On The Import Of Genetics Essay
Sociogenomics: Biochemical Approaches to Study the Import of Genetics in Social Behaviours
Literature Review
Sociogenomics is a relatively new research area that isn 't very well understood. Scholarly articles (e.g., Roberts & Jackson, 2008) describe it as a field
that explores the following: the identification of genes that influence social behavior, the understanding of the influence of these genes on underlying
neural and endocrine mechanisms, and understanding the effects of the environment, particularly the social environment, on gene action.
Technological advances paired with impressive progress in molecular biology and genomics make this an appropriate time to attempt to understand the
molecular basis of social life.
In Psychology 241, we were introduced to the OPRM1 gene, which is a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). This gene can vary, in people, by a
single nucleotide (A в†” G). Ways et al. (2009) discovered that people with the G allele showed more pain activation after social rejection. In addition,
these subjects show reduced opiate potency and, therefore, need more morphine to counteract both physical and social pain. Ultimately, from this study,
scientists made the novel discovery that specific genetic mutations (i.e. OPRMI allele) can affect our social and psychological behaviors (i.e. tolerance
to social rejection).
Furthermore, scientists have recently claimed that the actual expression level of genes, at any given time, also affects our social

A Research On Schizophrenia And Anorexia Nervosa
Epigenetic's is a term that describes everything that happens in the gene expression process that is above the genome. The epigenetic process is
typically due to histone modification, CpG island methylation, RNA associated silencing, and some other factors. The process is triggered via
cell–to–cell signaling, neighborhood cells sending signals, physiology, and environment. The epigenetic change can be transient, permanent, or
heritable. In my chosen paper, the researchers are looking into how the social environment can 'get into the mind' in a way that results in psychiatric
disorders such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), post–dramatic stress disorder (PTSD), anorexia nervosa, and substance
dependence. Even though the review article covers five types of mental disorders, I'm going to focus on schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa. Overtime,
research has shown a robust relation between the social environment and the prevalence of mental illness. In large western cities, like NYC, there is a
higher frequency in those that have schizophrenia, increased labor stress helps facilitate MDD development, natural disasters have been associated
with PTSD, and social and relationship problems help induce the onset of eating disorders. It is also important to note that heritable factors also play a
part, and that the resulting mental disorder is thought to occur due to an interaction between the social environment and heritable factors. In a
schizophrenia twin study, even

Socioeconomic Status and Health Issues
Socioeconomic status (a measurement of income, education, and occupation) measures an individual's social standing in society. Low socioeconomic
status is often linked to a depravity of essential material resources and heightened psychological stress variables. The importance of researching the
effects is underlined by its association to a number of adverse health effects and the increasing prevalence of poverty within many countries in the
world. Recent studies have investigated the possible effects on the biological mechanisms by examining the differences in epigenetic patterns between
individuals with variability in socioeconomic status. Although there have been limited studies conducted on this area, research has determined that the
status of socioeconomic often has a significant impact on methylation, with an increase or decrease in certain sections of the genome depending on the
region in question.
Introduction
Socioeconomic status is the combination of income, education and occupation which typically measures the social standing of an individual in a
society [3]. The potential impact of socioeconomic status is vital as it affects a significant percent of Canadians. According to the Employment and
Social Development Canada (2006), poverty affects approximately twelve percent of adults and thirteen percent of children. The gap between the rich
and poor has significantly increased within the past few decades and research suggests that it will

The, Genetic And Epigenetic Mutations
Cancer, one of the most common diseases in the world, is a result of genetic and epigenetic mutations. Where genetics was at first used to explain
phenotypes and disease, genetics alone could not explain the sheer amount of phenotypic diversity in a population–nor could it explain phenomenon
such as how, "monozygotic twins or cloned animals [could] have different phenotypes and different susceptibilities to a disease." Thus entered the field
of epigenetics. Epigenetics is, "the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur independent of changes in the primary DNA sequence."
Therefore, epigenetics has its own, independent mechanisms to affect the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals.
Although technically independent of one another, like genetics, epigenetics can be greatly influenced and altered by external factors such as ones
environment. For example, one study looked at the importance of nutrition in early life and its effects on the epigenome. Using families involved in the
Dutch Hunger Winter and the Great Leap Forward in China, the study found that children exposed to famine in utero had DNA methylation changes in
genes associated with birth weight and low–density lipoprotein. When followed up, years later, with a study of nutritional deprivation in mice, data
showed that epigenetic changes not only affected the babies in utero, but also affected the next generation of mice.
A Brief History of Epigenetics
In 1930, Hermann J. Muller did one of the

Diet Mediated And Transgenerational Epigenetic Effects
Diet–Mediated and Transgenerational Epigenetic Effects An offspring's microbial composition is initially determined through maternal transmission in
utero and during birth, however, after delivery, the microbiota is not fixed and may be changed by a multitude of environmental factors. The mode of
delivery (vaginal or caesarean section), diet, and many other factors continue to play dynamic roles throughout an individual's lifetime (Marques et al.,
2010). Recent studies have indicated that maternal and neonatal nutrition significantly alter the epigenome of offspring, with the food consumed during
pregnancy modulating the gut microbiota as well as the metabolites produced (Turnbaugh et al., 2009). Dietary intervention studies indicate that the
diet sensitive nature of the gut persists throughout life, and that the gut microbiota often responds rapidly to changes in diet (Hullar & Fu, 2014).
More specifically, dietary alterations modulate the exposure of the host to microbial metabolites (such as butyrate) which could have a multiplicity of
epigenetic effects in the offspring (Duncan et al., 2007). Not only do the foods consumed during pregnancy alter the epigenetic marks of offspring,
significant evidence is showing that those epigenetic marks can have transgenerational effects (Heard & Martienssen, 2014). One recent study showed
that children of obese fathers were at a higher risk of developing obesity themselves. The epigenetic marks of lean and obese men showed similar

How Does The Change Affect Our Grandchildren?
By studying Epigenetics, we learn about the changes in heritable genome function without changes in the DNA sequence itself. Transgenerational
inheritance requires a chromosomal or epigenetic change in the germline allowing the information to be passed on from one generation to another
(Anway et al 2005a). In order for epigenetic marks to be passed down, the gametes need to conserve their epigenomes by avoiding two reprogramming
events; in the gamete and zygote. It has generally been accepted that epigenetic marks are removed and re–established in the preceding generation, thus
not inherited. However, studies being carried out on model organisms are challenging this concept and suggesting that this may not be entirely correct.
There may be an incomplete erasure of epigenetic marks resulting in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (Youngson and Whitelaw 2008). The
present generations were being synthesised in the womb of their grandmother. Therefore, did the food my grandmother ate affect my development?
Could the air we breathe affect our grandchildren? Many questions are still unknown in this field. The environment and external factors may cause
additional information to be added on top of the genome resulting in phenotypic variation and disease leading to transgenerational epigenetic
inheritance. Epigenetic modifications of the germline are not only important to evolutionary biologists and disease aetiology but also ecologists, as
incomplete epigenetic changes can

Genetics Of Families With Alzheimer 's Disease
Similarly, another study focusing on several families with EOAD identified a locus on chromosome 14 that is linked with Alzheimer's disease,
which was shown to be an autosomal dominant trait (Schellenberg et al., 1992). Figure 3 illustrates the map of the chromosome 14 markers. D14S43
was found to be a strongly positive marker in chromosome 14 for EOAD (Schellenberg et al., 1992). This illustrates that, although chromosome 21 if
often the main focus of AD researchers, chromosome 14 also plays a large role in the development of the disease. In summary, chromosome 21 holds
the loci responsible for APP and AОІ, causing it to be a main genetic factor in the development of EOAD. Nevertheless, chromosome 14 also is
responsible for the autosomal dominant trait in FAD. Several mechanisms are present that lead to the development of AD in the genetics of families
with a history of this disorder. This may lead to more difficult treatments for FAD. Objective 3: Epigenetic Causes Although genetics do play a large
role in EOAD, late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) seems to be influenced more by epigenetic drifts. Unlike EOAD, LOAD appears somewhat
sporadically and displays many non–Mendelian characteristics. These include, but are not limited to, low patterns of familial diagnosis, unequal
susceptibility in men and women, and a variance in DNA methylation (which plays a larger role in epigenetic modifications) between non–AD and AD
subjects (Wang et al., 2008). This suggests that

Nature vs. Nurture Shown in Family Addiction
Consider the following scenario: John and his mother are both alcoholics. John has been exposed to his mother's inappropriate relationship with
alcohol since before he was born. In the age–old debate of nature vs. nurture, some would say it was merely natural for John to follow his mother's
path, a la the apple does not fall far from the tree–his addiction was inherited. Others would argue that John's childhood experiences and home
environment led him on the road to addiction. Many might question whether John would have fared better if he had been raised elsewhere. While John
may have been a victim of circumstance or fate, a completely different angle can be considered. Perhaps John's alcoholism is a genetic result–a result
that was influenced by his unfortunate environmental factors. In other words, John inherited his nature via his nurture. The positions surrounding the
explanation of John's outcome have been debated for centuries by ordinary people, philosophers, geneticists and psychologists. With recent
advancements, a second genome has been recognized and established as the "epigenome," which is directly influenced by the outside environment
(Francis). While extreme positions still exist within the nature vs. nurture debate, most scientists now agree that a combination of the two determines
one's outcome; with the burgeoning field of epigenetics, however, the ability to overcome one's genes, to some extent, ends the debate and offers hope
that can be viewed as American

Cct Is A Highly Heritable And One Of The Most Correlated...
CCT is a highly heritable and one of the most correlated quntitive ocular trait (Ref). It is a hallmark of diseases such as keratoconus and a rsik facor
for POAG in individuals with high IOP. In table 1B, we compile information on following fifteen genes and sequence variants identified through
GWAS using CCT as a quantitative trait; 1. A kinase (PRKA) anchorprotein 13 (AKAP13), 2. fibroblast growth factor 9 related (AVGR8
/FGF9–SGCG); 3. Chondroitin sulfate synthase 1 (CHSY1); 4. Collagen type 8 alpha 2 (COL8A2); 5. CWC27 spliceosome–associated protein
homolog (CWC27–ADAMTS6); 6. fibronectin type III domain containing 3B (FNDC3B); 7. forkhead box O1 (FOXO1); 8. G protein–coupled
receptor 15 (GPR15); 9. heparan sulfate (glucosamine) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Caveolin1/2 (CAV1/CAV2); 4. cyclin
–dependent kinase inhibitor 2B family (CDKN2B and CDKN2B–AS1); 5. family with sequence similarity 125,
member B (FAM125B); 6. FND3B; 7. growth arrest–specific 7 (GAS7); 8. glucocorticoid induced transcript 1 (GLCCI1/ICA1) [36]; 9. RAB9B,
member RAS oncogene family pseudogene 1 (RAB9BP1); 10. SIX homeobox 1/6 (SIX1/SIX6); 11. solute carrier family 2 (SLC2A14/SLC2A3) and
12. transmembrane and coiled–coil domains 1 (TMCO1)
3e. Genes identified in GWAS withoptic nerve/disc paramters as the quantitative trait:
As mentioned before, glaucomatous optic neuropathies are recognized by changes in the characteristics of the optic nerve head, or optic disc, caused
by loss of retinal ganglion cells and thinning of the retinal nerve fibre layer. GWAS utilizing quantitative optic nerve parameters have so far yeilded
28 genes and genomic regions as listed in Table 1D.
3f. POAG/NTG genes identified from POAG/NTG based GWAS
:
The GWAS approach has been used very successfully in the past five years to identify genes associated with various endophenotypes of POAG. [Add
discussion of GWAS findings]
Recently genome–wide association studies (GWAS) have identified ten genomic loci statistically associated with POAG or NTG, including atonal
homolog 7 (ATOH 7), caveolin1/2 (CAV1/CAV2), phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2), SIX homeobox 1/6 (SIX1/SIX6), transmembrane and coiled
–coil
domains 1 (TMCO1), variants near ATP–binding cassette, sub–family A (ABC1),

Behavioral Epigenetics : Biological Heredity And Nurture
Do the experiences or events that your parents, grandparents or even great grandparents had in the past affect your genes? Why do some humans have
mental health issues and others do not? Behavioral epigenetics examines how nurture shapes nature, where nature refers to biological heredity and
nurture refers to everything that occurs during the animal 's lifespan. Epigenetics is the study of alterations in an organism caused by modifications of
gene expressions instead of alterations of the genetic code itself. Behavioral epigenetics is the field of study, which analyzes the role epigenetics have
in shaping human or animal behavior. Epigenetics works by wrapping DNA around histone octamers to form nucleosomes. Genes will be transcribed or
silenced depending on the spacing of nucleosomes, which is determined by complex processes, including post–translational modification of DNA and
histones as well as the large numbers of chromatin regulatory proteins recruited to interact with these modifications (Nestler). Behavioral epigenetics
explains why humans and animals behave the way they do, not by changing the DNA, but by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of
the genetic code, which in turn changes behavior in multiple generations. To study behavioral epigenetics, scientists first used rats because it was easy
to observe and collect data over many generations. One experiment, scientists observed behavioral epigenetics with rats is maternal care. Rat pups that

Write An Essay On Epigenetics
Epigenetics is the study of change in inherited genes without changing ones DNA as well as modifying genes that are transferred. Various factors such
as aging, what we eat, lifestyles, exercising or even smoking can influence the change in epigenetics which is normal but can sometimes enhance
diseases, behavior disorders and many other disorders that have been transferred either through pregnancy or carried on from previous generation into
our DNA. These disorders can be shown at different stages in life or even carried on to the next generation. Studies have shown that during pregnancy
the environment and what was being consumed during the time are the most influential factors that increase the chances of diseases and behavior
disorders that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Evidence has shown that epigenetic can be changed to terminate the bad genes. This change can give the hopeful chance to end obesity, cancer,
Alzheimer, etc. Epigenetic processes control normal growth and development to fight off abnormal diseases in the body, research on processes such as
methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitylation and sumolyation have been discovered to reverse genes. DNA methylation is the process of
modifying the genes and is used in reprogramming many diseases including tumor process. Acetylation works to increase the expression of genes
through transcription activation plus alters the chromatin. Phosphorylation is necessary for protein function which controls enzymes. Ubiquitylation is
also a protein found in tissue that can affect protein deficiency. Sumolyation is very similar to the ubiquitylation cycle that deals with protein and cells,
it does not break down the protein like ubiquitylation, instead it plays the role of regulating the cell process. The most common ways of processing
with science and technology today is DNA methylation and chromatin

A Study Of Dynamic Regulation Of Gene Expression Essay
The majority of cells in the human body are not human at all. The 100 trillion prokaryotic cells that make up our microbiota, constitute 90% of the
cells in our bodies, and are derived from more than 40,000 bacterial strains (Forsythe & Kunze, 2012). Bacterial cells reside in animal hosts as
commensals, symbionts, or as pathogenic parasites, forming a veneer over almost all body surfaces (Dave et al., 2012). Increasingly, research is
showing the importance of host microbiota composition and the bidirectional signaling pathways between the brain and the gut, some of which are
epigenetic. These studies elucidate the profound impacts that signaling pathways, such as short–chain fatty acid mediated effects, nucleomodulins, and
other bacterial metabolites, can have on health, behavior and cognition (Sommer & Backhed, 2013). 'Epigenetics,' derived from the Greek root 'epi '
meaning on top of, is the study of dynamic regulation of gene expression due to factors that act on chromatin structure, nuclear architecture and other
molecular events that do not change the DNA sequence (Stilling et al., 2014). In addition, epigenetics has sometimes been defined as sequence–
independent heritable changes in gene expression (Holliday, 1987). Epigenetic processes include post–translational histone modification, as well as
cytosine methylation and interactions of non–coding RNAs (Jaenisch & Bird, 2003; Landry et al., 2013). Post–translational histone acetylation results
in a decreased

What Is Epigenetics?
What is Epigenetics?
The word "epigenetic" means "in addition to changes in genetic sequence." The term has changed to include any process that alters gene activity
without changing the DNA sequence, and leads to modifications that can be transmitted to daughter cells. The term epigenetics was first used in the
early 1940s, when embryologist Conrad Waddington used it to describe the interactions between genes and their products, which give rise to an
organism's observable characteristics or phenotype.
Epigenetics involves genetic control by factors other than an individual's DNA sequence. Certain circumstances in life can cause genes to be silenced
or expressed over time. They can be turned off, becoming dormant, or turned on, becoming active. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If we could map every single cause and effect of the different combinations, and if we could reverse the gene's state to keep the good while eliminating
the bad, then theoretically we could cure cancer, slow the aging process and stop obesity. Epigenetic processes are natural and essential to many
organism functions, but if they occur improperly, there can be major adverse health and behavioural effects.
How does epigenetics work?
Epigenetic changes alter the physical structure of DNA. Chemical tags known as epigenetic marks sit atop genes, either on the DNA itself or on the
histone proteins around which DNA is wrapped. Changes in the mix of these marks can alter a gene's behaviour, turning the gene off so that protein
synthesis is inhibited, or turning it on, all without changing the information the gene contains.
Epigenetic tags act as a kind of cellular memory. A cell's epigenetic profile, a collection of tags that tell genes whether to be on or off, is the sum of the
signals it has received during its lifetime. Some epigenetic marks inhibit genes by inducing tight folding of chromatin, which is DNA mixed with
histones and other proteins, and thus keeping genes from being read. Methyl groups sometimes play that

The Pros And Cons Of Epigenetics
What makes one individual different from the other? Many have attempted to answer this question– from ancient philosophers and theologists to
modern day scientists. Regardless of whether the individual concerned is a cell or a whole organism, the answer is said to lie in the nature vs. nurture
debate. Thus arose another, related question– How do individuals with extremely similar blueprints develop an astounding amount of differences?
Biological research attempting to settle the debate for once and for all has found that differences amongst a cohort of individuals is established by an
interplay of both– genetics (nature) and various environmental influences (nurture).
Epigenetics, a term coined by Conrad Waddington (from Greek epi–, 'over', 'outside of', 'around') initially to mean "the branch of biology which studies
the causal interactions ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A related phrase described by Waddington to help elaborate the phenomenon of epigenetics, the 'epigenetic landscape' attempts to explain how identical
genotypes could result in a wide variety of phenotypic variation through the process of development. This epigenetic landscape can be dynamic –
capturing genetic, environmental, and cell lineage effects – and has been shown to be at least partly heritable. (Szyf, M. (2015) Nongenetic inheritance
and transgenerational epigenetics. Trends Mol. Med. 21, 134–144). The epigenetic code is hypothesized to be a defining code in every eukaryotic cell
consisting of the specific epigenetic modifications in each cell. While in one individual the genetic code in each cell is the same, the epigenetic code
is tissue & cell

The Effects Of Epigenetics Studies Genetic Effects On...
Epigenetics studies genetic effects not encoded in the DNA sequence of an organism, hence the prefix epi– . Such effects on cellular and physiological
phenotypic traits may result from external or environmental factors that switch genes on and off and affect how cells express genes. These alterations
may or may not be heritable, although the use of the term epigenetic to describe processes that are heritable is controversial. instead, non–genetic
factors cause the organism 's genes to behave differently.
One example of an epigenetic change in eukaryotic biology is the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells
become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, as a single fertilized egg cell –
the zygote – continues to divide, the resulting daughter cells change into all the different cell types in an organism, including neurons, muscle cells,
epithelium, endothelium of blood vessels, etc., by activating some genes while inhibiting the expression of others.
Definitions
The term epigenetics in its contemporary usage emerged in the 1990s, but for some years has been used in somewhat variable meanings.
From this, and the associated adjective epigenetic, the term epigenetics was coined by C. H. Waddington in 1942 as pertaining to epigenesis in parallel
to Valentin Haecker 's 'phenogenetics ' .
Epigenesis in the context of biology refers to the differentiation of

Genetic And Non Genetic Mechanisms Of Inheritance Essay
Regina Noel
10/19/2016
Epigenetics: Genetic and Non–Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance When discussing the topic of genetics, it is typically viewed from the perspective of
Mendelian inheritance in which genes are transmitted from parent to offspring solely through the use of genetic alleles, which are the alternative form
of genes that have varying DNA sequences and chromosomes that affect the phenotype, visual gene trait (Toth. 2015). If and how a genetic trait is
expressed is whether the alleles for that trait are dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles are genes that have a higher probability of being expressed
in the offspring than a recessive allele. In the case of dominate alleles; there are two possible combinations that its gene can still be expressed with,
homozygous (which contains two dominant alleles) and heterozygous (which contains a dominant and recessive allele). On the other hand, recessive
alleles can only be expressive if it is homozygous (which contains two recessive alleles) (Reece et al. 2013). Since Gregor Mendel's discovery of
alleles and genetic inheritance, there has been research shows that there are more mechanisms of inheriting traits which do not include changing the
nucleotide sequence of DNA. This form of non–genetic inheritance is called epigenetic modification. One example of epigenetic modification is DNA
methylation. DNA methylation is when methyl groups, which are chemical groups that contain one carbon bound to three hydrogen atoms,

Zebrafish Synthesis
Abstract
Oxygen is essential for human life, but an excess of oxygen could easily become toxic and have an adverse effects on the mammalian brain due to
excessive formation of reactive oxygen species, commonly known as ROS. In previous studies, changes in hippocampal DNA material have been
observed in validated animal models of PTSD (Chertkow–Deutsher, Cohen, Klein, & Ben–Shachar, 2010). These changes in the genome may very well
be the underlying cause of long–term traumatic memories. Previous studies conducted at Texas A&M University– Commerce used zebrafish as a
model for post–traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, the results not only proved that zebrafish show symptoms of PTSD, but in fact we observed
modification in the neural progenitor cells around the hippocampal area of the zebrafish brain. High concentrations of ROS can be the reason behind
the modification of the neural cells. Therefore, the importance of this study is to investigate the molecular pathways of ROS in the zebrafish brain. We
hypothesize that using an antioxidant, N–acetyl–L–cysteine (NAC) could reduce the concentrations of trauma induced ROS, which would ultimately
prevent the modifications in the neural progenitor cells in zebrafish.
Introduction
Zebrafish: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2013;90:118–126). Zebrafish are not only cost–efficient, but also easy to house. Therefore, they are considered ideal species for studying genetic
mutations and molecular pathways (Ali S, et al.2012;228:272–283). Zebrafish are known to be social animals, which is an effective representation of
human nature. Zebrafish also make very good research models to test for long–term stress disorders since they have the ability to show a wide variety
of behavioral changes that can be observed in human

Essay about What is Epigenetics and How Can It Effect Me?
Before conducting research and watching numerous informational videos on epigenetics, I would have never believed that when my grandmother was
my age, she made dietary decisions that have affected me. Technically speaking, epigenetics simply means above genetics. In other words, epigenetics
is the traits that you and I inherit, but do not necessarily necessitate the sequence of genes. I took me a while to actually grasp the concept until I
thought of it from a musical perspective. Imagine our DNA helix strands as a musical score. There are different music notes as there are genes. If
someone were to play Beethoven's Symphony Number 5 correctly, it would sound the same every time. Basically, if one note is changed, the whole
musical piece ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Instead they go through a process of change overtime, or sometimes they're hereditary. While watching the video, the host Neil deGrasse Tyson stated
that our epigenomes tend to change during crucial times in our lives such as puberty and pregnancy. While our mothers were carrying us in their
wombs for 9 months, they were passing on these epigenomes that we may pass on to our children. "Just as the genome is passed along from parents to
their offspring, the epigenome can also be inherited. The chemical tags found on the DNA and histones of eggs and sperm can be conveyed to the next
generation" ("Epigenomics," 2012).
I also learned that these epigenomes change because of environmental factors which include what we do, what we eat, what we drink, or what we
smoke. This has been said to be one of the pivotal contraries amongst epigenetics and genetics. I found the groundbreaking study identical twins very
interesting. The point of this experiment was to discover if twins were epigenetically identical or not. After obtaining DNA from 40 sets of twins,
researchers were able to conclude that as twins age, the chance of epigenetic differences increases.
I conducted an intriguing research on the relationship between epigenetics and psychiatric disorders. It is known that epigenomes are affected by
environmental surroundings which can cause life changing results as we age. Also, a mother's maternal behavior inspires the stress

Analysis Of The Article ' Epigenetics And Human Disease '
Introduction
How is it that two identical twins with the exact same DNA and the same environment can be very different? (Coutney Griffin 2012) Cortney Griffin
elaborated on how her journey of having twins lead her to a deeper understanding of what epigenetics truly is. This talk, although vastly viewed in
biochemistry classes including at the University of Texas of El Paso, differs from the scholarly article "Epigenetics and human disease: translating basic
biology into clinical applications" by David Rodenhiser and Mellissa Mann. Their most prominent similarities and differences can be separated into
audience and purpose, rhetorical appeals, and structure and delivery.
Summary of Speech Courtney Griffin begins her speech by saying that nine years ago, she was told that she was going to have twins. This got her
interested in how much of people's mental health and physical health has to do with nature and nurture. She took the stage to describe her journey at
TEDX OU, is an independently Organized TED event at the University of Oklahoma. She had been trained as a geneticist. She was not expecting
twins so she joked, what would happen if she put one kid in daycare and one kid in a drawer. This got her interested in epigenetics. Even though twins
could have identical DNA and grow up relatively the same they are radically different people, to the point that there are health differences between the
children. When DNA gets wrapped to fit into the nucleolus, some parts are able to

Epigenetic Modifications to the Human Genome
Epigenetic modifications to the human genome have increasingly become the subject of scientific research due to a presumptive role in the pathology
and progression of degenerative diseases. Conventionally, methylation of a nucleotide residue is associated with gene repression, whereas acetylation
of a nucleotide residue is associated with gene expression. Through a member of the DNA methyltransferase protein family, the formation of
5–methylcytosine (5mC) from a previously unmodified cytosine residue is a classic representation of a widely–occurring, principal epigenetic
modification event. This process is subject to dynamic regulation and as such, the regulatory mechanisms have yet to be elucidated. In regards to
demethylation of these particular residues, humans lack a corresponding methylcytosine specific DNA glycosylase; however, a potential alternate
pathway has been identified. Catalyzed by the human ten eleven translocation 1 (TET1) proteins, oxidation of 5mC results in formation of
5–hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC); when 5hmC is further subject to oxidation, 5–formylcytosine (5fC) is produced. These oxidized derivatives are
suspected to be substrates designated for removal by the base excision repair pathway. Scientists at the University of Kentucky resolved to explore an
epigenetic change in the progression of a neuro–degenerative disease such as Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is pathologically characterized by
the appearance of three key features in brain

Epigenetic Modifications
INTRODUCTION
Epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modifications are widely considered to be important in controlling the differentiation of
cells. However some argue that since these mechanisms are not seen or transient in model organisms such as worms and flies that epigenetics cannot be
important. However it is also important to mention that there are very different definitions of the word epigenetics formed from independent reasoning
which may affect the debate on whether epigenetics is important or not in controlling cell differentiation. (Berger et al., 2009)For example, to Conrad
Waddington, it was the study of epigenesist ie. How genotypes give rise to phenotypes during development. On the other hand, Arthur Riggs... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the first cell division these transcription factors are distributed asymmetrically to the daughter cells. Then, and in subsequent cell generations, new
patterns of gene expression arise in two ways: as a matter of course (some transcription factors activating expression of genes encoding other regulatory
proteins, etc.), and in response to signals sent by other cells. Signalling used in development affects expression of genes encoding yet more
transcription factors–it does so by changing activities of transcription factors, already present, which target those genes. Retinoic acid and growth
hormone are examples of such signalling molecules. (Ptashne, 2013)
There are two things we need to keep in mind when we talk about cell differentiation. These are specificity and memory. Transcription regulators work
specifically. They activate one gene or set of genes and not another. Therefore, for many regulators and genes, any regulator will work on any gene as
determined by the locations of its affined cis–regulatory sequence. (Ptashne,

Conrad Waddington's Background Explanation Of Epigenetics

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Conrad Waddington's Background Explanation Of Epigenetics