1. TRANSLATION PROCEDURES
The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b) proposes:
• Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and is the same
as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription."
• Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL.
(Newmark, 1988b:82)
• Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. however, "they are not accurate"
(Newmark, 1988b:83)
• Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components
of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
• Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change from
singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an
SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth. (Newmark, 1988b:86)
• Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity
with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective.
(Newmark, 1988b:88)
Some definitions
Calque
The term ‘calque’, or ‘Through-Translation’ as Newmark (1988)calls it, refers to the case where the translator imitates in
his translation the structure or manner of expression of the ST. Actually, this is the core of difference between calque and
borrowing, since the latter transfers the whole word. Calque may introduce a structure that is stranger from the TL. For
instance, ‘champions league’, ‘week-end’ and ‘iceberg’ are used in French, though the latter does not consist of such
purely English structure 'NP+NP'. Further, more examples of calque translation are to be found in names of international
organizations. The latter consist of universal words that can be imitated from one language into another: e.g., European
Cultural Convention, Convention culturelle européenne; study group, group d'étude (Newmark, 1988). Calque
expressions consist of imitating the manner of expression of the ST in the TT. According to Vinay and Darbelnet,
Canadians are accustomed to use the expression 'les compliments de la saison', which is an imitation of the English
expression 'season greeting', (current French: fruit de saison) (qtd by Bayar, 2007).
Transposition
Transposition, or shift as Catford calls it, reflects the grammatical change that occurs in translation from SL to TL.
According to Newmark (1988), transposition consists of four types of grammatical changes. The first type concerns
word's form and position, for instance: ‘furniture’, des meubles; ‘equipment’, des équipements. Here, we see that the
English singular words are changed to plural in French.
The second type of transposition is usually used when the TL does not have the equal grammatical structure of the SL. In
this case, the translator looks for other options that help conveying the meaning of the ST. For example, the gerund in the
English expression 'terrorizing civilians…' might be translated into French in two variable ways:
The subordinate clause: 'si vous terroriser les civils,…'
The verb-noun 'le terrorisme contre les civils…'

2. For the third type, Newmark (1988) defines it as "the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may
not accord with the natural usage in the TL." Transposition, here, offers translators a plenty of possible versions. For
instance, the SL verb can be shifted into a TL empty verb plus noun:
J'ai parlé au parlement hier.
I gave a speech in the parliament yesterday.
The SL adverbial phrase becomes an adverb in the TL:
ST: D'une façon cruelle.
TT: Cruelly.
Concerning the fourth type, it occurs when the translator uses a grammatical structure as a way to replace a lexical gap.
For the sake of clarification, we will try to quote one of the interesting examples used by Newmark (1988) in his Textbook
of Translation:
ST: Après sa sortie.
TT: After he'd gone out.
Here, we notice that the grammatical structure of the TLT is used as a way to compensate for or replace the lexical gap
existing in its linguistic system.
In short, transposition concerns the changes of grammatical categories in translation. This procedure is the most frequent
device used by translators, since it offers a variety of possibilities that help avoiding the problem of untranslatability.
Besides, translators mostly use transposition intuitively, while looking for ways to transfer the ST into the TT.
Modulation
Modulation is defined by Gérard Hardin and Gynthia Picot (1990) as "a change in point of view that allows us to
express the same phenomenon in a different way." Actually, this semantic-pragmatic procedure that changes the
category of thought, the focus, the point of view and the whole conceptualization is distinguished, according to Vinay and
Darbelnet (1977: 11, qtd by Bayar, 2007), into two types: ‘recorded modulation’, also called ‘standard modulation’, and
free modulation. For the first type, recorded modulation, it is usually used in bilingual dictionaries. It is conventionally
established, and is considered by many to be a ready-made procedure. Concerning the second type, ‘free modulation’, it is
considered to be more practical in cases where "the TL rejects literal translation"(Vinay and Darbelnet, qtd by Bayar,
2007).
Vinay and Darbelnet distinguish between eleven categories or types of free modulation: ‘Negated contrary’, for example,
is a procedure that relies on changing the value of the ST in translation from negative to positive or vice versa, e.g. 'it is
difficult' may be translated by 'ce n'est pas facile'; 'he never lies' can be translated by 'il est honnête'; 'remember to pay the
taxe', 'n'oublier pas de payer la taxe'. It should be noted here that these examples are all free translations and their
correctness depends on the context. Yet, modulations become compulsory when there is a lexical gap in opposition
(Newmark, 1988).
In addition, free modulation consists of many other procedures: abstract for concrete, cause for effect, space for time, etc.,
but impersonal or active for passive is still the most frequent and useful procedure. An example of the latter is:
He is said to be serious.
On dit qu'il est sérieux.

3. In sum, modulation as a procedure of translation occurs when there is a change of perspective accompanied with a lexical
change in the TL. Yet, this procedure should better be avoided unless it is necessary for the naturalness of the translation.
Adaptation
In adaptation, the translator works on changing the content and the form of the ST in a way that conforms to the rules of
the language and culture in the TL community. In general, this procedure is used as an effective way to deal with
culturally-bound words/expressions, metaphors and images in translation. That is, the translator resorts to rewriting the
SLT according to the characteristics of the TLT. Monia Bayar (2007) argues that adaptation is based on three main
procedures: cultural substitution, paraphrase and omission.
Cultural substitution refers to the case where the translator uses equivalent words that are ready-made in the TL, and serve
the same goal as those of the SL. In other words, the translator substitutes cultural words of the SL by cultural words of
the TL.
Paraphrase as another procedure of adaptation aims to surpass all cultural barriers that the ST may present. This procedure
is based on explanations, additions and change in words order. Actually, paraphrase is not only used in culturally-bound
texts, but also in poor written and anonymous texts, which show omissions (Newmark, 1988). Besides, the translator
should not use paraphrase in all the parts of the text unless necessary, otherwise his translation would be judged as
different from the original.
Omission means dropping a word or words from the SLT while translating. This procedure can be the outcome of the
cultural clashes that exist between the SL and the TL. In fact, it is in subtitling translation where omission attains its peak
in use. The translator omits words that do not have equivalents in the TT, or that may raise the hostility of the receptor.
In short, undoubtedly, adaptation, as one of the most intricate procedures of translation, enhances the readability of the TT
in a way that helps receptors comprehend the ST ideas, images, metaphors and culture through their own language and
culture. Cultural substitution, paraphrase and omission offer various possibilities for translators. However, the latter two
types are still the subject of much debate, especially for those who defend the idea of fidelity in translation.