LEADERSHIP PROFESSORS LICHTBRAUN, ALOIA AND GAREL What is Management? Carlisle (1976) The “process by which the elements of a group are integrated, coordinated, and/or utilized so as to effectively and efficiently achieve organizational objectives”. Ignores the notion of ‘office’ or ‘position’. Management is not the sole province of managers and supervisors. Non-supervisory personnel can perform the management function. What is Leadership? Klotter (1990) “refers to a process that helps direct and mobilize people and their ideas…” Dupree (1989) Leadership is tribal in nature and focuses on an organization’s symbols, rituals and culture. Leaders focus on Motivating employees, Developing organizational culture, and Changing the organization. Managers Leaders Ensure compliance with existing processes Focus on planning and budgeting to achieve short term goals Seek to achieve rationality by enforcing rules Concerned about employees doing things right Question existing processes Focus on more long-term strategic planning Seek opportunities to change the organization and its culture Concerned about employees doing the right thing Management vs. Leadership Leadership Defined Leadership is a process that effectively accomplishes organizational goals and is related to effectiveness. Administrators can learn leadership skills. Leadership is a group process. Leadership in public bureaucracies is inherently political. Theories of Leadership Leadership theories can be loosely organized into one of the following traditions. Leaders are born and not made Leadership is behavioral Leadership is contingency based Theories of Leadership Born Leaders Assumes: The ability to lead others is based on certain personality traits like the ability to relate to others, communication skills, or charisma. Leadership is not a learned skill – you either have it or you don’t. Leadership effectiveness is dependent upon finding a person with the personality type that can work well in a particular working environment. Theories of Leadership Born Leaders This approach was largely discredited when researchers understood the importance of contingencies. Some leadership ‘personalities’ are more or less effective in certain situations, but situations (contingencies) often change. Some researchers continue to advocate that personality characteristics are an important element of leadership effectiveness. Theories of Leadership Behavioral Theories Focus is on how leaders behave. Effectiveness depends on how leaders interact with their subordinates to accomplish tasks (initiating structures). This approach is also concerned with how workers achieve both organizational and personal goals simultaneously. The perception of support from management is critical. Creating a sense of belonging among employees is essential to effective leadership. Theories of Leadership Contingency Theories Emphasis is on how situ ...

1. LEADERSHIP
PROFESSORS LICHTBRAUN, ALOIA AND GAREL
What is Management?
Carlisle (1976)
The “process by which the elements of a group are integrated,
coordinated, and/or utilized so as to effectively and efficiently
achieve organizational objectives”.
Ignores the notion of ‘office’ or ‘position’.
Management is not the sole province of managers and
supervisors.
Non-supervisory personnel can perform the management
function.
What is Leadership?

2. Klotter (1990)
“refers to a process that helps direct and mobilize people and
their ideas…”
Dupree (1989)
Leadership is tribal in nature and focuses on an organization’s
symbols, rituals and culture.
Leaders focus on
Motivating employees,
Developing organizational culture, and
Changing the organization.
Managers
Leaders
Ensure compliance with existing processes
Focus on planning and budgeting to achieve short term goals
Seek to achieve rationality by enforcing rules
Concerned about employees doing things right
Question existing processes
Focus on more long-term strategic planning

3. Seek opportunities to change the organization and its culture
Concerned about employees doing the right thing
Management vs. Leadership
Leadership Defined
Leadership is a process that effectively accomplishes
organizational goals and is related to effectiveness.
Administrators can learn leadership skills.
Leadership is a group process.
Leadership in public bureaucracies is inherently political.
Theories of Leadership
Leadership theories can be loosely organized into one of the
following traditions.
Leaders are born and not made
Leadership is behavioral
Leadership is contingency based

4. Theories of Leadership
Born Leaders
Assumes:
The ability to lead others is based on certain personality traits
like the ability to relate to others, communication skills, or
charisma.
Leadership is not a learned skill – you either have it or you
don’t.
Leadership effectiveness is dependent upon finding a person
with the personality type that can work well in a particular
working environment.
Theories of Leadership
Born Leaders
This approach was largely discredited when researchers
understood the importance of contingencies.
Some leadership ‘personalities’ are more or less effective in
certain situations, but situations (contingencies) often change.
Some researchers continue to advocate that personality
characteristics are an important element of leadership
effectiveness.

5. Theories of Leadership
Behavioral Theories
Focus is on how leaders behave.
Effectiveness depends on how leaders interact with their
subordinates to accomplish tasks (initiating structures).
This approach is also concerned with how workers achieve both
organizational and personal goals simultaneously.
The perception of support from management is critical.
Creating a sense of belonging among employees is essential to
effective leadership.
Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories
Emphasis is on how situational factors present in the workplace
affect leadership.
Leadership effectiveness is determined by whether the leader
responds appropriately to these situational factors
(contingencies).
There are two principal approaches.
Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories

6. Fiedler’s Contingency Model – the leadership process is
constrained by three major situational dimensions.
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
Structured assessments of organizational contingencies enable
leaders to identify their most appropriate leadership approach.
Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories
The application of Fiedler’s Contingency Model in Criminal
Justice may be difficult.
Given the nature of promotional selection it may not be possible
to match the right leader to a specific task.
The overall lack of leadership training does not enable leaders
to identify how their personality orientations affect leadership
outcomes.

7. Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories
Path-Goal Theory – the interaction between leader behavior and
the situational aspects of the organization is important.
This particular theory is linked to the expectancy theory of
human motivation.
Effective leadership is situational and does not depend on a
single style of leadership.
The effectiveness of a leadership style is based on the degree of
direction and guidance the leader provides.
Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories
Four Leadership Styles (Path-Goal Theory)

8. Directive
Supportive
Achievement-oriented
Participative
Leaders may adopt various styles depending on;
The needs/desires of the employee,
The nature of the task, and
Environmental conditions.
Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories

9. 12 OCLOCK HIGH
B 17 BOMBER
More than 12,000 produced during World War 2.
Each bomber had a crew of 10.
12 OCLOCK HIGH
The year is 1942. The place: Archbury Airfield, England. The
American 918th Bomber Group has just returned from another
mission against German targets in France. The 918th's
performance continues to be dismal. The unit cannot put steel
on target and is experiencing unusually high aircraft and crew
losses. Bad weather and having to conduct daylight low-altitude
bombing missions contribute to the group's poor performance.
However, the 918th's weak demonstrations sharply contrast with
the other three 8th Air Force bomber groups' general success.
As a result, the 918th is suffering from significantly poor
morale. More and more men are making excuses to miss duty.
12 OCLOCK HIGH
General Pritchard Commanding Officer 8th Air Force
Brigadier General Savage is Operations Officer 8th Air Force
Colonel Keith Davenport is Commanding Officer 918 Bomber
Group
Lieutenant Zimmerman is a Navigator assigned to 918 Bomber
Group
12 O'clock High

10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZZlPWTJxSc
paul lichtbraun (pl) - Start at 2650
Theories of Leadership
Transformational Leadership
This theory grew from dissatisfaction with trait, behavioral and
contingency theories.
Focuses on how leaders transform organizations to produce
results using:
Mission and vision statements,
Goal setting, and
Creative solutions to organizational problems.
Leadership Research in Criminal Justice
Police leaders tend to have a preferred (single) leadership style.

11. Primarily a high task and high relationship style.
Strong communications skills.
Research on leadership in correctional agencies is very limited.
There is a substantial need for research on leadership
throughout all parts of the criminal justice system.
Criminal Justice Leadership
A Brief Word on Organizational Culture
Most criminal justice leaders either ‘come up through the ranks’
or are elected.
Leaders are a product of the organizational culture.
The tendency to promote leaders from within
Restricts change in the organizational culture, and

12. May encourage corruption.
William Bratton
NYPD Commissioner 1994-1996 and 2014-2016
Compstat
Started in New York City in 1995
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlLuDvkEdtE
Motivation Defined
Motivation can be understood from two perspectives
Psychological
Examine an individual’s state of mind to understand his or her
behavior.
Individual value systems produce attitudes and motivation.
Organizational
Explore managerial behaviors that induce employees to behave
in certain ways.
Provide mechanisms that enable employees to be highly
motivated.

13. A Historical Perspective of Motivation
Classical school (Taylor, Fayol, Follett)
Motivation is primarily a managerial responsibility, i.e. to
create clearly defined rules and supervision strategies.
Employees were thought to be self-motivated if managers did
their jobs.
A Historical Perspective of Motivation
Human relations school (Barnard, Drucker, Demming, Schein
et. al.)
Motivation is an interactive process between workers and
supervisors.
Motivation is influenced by how supervisors treat their
employees.
Manager/worker relationships are cultivated to achieve
organizational goals.

14. A Historical Perspective of Motivation
Behavioral school
Emphasizes the importance of manager and leader behavior and
other administrative actions to employee motivation.
Focusing on behaviors and proper interactions will produce
more motivated employees.
The study of organizational development originated from the
human relations and behavioral schools of motivation.
Motivation Theories
Motivation Theories
Need Theory (Maslow, 1943)
When lower level (primary) needs (physiological,
safety/security) are met then they no longer become motivators.
Then managers must focus on motivating employees through
higher order needs like belonging, esteem and self-
actualization.

15. Motivation Theories
Equity theory
An individual’s motivation is affected by his or her perception
of fairness in the workplace.
Individual motivation must be understood in relation to how
other employees are treated by management and the
organization.
Prescriptions for Criminal Justice
An Integrated Model of Motivation
Emphasis on personal motives and values
Use of incentives and rewards
Reinforcement
Sufficient personnel and material resources
Interpersonal and group processes that support members’ goals.
Prescriptions for Criminal Justice

16. Defining the Environment
An organization’s environment is any external phenomenon,
event, group, individual, or system.
Environmental change causes organizational change.
The relationship between an organization and its environment is
interdependent.
The organization is affected by its environment, and
The environment is affected by the organization.
Defining the Environment
Defining the Environment
Elements
Technology
Transportation and communication changes affect how criminal
justice agencies do their jobs.

17. Creates completely new forms of criminality.
Law
Statutory laws like ‘three strikes’ and the USA PATRIOT ACT
profoundly change criminal justice agencies.
Court rulings affect criminal procedures.
Civil litigation influences agency behavior.
Defining the Environment
Elements
Cultural conditions
Dramatic changes in culture may result in new or different laws.
Competing cultures may cause social conflict.
Ecological conditions
Different ecological needs (e.g. agrarian, industrial, service,
etc.) create their own challenges for criminal justice.

18. Conflict over scarce resources affects criminal justice agencies.
Increased awareness of ecological issues may result in
additional responsibilities for criminal justice.
Defining the Environment
Elements
Political conditions
Agencies are affected by political pressure from advocacy,
interest, and constituent groups.
Elected criminal justice actors are highly influenced by political
conditions.
Changing social and cultural norms eventually influence result
in political change.
The Political Environment
A complex decision-making apparatus containing both formal
and informal overlapping subsystems (Fairchild and Webb,

19. 1995).
Formal
Legislative bodies, city councils, etc.
Courts
Informal
Pressure from political activists and advocates
Informal pressure from the formal system
Environmental States
Organizations are affected by the state of their environment.
Simple versus Complex
Simple – homogeneous environments with few elements
Complex – heterogeneous environments with many elements
Static versus Dynamic
Static – predictable environments
Dynamic – unpredictable environments
Organizational Response to the Environment
The more dynamic and complex the environment the greater the
uncertainty.
Environmental uncertainty
Lack of information needed for decision making
Inability to estimate effect prior to implementation
Lack of information about the cost of a bad decision
Decoupled organizations – multiple sub-environments

20. Dominant coalition – leaders
Work processors – do the actual work
Managing Environmental Forces
Managing Environmental Forces
All organizations are vulnerable to environmental forces, but
these can be managed.
Influencing input by providing expertise to environmental
factors
Using symbols and rhetoric to influence the environmental
response
Responding to client demand
Decreasing vulnerability to pressure by creating autonomy
Implications for Administrators
The role of management is to mitigate the effect of
environmental pressure and create predictability.

21. Administrators should be highly protective of the organizations
core technologies and competencies.
Constant scanning of the environment is necessary for a
proactive response to and/or the protection against
environmentally caused change.