Orality In Oral Literature

Orality In Oral Literature
Among the oral literature properties is being a committed literature that doesn't know the logic of art for art's sake neither the expression of emotions
and individual selfishness, in this process Liz Gunner an American professor and anthropologist says in her article Africa and Orality that; "orality was
the means by which Africa made its existence and its history long before the colonial and imperial presence of the West manifested itself. In this sense,
orality needs to be seen not simply as 'the absence of literacy' but as something self–constitutive" (2004.p1). Generally speaking, oral tradition or orality
in Africa can be distinguished into poems, folktales, legends, storytelling, riddles and myths which are models of literary production. ... Show more
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Like that star with the tail, I disappear!!
S.E.K Mqhayi, 1925.
Written style in foreign language: This style of African poems is written I in European languages such as English, French, Portuguese, Arabic and
Spanish. Thereon, one of the famous African poets in this kind of poetry is Leopold Sedar Senghor (1906–2001), the first President of the Republic of
Senegal after independence, and a great poet of his time whose poems were about negritude . One of his famous poems "Prayer to Masks" that
demonstrates the struggle between vice and virtue, between wrong and truth, and this is repeatedly in all the African poets who have suffered from
colonization that rapped their land, their culture and their freedom and make them slaves.
Masks! Oh Masks!
Black mask red mask, you white–and–black masks
Mask of the four points from which the Spirit blows
In silence I salute you!
Nor you the least, the Lion–headed Ancestor
You guard this place forbidden to all laughter of women, to all smiles that fade
You distil this air of eternity in which I breathe the air of my Fathers.
Masks of unmasked faces, stripped of the marks of illness and the lines of
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Role Of The Transmission Of Knowledge Walter M. Miller...
The role of the transmission of knowledge in Walter M. Miller's A Canticle for Leibowitz is vital for people to recall and study more of the past
prior to the nuclear war. Our contemporary world understands the significance contained in past literacy and oral traditions to teach us our
civilization's past, however, their current forms are not cherished by this generation due to technological advances. Even though the situations and
settings in the world of Canticle for Leibowitz and the contemporary world differ, the use of each tradition remains alike even if one is cherished
more than the other. More so, the transmission of knowledge in the form of literacy, in the novel, is most reliable for teaching about the past, while
others (e.g. Simpletons) either view this form unfavorably or choose to abuse it for their own satisfaction. Oral traditions, as well in the novel, are less
favorable to higher authorities of the Church due to its degree of reliability; yet, oral traditions can be instrumental for others to spread wonder and
fear. The 21st century utilizes new forms of oral traditions through online media, and concern themselves less with literacy (e.g. books and newspapers).
Literacy is a vital and cautionary form that instructs the monks and our contemporary world about man's past, however, literacy, outside of the
Leibowitz abbey, is viewed as uninteresting and inferior; furthermore, literacy is a danger that can support our own biases rather than truth. The

Oral Culture Of The Late Middle Ages
Given the prevalence of books, magazines, and newspapers in everyday life today, it is difficult to imagine a world without print. The transition from
the essentially oral culture of the late Middle Ages to the print culture of the Renaissance fundamentally changed human interaction. In Western society,
the invention of the printing press and subsequent widespread literacy signaled the shift away from a primarily oral culture to a literate, print culture.
Many scholars, including Plato and Harold Innis, have suggested that the advantages of an oral culture exceed those of a print culture. Even further, the
past few decades have seen calls to orality, or propositions that we must return to oral culture to balance print culture. As seen through a lens of the
history of print culture, the benefits of literacy and a predominantly print culture outweigh the benefits of an oral culture because of the impact print has
had on standardized language and national consciousness, the field of science and accuracy, and the quick dissemination of information and dialogue.
Through a comparison of advancements during the Print Revolution and current features of modern society, I will argue that there is no need to
re–embrace orality because elements of oral culture already exist in our modern print culture.
The Print Revolution was marked by the invention of the printing press and growing industrial capitalism in Europe. The idea of capitalism enabled
publishers to seek mass markets for

The Oral Tradition Of Khasi
Introduction
In the early days of civilization, before written records were made, oral traditions were necessarily important. Such pre–literate societies relied on oral
transmission to propagate their customs and traditions. A conscious choice has been made in the choice of words for the title of this paper regarding
the use of oral tradition as opposed to oral transmission, the reason being that the language in focus is Khasi. Khasi belongs to the Austroasiatic
language family, a large language family of continental Southeast Asia, also scattered throughout India, Bangladesh, Nepal and the southern border of
China. The name Austroasiatic comes from the Latin words for "south" and "Asia", hence "South Asia". Although most of the 865,000... Show more
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The Khasi man travels with a man of the plains. The description of the travel companion clues the listener/ reader into the fact that he is a Brahmin.
The marker of this fact, the Sikha (tuft of hair) is an important part of the narrative. The Brahmin is accustomed to the terrain of the journey, unlike
the Khasi man, who is used to the hills. Nevertheless, they reach God's abode, succeed in gaining retribution and are each given a manuscript that
contains the answer to questions and, most importantly, the script of their languages. As fate would have it, tragedy befalls them in the form of a
massive flood that submerges the plains they were walking. The Brahmin afixes his manuscript to his Sikha and swims away to land, leaving the
desolate Khasi man without a single thought. The Khasi man tries to swim too, but is unable to since the people of the hills would never have
encountered floods of this magnitude. In the course of trying to reach land, the manuscript is lost. Now, the Khasi man must go back to God and
confess his mistake, in the hope of being given another manuscript. Instead of doing so, God decides to teach him whatever was contained in the
manuscript orally. The Khasi man memorizes it all and is told to instruct his people on his safe return home, through the power of spoken

Analysis Of The Epic Of Old Mali
Erica Pangburn
Professor Timothy Fitzgerald
March 21, 2015
Primary Source Analysis
An Epic of Old Mali
Sundiata: an Epic of Old Mali was written by D.T. Niane and translated by G.C. Pickett. D.T. Niane was a historian who received this version of
Sundiata's epic from Djeli Mamoudou KouyatГ©, a griot. In fact, there is not a true author for this epic due to the fact that it has been transmitted
orally for many years. This epic justly showed the type of culture Africa had at the time taken place and has defined the type of people who use to
reside there. Sundiata: an Epic of Old Mali withholds many themes, but only some of importance: the transmission of the epic, politics, religion, and
destiny.
It can be argued that the orality of Sundiata versus the written translation is an important theme of the epic of old Mali. This story has been translated
several times into several different languages. The epic of Sundiata originated as an oral epic performance that was performed by various African griots
or bards. It was a challenge translating the oral tradition into written form. Thus concluded that orality is a better form of transmission than writing.
Transmitting oral passages into writing can be easily falsified. Oral communication is more unquestioning than writing. Interesting enough, the griots
are important persons who transmitted Sundiata: an Epic of Old Mali through many lineages. Griots were not only historical orators, but they were also
important political figures.

The Effects Of Video Game Play On The Educational Process
Video game play can be very beneficial in the educational process. It can enhance cognitive abilities and skills in children and adolescents. In fact,
studies have found that improvements in cognition have been related to grey matter changes in the prefrontal cortex. Specifically, a study conducted by
Simon Kuhn, in which magnetic resonance imaging scans of 152 14–year old adolescents were collected and used to estimate cortical thickness,
showed an increase in cortical thickness in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and in correlation an increase in cognitive and strategic planning
abilities (Simon Kuhn 5). These results come from the need to follow directions in games. In order to progress in games, one must first learn to follow
the guidelines, restrictions and components of them. As the player confronts new challenges, he must use problem–solving skills to find solutions. The
player must find new combinations and incorporate old skills with new skills to overcome obstacles. In relation, players must also get used to
multitasking. As games become more intricate, players must juggle different objectives while keeping track of all the changing elements and
connecting ideas. Games induce quick thinking as well. According to cognitive scientist Daphne Bavelier of the University of Rochester, results of a
study found that people who play video games become more attuned to their environment, are able to keep visual tabs on friends in crowds, can
navigate better, and are

Orality And Tradition
Like the tradition of English literature, the literary tradition of Barak Valley of Assam began its journey with orality or oral tradition. It is believed
that English literature originated with 'verses of an extemporary kind' (Albert 9) which were composed and verbally expressed long before the written
records. It is also interesting to note that poetry emerged much before the composition of prose as a form of literature in written form. Most of the old
English compositions derived their subject or theme from religion and intended to deliver moral lessons. Likewise, orality and folk oral (literary and
cultural) tradition of Barak Valley are indeed extemporary in nature and are mostly in verse form. Their rhymes are surprisingly well–balanced and
they convey some sorts of moral lessons experienced in day to day lives.
The rural societies, abounded with rich tradition and folk culture, have always been the source of inspiration for the writers of world's greatest
literatures including Bengali literature which has produced Nobel Laureates like Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). Orality or oral culture and ... Show
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They deal with men's inner selves. Hence, their presence/influence is more visible besides being active in men's inner streams of lives rather than the
outer wings of society (Sujit Choudhury 49). However, the attributes of written literature and culture, combined with conducive technologies are absent
in oral cultures and hence, their scope and development of thoughts and ideas are, to some extent, limited. Yet, that does not detract the importance and
role of oral tradition in our day to day lives. Folk oral tradition and culture which include folklores, myths and legends have, lately proved to be
significant sources of writing history not only in this part of the globe but also in other parts of the world as

David Kraemer's 'Reading The Rabbis'
The Talmud, surely a work defined enigmatically in a categorization unique to itself, escapes definition by traditional means. That is, as much as we
may study–religiously or academically–we may always fall short of a perfect description of its genre. David Kraemer chronicles this in his Reading the
Rabbis: The Talmud as Literature, asserting that, as a student, one often proceeds "more on the basis of intuition than on the foundation of a
self–conscious method," choosing rather to chase shadows of potential genre–classifying factors rather than search wholly for substantive definitions of
"literature" or "literary" and proceed with a certain scientific method. Thus, the challenge which he and other authors accept is to delineate a literary
genre, if one exists, for the Talmud and then proceed to analyze the text using set literary standards.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kraemer looks first to definitions of "literature" by individuals such as RenГ© Wellek and Northrop Frye. He concludes initially that "it is not difficult
or unreasonable to argue that the Talmud is indeed literature"–it does, after all, concord with a multiplicity of definitions–and yet, "the Talmud is not
what people commonly mean when they speak of literature...How can the Talmud be literature (or literary) and not literature (not literary) at the same
time?" This question is essential to our understanding of the literary Talmud. If we are to label the manuscript as "literature," we also drastically
redefine the popular conception of literature as a whole for, if a multivolume work centuries old with no apparent author and conflicting statements is
of this type, what text is not? Clearly, a conundrum exists. And so, in order to alieve the anxiety from such a claim, Kraemer proceeds to classify the
Talmud into a genre. This, too, is a behemoth of a task, as the Talmud "is not anovel (though it may often be

Aboriginal Culture Analysis
Gulnar Qaiser
Professor LeBel
MDSA02
March 15 2016
Relevance of Oral Tradition Around the Time of Colonization to the Present Day
Oral tradition exists in day to day life, from telling children stories or singing lullabies, which are usually learnt in early childhood, to get them to
sleep. Stories that are told to children by non–Aboriginal individuals are usually meant for entertainment purposes and do not carry any deeper value,
nor are they given any cultural or spiritual importance. For many Aboriginal groups, however, stories and songs have a much greater significance.
"Aboriginal peoples' communities are often founded on stories that are characteristically sustaining: communicating the epistemologies and norms that
constitute their worldviews" ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
James Slotta writes, "Chief Justice McEachern of the Supreme Court of British Columbia dismissed the plaintiffs' claims to Aboriginal title,
self–government, and Aboriginal rights. Weighing the oral traditions they presented in support of their claim, he commented, "If I do not accept
their evidence it will seldom be because I think they are untruthful, but rather because I have a different view of what is fact and what is belief"
(Slotta, 138). In this scenario, the Judge believes that the stories, or any other information that the Indigenous people brought forward as proof of
how important their land was to them, is in fact purely belief, and therefore, the people are rejected rights to their land. This is of great importance
because the main difference between what the laws deems as "evidence" and "belief" impacts crucial decision making regarding the Aboriginal
people's right to their land. In the Chief Justice' opinion evidence is what is recorded, or written down, nothing otherwise. For this reason, Aboriginal
peoples are directly losing their rights and indirectly losing their connection to their own traditions. This is why Oral Tradition still carries importance
today: there are large amounts of people belonging to a spiritual group that rely

The Revolution : Effects Of Ephemeral Messaging
Snapchat Revolution: Effects of Ephemeral Messaging
Debuted in September of 2011, Snapchat is a multi–messaging application for mobile devices developed by Evan Spiegel and Bobby Murphy
(Hempel & Lashinsky, 2014). The phenomenon of 'self–destructing messages' has significant implications for personal communication. Snapchat, an
evolutionary innovation, revisits ephemeral dialogue amid the contemporary ubiquity of digital permanence–where increasingly, communication assets
are virtually stored and endlessly retrievable. The history of the vaporizing message, at first unintentional and later revised as an innovation in personal
digital communication, is essentially shaped by changing ideas of privacy, permanence and propriety. How this medium constricts or encourages
communication is particularly relevant as notions of scarcity and feedback are remixed on an uninitiated generation. By asking these questions, we
hope to better understand the role of Snapchat and ephemeral messaging in an environment of digital permanence. Ancient Human Conversations
Human communication has been transformed by the various technologies that have enabled and enriched it through time. At its most basic and
frequent, people speak to each other aloud. As Ong (1982) wrote: "Sound exists only when it is going out of existence. It is not simply perishable, but
essentially evanescent" (as cited in Crowley & Heyer, 2011, p. 49). In a contemporary world where literacy itself can mean facility with the

Pre-literacy and Modern Vestiges
Pre–literacy and Modern Vestiges
For many years, the conventions and existence of epic poetry from the pre–literate age were explained as repositories for information. A well–known
story, usually involving a hero that embodied the virtues of the society who told the story, engages in battles, quests, etc. As the epic is spoken to an
audience, the hero's actions and the way they are described impart the audience with information and teachings. The information the listeners received
is thought by some to be analogous to a modern day textbook lesson, in which students learn mathematics, grammar, and law, all by the written word.
So is the contention of Homeric scholar Eric A. Havelock. As Hobart and Schiffman state in Orality and the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The specific words sung are more attuned to the metrical nature of the music than they are apt tools for imparting the singer with specific knowledge
about a single battle. "The Star–Spangled Banner" is an example of modern commemoration. If we were to read it as it was originally written, as a
poem, then we would probably think of it as a series of images describing a naval assault on an American fort, and as a singular, historical event. The
poem's lines would become information. Yet in song form this is not the case. The point of the song is not for each individual to remember a certain
night in American history; the point is for a group of singers to remember the notion of a nation, more specifically, the United States.
Hobart and Schiffman theorize that each oral presentation of the Iliad was a different for its audiences as the situations in which we might hear the
national anthem. For instance, we sing the national anthem at baseball games, but we also heard it after the World Trade Center was attacked on
September 11, 2001; besides being group events, these cases have little in common. The type of memory that we use when sing the song together is the
commemorative type.
Another example describing the differences in the concept of memory that Hobart and Schiffman refer to can be found in computers. Memory on a
computer describes how many tasks a computer can do at

Sundiata Analysis
In Sundiata: An Epic of Mali and The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, the importance of storytelling and recording history is
prevalent throughout both stories. In Sundiata, the griot serves as the narrator of the story recounting the tale of Sundiata told to him by his father who
learned it from his father and so on for countless generations. Griots travel amongst their people using oral history as a way of preserving African
culture and heritage throughout generations. They treasure the superiority of oral history above written history because the written word "lacks the
warmth of the human voice." Conversely, Olaudah Equiano explores the written word as a method of spreading his story throughout the world. He
writes a biography because it can be translated into countless different languages because his purpose is to educate as many people about his story in an
effort to end the atrocities of the slave trade. While the function of the griot is to connect Sundiata with his ancestry via oral storytelling and music,
Equiano's written testimony distances himself from his indigenous African heritage. The epic of Sundiata is uniquely characterized by the griots and
the use of orality in the performance of the story and within the story itself. The epic of Sundiata is meant to be performed by a griot in front of an
audience with music. The three griots within the story transcend time as Gnankouman Doua connects Maghan Kon Fatta with the future, Balla

Segu by Maryse Conde Essay
Segu by Maryse Conde
Using specific illustrations from Maryse Conde's novel Segu, this is an essay that discusses how the coming of Islam to Bambar society affected that
people's traditional, political, social and economic practices as well as challenging the Bambaras' religious beliefs.
Before the arrival of Islam, Segu and its people, the Bambaras, were extremely different world from what they became under Islamic rule. The
Bambaras were proud people with a long history in farming, and the wealthy ones worked with hundreds of slaves and planted millet, cotton and fonio
(p. 4). Their currency was cowrie shells and gold dust, and they hadn't even heard of money, which came with the white man. With the coming of Islam,
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
124), "The progressive placement of elements of a cultural, ethnic, and symbolic confrontation between the two worlds operates throughout the
exchange between Tiekoro Traore, child of the spoken word, and the imam of the mosque of Somonos. The narrator subtly presents Allah's disciple as
the same age as Tiekoro's father. Their belonging to the same age–group suggests a possibility of rivalry between the two "fathers," with Tiekoro, the
son, as the stakes. The two paternal references pertain to Segovian and Muslim cultures. Tiekoro emphasizes his social and political genealogy: he
is the son of Dousika Traore, a yerewolo, whose genealogy is lost in time. By defining himself through his father's lineage, Tiekoro obliges the other
father to prove himself worthy of assuming virtual paternity. This challenge to paternity will be seen as an invention of the written word; that is, in
order to keep score in the ongoing silent, symbolic battle, authority will be based on the prestige of writing. To the degree that Tiekoro presents his
noble lineage and his family's political status as incontestible elements of prestige and social legitimacy, so will the writing muezzin strive to
deconstruct these references of legitimacy." Writing could open up a new world to Tiekoro and others who become

Scribal Education and Literacy in Ancient Israel Essay
There has been much debate among researchers about the presence of formal education in Ancient Israel. There are scholars who believe the
development of the linear alphabet led to widespread literacy in Ancient Israel and other parts of the Near East. However, there are others who believe,
that while the linear alphabet was less extensive than the previously, pictographic texts used by the Phoenicians and Egyptians, there was still a
learning curve which would have taken more than just a few days to learn. Even if it was possible to learn the alphabet in a few days and even be
able to read shortly thereafter, it did not necessarily mean a person could write. By looking at the morphology of words and even the use of proper
grammar in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In his article, "Orality and Literacy in Ancient Israel", William Schniedewind discusses the research done by many scholars tackling the issue of
literacy and formalized education in Ancient Israel. He discusses both those who have done primarily Biblical research for evidence of literacy and
education as well as scholars who have looked at both Biblical and archaeological evidence. This article is extremely useful in letting people know
what research has been done on this topic. He discusses the research of Jamieson– Drake, Susan Niditch, Simon Parker, Philip Davies, E.W. Heaton,
and James Crenshaw.
First Schniedewind discusses Jamieson–Drakes contributions to scribal education. Jamieson–Drake focuses "on the physical mechanisms of schools
and scribes." (Schniedewind 328) Jamieson– Drake studied settlement patterns of people in Judah as well as the production of goods and the
development of central administration and monarchy. Jamieson believes that "scribal schools correlate with centralized administrative control, social
stratification, and trade specialization." (Schniedewind 327) Literacy, at least reading and writing was developed because of trade and the need to
record what had been traded between individuals and groups. Writing would have also been a way to control trade if scribal schools were under
control of the monarchy in Judah. Jamieson believes scribal education

Role Models Influence Us As Humans
Role models influence us as humans. We use our parents, community leaders, and even celebrities to shape ourselves in a similar way to them. Media,
like a role model, influences society. Also, media, which society creates, is also the tool that shapes and moulds it. The theory that media (technology)
shapes society – technological determinism – is introduced by Canadian scholars Harold Innis and Marshall. Though this is a technologically
determinist way of looking at communication, the different modes of communication (media) – oral, literate, and electronic –influence society through
the way we store knowledge, through the manner in which we share knowledge, and through the way we connect with each other socially.
First, the oral mode of communication influenced society through the way we store knowledge. In an oral society, particular members of society store
important knowledge. For instance, in First Nations communities in Canada the Elders store their history and tradition and share it with the future
generations. In the book Aboriginal Perspectives, the Kainai Board of Education, who educates the Nitsitapi tribal members in Alberta, states that
"past generations depend upon Elders to pass along their stories, and future generations depend on the young to learn and remember the Elder's
knowledge" (KBE 50). This society depends heavily on its members to survive. As a result, separating the members of this society can result in the
loss of vital knowledge –for example,

Orality And Literacy Chapter 4 Summary
In chapter 4 of Orality and Literacy, Ong discusses the effects of writing and how it restructures consciousness. Plato discussed writing in the Phaedrus
which was described as inhuman, pretending to establish outside the mind what in reality can be only in the mind. It is a thing, a manufactured product
(Ong, 2012, pg. 78). Ong ties this to computers and Plato also suggests that writing destroys memory. If we take the aspect of writing, which has been
around now for thousands of years we can shift to the digital version and how readily, available writings are to us now. We no longer have to hunt
through books in order to find what it is we are looking for. Plato suggested that writing destroys the memory and we can see a way this may occur

Essay On The Dilemma Of A Ghost
Sama Alaa El Feky
900121886
Thursday, April 14, 2016
Professor Monuira Soliman
African Literature
Essay 2: The Dilemma of A Ghost by Ama Ata Aidoo
Considered one of the most respected African plays, The Dilemma of a Ghost revolves around a newly married couple, Ato and Eulalie. Ato's Ghanaian
family has saved tremendously to send him to University in the United States. After he completes his studies, however, Ato surprises his family by
returning home with an African–American bride, Eulalie. Spread out over a year, the play mainly focuses on the cultural differences that both Ato's
family and Eulalie struggle to accept in each other. Aidoo captures a number of upsetting problems confronting the post–colonial Africa, as she
highlights the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Positively, it has led Africa to create the phenomena of oral literature, highlighting oral history and its narratives. Negatively, however, the quality has
been in a way distorted of impression because that is what Africa mainly known for, often leaving the fact that Africa can be great at literary, just like
Europe. Ong explored orality and literacy, including their twin concepts of spoken expression and written expression with their nature and
consequences. He presses about the major significance of oral expression in cultures and the increasing appreciation for expressions, such as epic
poetry and performances. Merolla talks about the great divide between orality and literally, including their achievements in different cultures. "orality
enabled shared decision–making in collective gatherings while literacy could lead to manipulation and authoritarianism as shown by the coercive use
of the press and schools in dictatorial regimes," (Merolla) Jada points out that although Aidoo's combination of traditional Ghanaian and western
conventional format drove most Western critics to consider the play as an inferior text, it is popular in the West African community because of its
intense and detailed reflection of postcolonial Ghanaian family, leading many Africans to relate to its events. The play both entangles

Kelly and Sale: Persuasive Or Pointless? Essay
Kelly and Sale: Persuasive Or Pointless?
Unarguably, since technology has been introduced, it has had profound effects, permeating not only onto society, but our entire ecological system. To
categorize the effects of technology as predominantly beneficial or detrimental, as Kevin Kelly and Kirkpatrick Sale claim in their interview, is
difficult. "Interview With The Luddite" captures and vividly illustrates their seemingly pointless and underdeveloped ideas. Kelly, protechnology, and
Sale, a contemporary neo–Luddite, discuss many technological issues, including the automation of the labor force, oral tradition, literacy, and
civilization. Later, they go on to present often radical and unrealistic solutions to the issues. While at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This draws doubt to the real intentions of Sale in the interview. With regards to Kelly, if his intentions were also to persuade, it seems hardly
beneficial to appeal to an audience who already has the same opinions as him. In essence, while the audience of Wired is clearly intrigued by
technological issues, why didn't Kelly and Sales choose to have their discussion in a forum with an undecided audience. With this in mind, it seems
hardly believable that the true intentions of Kelly and Sale were to persuade anyone. If it was, they were hardly convincing in accomplishing this goal.
Instead, it seems their intentions were much more selfservient and undeveloped. Since they hardly listen to each other, the interview seemed to be a
forum for self convincing and publicity. This is well exemplified in the destruction of the computer by Sale.
Another notably important grammatical yet figurative factor is the title of the interview, "Interview With The Luddite." While the use of THE
Luddite may seem initially insignificant, it has some important connotations. Specifically, I observe Kelly's use of THE as a way to denote both Sale
and his claims. By portraying Sale as the lone existing Luddite, Kelly trivializes Sale's beliefs as hardly credible or worth any consideration by a
potentially concurrent audience. In addition, Kelly also portrays Sales as an outsider, namely insinuating us, protechnology, and him, the lone
neo–Luddite. In essence, before the interview even

The Conquest Of America By Walter Ong And Goody 's Claim
Throughout his text The Conquest of America, Todorov, a french sociologist, implements multiple theories written by Walter Ong and Jack Goody in
regard to the contrasting effects living in an oral versus a literate society plays on its members. More specifically, Ong and Goody claim that the way
one communicates, greatly affects their thought processes as well as their physical brain. To explore this, Todorov uses Cortes' and Montezuma's
communication techniques throughout their battle to highlight the significant diversity between language and the different signs it may send.
Todorov's The Conquest of America is a perfect illustration of Ong and Goody's claim because it provides a historical case study that points to the
differences between literate and oral societies.
During his conquest of the Aztec Empire, Cortes illustrates Ong and Goody's claim that the drafted model of language allows one to make
contradictions about the world around them and establish logic regarding one's experiences. More specifically, Ong and Goody claimed that when
something is written down, one can analyze it in greater detail than through simple, oral communication. This allows one to study information from
different texts and sources in order to see any discrepancies that may arise. In order to evaluate an oral statement in more detail, one must first
remember it and is rather difficult to do so. However, when data and information is written down, one can control the words, which then may be

The Study Of Orality
Orality is a mode of human expression primarily through thoughts and verbal gestures in societies where literacy mainly writing and print are
uncommon to majority of the population. The study of orality is closely linked to the study of oral cultures. The study of orality is important but to
develop and progress a society needs to be literate also so that the process of globalization can move forward. Basically there are two types of oral
cultures existing; primary orality and secondary orality. Primary orality mentions those cultures that are uninformed of written or print technology.
Secondary orality mentions those cultures that are aware of high–technology and use new mediums of orality for example radio, cinema, television,
print and even... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some examples include Brahui, Shina, Burushaski, Balti, Khowar, Kalasha and much more. With this great variety there was a need of an official
language that is understood by everyone so Urdu was adopted as Pakistan's national language. There are still some cultures in Pakistan that are not
comfortable in accepting Urdu and they use their respective regional or tribal languages to communicate and express themselves. Among these varied
groups and languages resides a historic cultural group called Burusho in the Hunza and Yasin valleys of Gilgit–Baltistan in northern Pakistan. The
majority of the population call themselves Muslim and their spoken and written language is Burushaski. According to one of their oral tradition
Burusho people's history traces back to the time of Alexander the Great. It is said that their origins are from the village of Baltir which was
founded by one of Alexander's solider who choose to stay there. Another oral tradition cites a story which can be heard in several villages of Hunza
valley. It is believed that a long time ago the forefathers of the first rulers of the Nagar and Hunza regions migrated from the south. They were
supposed to be descendants of the Trakhan dynasty. As the story goes on, the two brother princes were on a hunting journey, chasing wild ibex (also
called horse of the fairies) who are said to have guided

Oral Vs. Traditional Language
Oral? Literate? With the developing of the computers and telephones, people spend more and more time on typing letters and watching responses on
Internet. Some parents always argue with their children just because children spend so much time on the Internet. Some couples separates just because
they consider that their lovers spend too much on the Internet. Some people believe that the developing of alphabet and technology lets people
separate from the nature, for example, David Abram. Although I disagree with some parts of his opinion, I have the same opinion with the most part
of his idea. Oral not Literate In Animism and Alphabet, "Oral cultures rely on memory, verbal formulas, stories, and stock epithets". (65) . In my view,
the meaning of the oral culture spreads and teaches information by talking and saying. From the word oral, which means words of mouth or speaking
rather than writing. For example, in the movie which I watched a movie, Emerald Forest, in class a few days ago, Tommy learned information by
listening stories from the older people, such as the chief of the tribe and his mother. In this movie, the last frame was that he was old and now he said
stories to young. In his tribe, they used this method to inherit. Consequently , this kind of culture uses mouthes to spread information and ears to
receive information. As for "literate" culture, at first, we have to understand the meaning of "literate". When "literate" is a noun, the meaning of this

Popular Science: Victorian Deafness
Sierra Paul
ENG–112
Popular Science
Due Feb 11
According to Inlet hearing and center, Hearing loss is a common problem caused by noise, aging, disease, and heredity. Hearing is a complex sense
involving both the ear's ability to detect sounds and the brain's ability to interpret those sounds. Approximately 36 million American adult have some
degree or form of hearing loss.
Victorian Deafness explained the pivotal role that deaf people played in their culture which is the Victorian Culture. Story took places in the Victorian
culture in the 1830s & 1900s.The article was for our understanding on how language written and was spoken in the ear politically and socially. In the
first chapter Esmails arise the issues in the interchange between deaf, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hearing is how we communicate with people. So, losing your hearing can bring your self–esteem down for some people. Overcoming Deafness: The
Story of Hearing and Language tells a story about medicine and science about the challenges with the deafness. It also covers the hearing diseases
and the treatments process of Ellis Douek(Writer) career. One thing I really enjoyed when reading his story that he was so dedicated to his story and
what he experiences when having hearing loss. I would recommend this book for anyone who is or has experience hearing loss. It goes is depth about
the languages medicines and mention professionals in heating science which was a big plus for

The Cheese and the Worms Book Review Essay
The Cheese and the Worms Book Review The rise of literacy towards the end of the Middle Ages brought with it a torrent of individuals ready to
think fro themselves and formulate their own theories and ideas regarding God and the Christian faith. For a long time, the church held a near
monopoly on literacy and used this to maintain control over people's lives and beliefs. While some of these new intellectuals created ideas that would
forever change the way people envision themselves and their relation to God and the universe, some simply patched together tidbits of ideas that were
not born out of deep philosophical inquiry, but had more of an instinctive type of logical grounding. This was the line of thinking that made up
Domenico... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He describes this as being analogous to cheese forming out of milk. (Ginzburg, 5–6) He argued that a mass formed out of the four elements: fire, earth,
water and air. From this universal mass came forth God and the angels, much like sprung forth from the cheese, in accordance with the beliefs of the
time. Added to his non–standard beliefs was his assertion that When confronted about these ideas, Menocchio, strangely, responds in different ways
and uses different, seemingly incompatible excuses. In some parts, he claims that these beliefs came from his mind alone, and that, while he is a
blasphemer, blasphemy is good and useful. It is what he is meant for in a sense, like how a carpenter is meant to work with wood. He also, in some
instances, claimed that he was being plagued by a devil and begged for forgiveness. These words were not his own, but he desired help from the
church to overcome the devil's grasp on him and mercy for what he had said. When it became clear that he would not be able to escape this round of
inquisitions, he let loose all of his blasphemous beliefs. Eventually, these statements led to his being burned at the stake for the crime of heresy against
the church. In the book, Ginzburg does more than just state the events as they transpired; he analyzes the possible ways in which Mennochio may have
come to the conclusion of his new religious belief. Ginzburg investigates the possible origins for

Halifu Osumare's Hip Hop Culture
Hip Hop is an adapting culture that allows artists to verbally discusses their views and experiences over a flashy beat. Hip Hop is categorized in many
different ways. Moving forward, Hip Hop is best known for its cultural roots to the African community. In terms of Halifu Osumare, investigating Hip
Hop's relationship to Aesthetic, impacts of popular culture and connective marginalities on Africanist aesthetic and Hip Hop, and African diasporic
cultures. Contemporary technology advancements adapted hip hop, and Nommo compposing orality, through divine linguists. Africanist aesthetic is
culturally reflecting African communities through music and dance. Halifu Osumare's book The Africanist aesthetic in global hip–hop states "Africanist
Furthermore, looking at the cultural aspects that proves Hip Hop to be a culture, would be the slang. Hip Hop produces slang. E. Jerry Persaud
furthers this investigation of Hip Hip as a culture. Persaud adds on to say that slang produced from Hip Hop results in words being coined into the
Oxford dictionary. Building on this argument, Hip Hop culture produces a language, that is incorporated into our everyday lives. Persaud also
continues his argument of how Hip Hop can be reflect as a culture, by showing how popular culture is a key factor due to too explicit lyrics. Popular
Culture allows our to construct a lifestyles similar to ones we listen to in Hip Hop. Persaud supports that Hip Hop could be considered a culture, due
to slang production and explicit lyrics altering our

Zora Neale Hurston
Prescribed question: How does Zora Neale Hurston Portray Folkloric Elements in Their Eyes Were Watching Gods and Jonah's Gourd Vine?
Candidate Number: Something
IB Extended Essay
Words Count: 3857
I.Introduction:
Born in Alabama on January 7, 1891, Zora Neale Hurston is a celebrated African American author and Harlem Renaissance figure who, studied
anthropology and incorporated her research and themes of racial heritage into her work. Of the distinctive features of Hurston's prose fiction, perhaps
none is more important than her extensive use of folkloric materials. With Hurston's works are often infused with an array of sounds, songs, and stories
of folk traditions, they reflect a compelling synthesis of ethnological reality and lively characterization and setting. Among Hurston's over 50 works,
Jonah's Gourd Vine – Hurston's first written novel, and Their Eyes Were Watching God– often acclaimed Hurston's masterpiece, are perhaps the two
richest beneficiaries as a folklorist. In general, both novels possess many gripping elements of rich and varied folkloric elements of the Southern
United States that would be discussed in the following paragraphs.
In summary, Their Eyes is the tale of Janie Crawford's journey through three marriages to a final position of self–realization. Meanwhile, Jonah's Gourd
The novel begins and ends with, Janie and Pheoby, sitting on the porch of Janie's house, where Janie tells the stories contained within the novel to
Pheoby during the course of an evening. As the story proceeds chronologically, Hurston begins Janie'snarrative a few pages into the book with her
first–person account of incidents from Janie's early childhood, then after the initial incidents, the author eases into a third–person

Secondary Orality: A Chapter Summary
This essay focuses on the various theories to develop a unifying utopia despite revisiting the past. "One cannot study Africans in the United States or
Brazil or Jamaica without any appreciation for the historical and cultural significance of Africa as source and origin." In the case of Mary Prince, the
Europeans appreciated the fact that they could enslave Africans and separate them through the social concept of race by the skin color. The Europeans
appreciated the fact that they could steal resources and dominate a continent with their own culture. Evidence shows that Africans had culture and
appreciated nature; therefore, how did all of this begin? First, the Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason (the power of...
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The resistance of Mary Prince to slavery, the resistance of Africans to cultural domination, the resistance of Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights
Movement to segregation. Moreover, Zapata Olivella, author of ChangГі, dares to be different by using his writing as the character of ChangГі to resist
the European form of literacy. Dr. Missihoun, an Africana Studies professor at UNC Charlotte states, "the novel is crafted to reflect the social
conscience of a writer whose aesthetic creation aims to resist, subvert, and de–center the hegemony of the center and of the master discourse over art
creation in the periphery" (Innovative Cultural Writing in Secondary Orality, pg. 5). An example of resistance is Mary Prince. Mary Prince was a
feminist that understood that the Europeans never gave freedom on a silver platter. She did not believe in the continuity of slavery; as in to a slave,
slavery is a home and there was nothing to change the fact, except the slave decides to not be a slave anymore and fight for freedom by becoming
homeless in a distinctive and honorable sense, to the imposed identity of being a slave. Mary Prince did that and in such manner, the African had an
unenviable homework: to discover for herself what the valid African home is, because it described her

Meaning Of The Epic Of Gilgamesh
Over 4000 years old and from the third millennium, The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest pieces of literature that was written and that has
survived. It was not discovered until the 1800's when it was found in Nineveh. As the Epic is very old, the context of the time period in which it was
written must be taken into account when trying to interpret it. No one person can give an accurate and infallible interpretation of it because of that. To
this day, there are multiple different ideas and explanations of the meaning behind the Epic. Written during the Mesopotamian period, the beliefs and
value of that time must be taken into account when discussing the Epic. The Darkness of the Mesopotamian religion and culture, and the importance of
However, Gilgamesh is really searching for life and power. He wants to rule over everything and become the most powerful being. Once he makes
it to Utnapishtim, he is told that immortality is not for him. But in finding this out, he discovers his "life" and realizes that it is not only about
living forever and being the most powerful, but rather about the quality of ones life and how it is spent. 1 Through this, Gilgamesh overcomes his
fear of the Darkness of religion. But for the Mesopotamians, there was still a high level of fear to the people as they did not want to do anything to
cause the gods to be distraught. Everything they did was to pacify the gods and was in line with what they believed that the gods wanted or what
would please them. Not only were the gods part of their religion, but the different law codes were a key factor in religion. The "Code of Hammurabi",
one of the biggest and most popular law codes in history, shows us the impact of the law's on the Mesopotamians religion and culture. (but the law
code is their religion –– reword??) It shows us the importance that the religious beliefs had on the Mesopotamians. When Hammurabi put his code of
laws into place, he used the power

How The Print Revolution Has Affected The Practice Of...
The development of the print revolution has affected the practice of orality and oral traditions (Bagchi 2012). This essay will firstly discuss the
development of print, in particular the revolution of the printing press, and secondly explain the impacts of the print revolution on oral traditions in the
indigenous Australian tribes. The medium and meaning theory will be applied and discussed, which will allow for a stronger supporting argument.
This is in relation to both medium and meaning theories. The medium theory discusses how a media can be influential in information growth, both
physically and psychologically with technological changes occurring (Ellis 2009). Printing technology and orality's are both in relation to the medium
theory. The medium theory relates to printing technologies and orality's as firstly, printing technology particularly relating to the printing press has
changed communication in society as the technologies have caused an impact on human communication when they were introduced. Secondly,
orality's or oral traditions relate to the medium theory as the oral traditions by the indigenous Australians have been passed down and changed from one
generation to another, which is still occurring in todays society. The meaning theories relate to oral culture and tradition, the theory states the act of
speaking is communal, almost magical and the meanings are inspirable.
In the pre print technology revolution era, which was pre fifteenth century, oral

The Role Of Indigenous Orality In Canada
For the purpose of this essay I am relating what little I know based on Indigenous Orality in Canada. Indigenous people are and have been recognized
as a people who come from oral traditions. The traditions associated with Orality encompass several different aspects of Indigenous realities and ways
of being (Wilson & Taylor, 2005). Orality could be argued to have shifted through technology and our connected world and has become the
incorporation of traditional Indigenous stories and teachings that can be displayed throughout different mediums. With this contemporary definition in
mind Orality plays a large role in Indigenous resurgence, and thus is relevant and needed in this digital world. The Concepts and teachings associated
with Orality

The Oral Motor Functional Development Essay
Introduction: The oral motor functional development is a complex process that starts since the prenatal stage and it consolidates on the postnatal
period. The oral motor functions in early childhood (OMF) are part of the thin oral adaptive development, heavily depending on the central nervous
system. At birth, oral appliance acts as a complete functional unit and the breastfeeding practice will favor the OMF coordination (sucking, swallowing),
oral motor activity and the craniofacial growth. From the first six months, a complementary feeding is introduced, jaw movements, tongue and the lips
act like independent structures; and then it starts a chewing process, also known as mastication and the OMF will depend on the diet type, texture,
consistency of food and feeding techniques. In this way, is formed a group of factors that affect the craniofacial growth and development, explained by
the action of the muscles over functional matrices and skeleton units during the function (functional matrix) and by the influence of the environment
about customs and breeding habits that also both will have an impact on the OMF. In Colombia, there are not longitudinal studies that describe the
behavior of the OMF variables. Objective: Set the periods of functional oral motor achievements during the chronological development of children aged
0–3 years old. Sample: 265 Colombian children, Bogota residents (116 girls, 149 boys), children's eligibility was determined by inclusion and exclusion

Printing Press and Its Effects
Week seven
TD 1
ONG in chapter five " Print, Space and Closure"talks about printing press and its effects .Through the chapter I found some interesting points
connected to literacy. First,the idea of persons in a primary oral culture can entertain some sense of proprietary rights to a poem but with writing
resentment at plagiarism begins to develop . We struggle in a copy right world and with removing words from the sound world , print encouraged us to
think about mental held possessions as we express ourselves in narrative discourse."Writing is not necessarily the mirror–image and destroyer of orality,
but reacts or interacts with oral communication in a variety of ways. Sometimes the line between written and oral even in a single activity cannot
actually be drawn very clearly, as in the characteristic Athenian contract which involved witnesses and an often rather slight written document, or the
relation between the performance of a play and the written and published text." (Rosalind Thomas, Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece. Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1992). As a future literacy specialist , I gained new understanding about the line between oral and written and the way writing interacts
with oral. Second,print causes the presence of intertextuality which central in current phenomenological and critical circles . As the writer stated,
intertextuality refers to a literacy and psychological commonplace.The literary text is the product of a writer, who elects to write a

The Influence of Books on the Past and Present Literacy
The article describes the influence of religious books such as the bible on the past and present states of literacy. Past literacy based on religious books
shows the origin of the biblical practices of exorcism and the culture of Protestantism in England. It describes the superstitions surrounding the early
forms of education and the difficulty they bring as regards the understanding of religious books. The article shows that the understanding of the bible
influenced the present state of literacy by introducing prudence and enlightenment. The article is important in the research as it will provide enough
information on how the western culture has reformed the present literacy by drawing its roots from protestant Christianity.
The article describes how the past literacy played an important role in adult education. For instance, the educators linked several issues to past
literacy and adult education. The bone of contention emerges between the impact of theory and practice on policy making. The research provides the
basis of how the three coexist in the world of literacy. It provides the platform where literacy meets adult education. The aspect of literacy in this
context relates to classrooms, workplaces, cyberspace, and tutorial sessions. The scholar article is important as it will provide a basis for
understanding how the past literacy practices evolved into present literacy on the issue of adult education. More importantly, it links policy making to
literacy.
The article

Summary Of Creole Language In The Poetry Of Derek Walcott
Derek Walcott is a complex individual. Born in Castries, St. Lucia in the eastern Caribbean, he was part of the island's native bourgeoisie. Due to his
training in the English classics, permitted by his respectable class on the island, Walcott developed a deep love for the English canon. At the same time,
he affiliated himself ideologically and politically with the Caribbean and its inhabitants. These conflicting attachments manifested themselves in his
poetry, in which Walcott writes in both standard English and Creole. In Laurence Breiner's essay "Creole Language in the Poetry of Derek Walcott,"
Breiner argues that Walcott's blend of Creole and English has one overarching mission: to renegotiate his relationship to his people and their language
after abandoning his people for Europe. Throughout his essay, Breiner suggests that the manner in which Walcott incorporates the Creole language into
his poetry is critical in assessing Walcott's purpose. The matter of how takes shape in two forms: orality versus printed text. In speech, the Creole
language is highly unstable and dynamic – changing with each situation. Creole is the mixture of native Caribbean and European languages, so this
mixture lends itself to instability. Writing, in contrast, is intentional and possesses a purposeful goal in mind. This is what Breiner calls the
"grapholect–that is, about the form of language that can succeed on the page" (Breiner 33). Through the grapholect, Walcott strives for the

Using Technology In Schools
Technology consist of knowledge, products and processes. It is the application of scientific methods and knowledge to obtain industrial and
commercial objectives ("Technology: Researcher Topic"). Some may say technology has cost a lot of loss in culture, but little do they know it has
helped to reshape society as well as giving a sense of enlightenment and engagement. Even though it's always changing, it's superior in todays society,
due to the fact it makes everything more accessible than in the past. "Technology has improved to the point where direct communication all over the
world is an everyday usage. It increased the reliability of sending messages to your peers, easier to meet new people and keep in touch with friends as
well as saving ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In behalf of the fact, technology is broad, therefore one student may have a better brand of computer than the other. The one with the better brand
would have more features allowing them to have the upper hand on getting a better grade on their project, as though to the student who does not have
the same resource. Therefore, if the school manages the technology in which students use for there work it will create an even play field. Allowing
students to use technology in school personalize and improve the education due to the fact later in their career its going to mandatory to use
technology, because technology is native in todays society. "Students use E–books, which is purchasing digital edition instead of the traditional
hardcover books in which we are use to. Not only so but it can help to organize because personal technology has features that can help students with
their organization. For instance, note taking applications, calendars and virtual sticky notes" (Antonucci, Nicole). As you can see technology made
everything more accessible, technology has changed our lives in many ways. A massive amount of new machines has been invented; therefore, with
one touch you will be able to quickly finish your work. Everything is going to change more in the next ten years than it has in the last hundred years.
I think technology is great; it can make our work very easy. Such as computers in which makes our work easier. Overall technology in the world is
very important. However, I know for sure technology in the future will become better, by learning how to use the new

Their Eyes Were Watching God Essay
I enjoyed Their Eyes Were Watching God's grasp on imagination, imagery and phrasing. Janie's dialogue and vernacular managed to carry me along,
slipping pieces of wisdom to me in such a manner that I hardly realize they are ingesting something deep and true. Their Eyes Were Watching God
recognizes that there are problems to the human condition, such as the need to possess, the fear of the unknown and resulting stagnation. The book
does not leave us with the hopelessness of Fitzgerald or Hemingway, rather, it extends a recognition and understanding of humanity's need to escape
emptiness. "Dem meatskins is got tuh rattle tuh make out they's alive (183)" Her solution is simple: "Yuh got tuh go there tuh know
there." Janie... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"On the train the next day, Joe didn't make many speeches with rhymes to her, but he bought her the best things the butcher had..." The
effect money had on Jody's life is already apparent. He bought her things because he was ownership–oriented. Throughout his life, he shows both the
first flush of luxury and the futility and bypassing of what is truly important that upward mobility brings. All in all, wealth does not bring happiness,
and Janie shares that sad realization with Fitzgerald's Dick Diver. The suppression of Janie, both as a woman and a human, is Jody's most interesting
facet. He sets a limit on her self– fulfillment, treating her more like an object than a woman. Of course, he lumps women in with mere
things––"Somebody got to think for women and chilun and chickens and cows (67)." He's good to Janie, but he's good to his animals
also. In fact, Joe's attitude towards Janie is echoed in his behavior towards the overworked mule he buys and sets free: he lets the mule loose to
wander around town as evidence of his generosity and wealth. As Janie so bitterly sees, "Freein' dat mule makes a mighty fine man outa you.
Something like George Washington...you got uh town so you freed uh mule. You have tuh have power tuh free things and dat makes you lak uh king
uh something (55)." Janie has begun to realize that she also,

The Rights And Nation By Gerald Friesen Essay
In his book, Citizens and Nation, Gerald Friesen first mentions the concept of "imagined communities" as he states, "Space had been restructured
because the communication media had eliminated so many of the inherited constraints of physical existence" (Friesen 177). Thus, for Friesen, an
imagined community is constructed as communication technologies connect individuals across geographical boundaries, therefore releasing the
limitations of space. While Friesen's definition implies that a technological intermediary is needed for the formation of imagined relations, his work,
Citizens and Nation works to prove that communities that are based on something other than face–to–face communication, can, without technology,
also be considered imagined". Moreover, using, Oral–Traditional and Screen–Capitalist societies, two distinct time space–configurations, this essay will
demonstrate how throughout history, the concept of "Imagined Communities" differed in its effect and prevalence in Canadian life.
To begin, an analysis of Oral Traditional societies will work demonstrate that while per–literate communities were predominantly traditional, their
connection to the land cultivated an "imagined community". Prior to the invention of print, Canadian aboriginals lived in an oral society where the
spoken word was the dominant form of communication. Because the transfer of information was limited to face to face communication, oral societies,
unlike imagined communities, could only

Nommo Literature Review
Nommo is the generating and sustaining powers of the creative word, which is manifested in characteristics of African orality (Bates, Redrawing
Afrocentrism: Visual Nommo in George H. Ben Johnson's Editorial Cartoons). Orality is the notion that the word has power and force (Howard). In
this literature review, I will review the key theorists who analyze the oratory of Nommo and their specific definitions of Nommo. In addition, this
review will make note of the evolution of Nommo and its different applications. Lastly, this review will close with the explanation of the significance of
Nommo to communication studies. Various scholars study the idea of Nommo and the following is the ways they define it. Theorist Molefi Assante
defines Nommo as "the word," which hold a transforming power of vocal expression. Asante also says that Nommo differs from the Greek concept
logos, in that Nommo includes creative arts, such as literature, orature, and painting. These scholars define Nommo as the creative power of the spoken
word, which brings about harmony and balance (Cummings). Cummings and Roy also states that Nommo goes beyond the mere use of words,
phrases, or linguistic conventions; it also signifies creating and sustaining of language that inform every facet of African American life. Sheena Howard
defines Nommo as a delivery style that is unique to African Americans. Nommo is also defined as not only telling a story through spoken word, but it
gives the story "heart, lungs

Comparing The Lone Ranger And Tonto Fist
In Jacqueline L. McGrath's article, she mainly evaluates Sherman Alexie's attempt to negotiate the traditions and innovations that are seemingly
incompatible in her fiction, The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven. More specifically, McGrath challenges the notion that Sherman Alexie's
fiction can be considered as a folklore. She argues that the work is not folklore, as it is widely considered among other folklorists;instead, the fiction is
a body of work that is much more complicated, which transcends the confines of folklore and Native American oral tradition. Moreover, McGrath also
debuts the notion that Native American writing is more "oral" than other texts, since text is just a medium for "representing parts of an oral traditional

Is It Useful For Non Sensitive Content?
Sexting Poltash (2013) clarified that personal pictures have long been associated with social media. Yet too often, photos are seized and used
inappropriately, creating privacy concerns. Snaps that self–destruct give users, especially teenagers, a sense of potentially false security that
repercussions linked to sexting will vanish along with the content. Interestingly, they seem to have shifted the responsibility for the message away from
the participants of the communication (i.e., the sender and receiver) to the technology itself. Besides explicit photos, Poltash noted that Snapchat is
also being used to share questionable drawings, showcase underage drinking as well as to cheat on exams.
In contrast, Roesner et al. (2014) found that sexting is only a tiny sliver of Snapchat's usage. Instead, they reported that, "[Although some people] use
Snapchat for sensitive content, they don't report using it primarily for this purpose, and they commonly report finding it useful for non–sensitive
content (e.g., funny content)" (p. 9). Likewise, a study conducted earlier this year by Sumpto (a leading marketing company) supports that sexting is a
minor occurrence on Snapchat–only 2% of college students use it for sexting (Shontell, 2014).
Marketing Opportunities
To view a message on Snapchat, recipients must select and hold the alert. In those brief moments, they are glued to their mobile devices, knowing that
content cannot be viewed later. This is the perfect opportunity

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