artículo sobre lesbianas y depresion

1. Research Article
Lesbian Community Oughts and Ideals:
Normative Fit, Depression, and Anxiety
Among Young Sexual Minority Women
Sarah C. Boyle1
and Allen M. Omoto1
Abstract
Our study investigated the importance of the lesbian community and the perceived fit of personal characteristics and behavior
with the norms of this community as predictors of depression and anxiety among Young Sexual Minority Women (YSMW)
aged 18–35 years. YSMW (n ¼ 504) completed an online survey in which they reported their degree of identification with the
lesbian community, described their sexual minority selves, and rated how far away these descriptions were from their own
standards, as well as perceived lesbian community standards, for the person they ought to be and would ideally like to be.
Consistent with self-discrepancy theory, falling short of both self and lesbian community ideal standards uniquely predicted
depression whereas discrepancies from both ought standards related to anxiety. Furthermore, the links to lesbian community
standards were moderated by identification with the lesbian community such that discrepancies from community ideal and
ought standards were more strongly associated with negative affect among YSMW who more strongly identified with the les-
bian community. Although based on correlational data, results suggest that YSMW perceive strict norms in lesbian commu-
nities that they may find difficult to live up to, and these discrepancies may have powerful consequences for experiences of
depression and anxiety. Findings highlight the need for both additional research and therapeutic focus on intragroup sources
of stress (e.g., normative pressures in sexual minority communities) in addition to intergroup sources of stress (e.g., hetero-
sexism) in order to better our understanding of mental health experiences among sexual minority women.
Keywords
depression, anxiety, lesbianism, social identity, social norms
Research suggests that sexual minority women are at higher
risk of mental health problems than heterosexual women (Hat-
zenbuehler, Nolan-Hoeksema, & Dovidio, 2009; Lehavot &
Simoni, 2011; Meyer, 2003). Among sexual minority females
in the United States, young women, between the ages of 18 and
35, are a subgroup especially at risk of depression, anxiety, and
substance abuse (Eisenberg & Wechsler, 2003; Hughes, 2003;
Parks & Hughes, 2007). Existing explanations for increased
risk have focused largely on intergroup sources of stress, that
is, those stressors originating from the heterosexual majority
(e.g., prejudice and discrimination). In the current study, we
propose that intra-group sources of stress—those originating
within a community or social group—may also predict varia-
bility in depression and anxiety experienced by Young Sexual
Minority Women (YSMW). We first summarize the existing
literature related to intergroup sources of stress among sexual
minority women. We then present a theoretical rationale for
understanding why a lack of fit with lesbian community norms
(an intragroup stressor) may also predict depression and anxi-
ety among YSMW. Finally, we introduce an extension of
self-discrepancy theory (SDT; Higgins, 1987, 1989) as an idio-
graphic method for assessing lesbian community normative
fit in relation to negative affect among a diverse sample of
YSMW.
Intergroup Sexual Minority Stress
As suggested by existing models of minority stress, increased
risk of mental health problems among sexual minority indi-
viduals may derive from separate and combined effects of
distal stressors—including experiences of prejudice, rejec-
tion, harassment, discrimination, and violence (Hatzenbueh-
ler et al., 2009; Lehavot & Simoni, 2011; Meyer, 1995,
2003), as well as proximal stressors such as internalization
of social stigma and inadequate or problematic coping
1
Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont,
CA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Sarah C. Boyle, Department of Psychology, The Institute for Research on
Social Issues, School of Behavioral and Organization Sciences, Claremont
Graduate University, 150 E. 10th St., Claremont, CA 91711, USA.
Email: sarah.boyle@cgu.edu
Psychology of Women Quarterly
2014, Vol. 38(1) 33-45
ª The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0361684313484900
pwq.sagepub.com

2. responses (Fingerhut, Peplau, & Gable, 2010; Meyer, 1995;
Szymanski & Owens, 2008, 2009).
Research related to the sexual minority stress framework
and theories of identity development similarly suggest that
social environments and influences from salient lesbian com-
munities may influence the mental health of YSMW. Sexual
minority stress research has linked identification with the gay
and lesbian community to both distal (e.g., discrimination)
and proximal (e.g., perceived and internalized stigma) stres-
sors. Identification with the community is associated with
visibility as a community member and, consequently, greater
experienced discrimination (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009;
Meyer, 2003). However, gay and lesbian communities can
also offer members resources to cope with stigma related to
their sexual minority status. Social support for a sexual iden-
tity from other members of the sexual minority group (Szy-
manski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001) and greater identification
with a visible sexual minority community (Fingerhut et al.,
2010) have been found to buffer the negative effects of
stigma-related stressors on the mental health of sexual minor-
ity people. Similarly, the identity development literature sug-
gests that having a network of friends within a gay or lesbian
community is crucial to the development of an integrated
identity for sexual minority young adults (Troiden, 1988).
In fact, McCarn and Fassinger’s (1996) model of lesbian
identity development asserts that identification and involve-
ment with a lesbian community is part of developing a
positive identity. In addition, even for YSMW who do not
self-label as lesbian, lesbian communities are highly visible,
accessible, and influential (Rust, 1992). In many areas of the
United States, lesbian communities are the most likely set-
tings for YSMW to connect socially with other YSMW and
thereby garner support for a sexual minority identity that may
be stigmatized elsewhere (D’Augelli & Garnets, 1995). In
short, lesbian communities may be important to YSMW
whether or not they self-label as lesbian (Rust, 1992, 1993).
Intragroup Sexual Minority Stress
Stigma-related risks and coping benefits may not be the only
ways that lesbian communities impact the mental health of
YSMW. Studies suggest that some lesbian communities are
governed by strict social norms and that these norms can be
harmful to some women (Aragon, 2006; Heath & Mulligan,
2008). Moreover, compared to older women, studies with
younger women (i.e., 18- to 34-year-olds) have found that
these women express more distress over rigid norms and
report greater anxiety with regard to fitting into lesbian com-
munities (Krakauer & Rose, 2002; Rothblum, 1994; Taub,
2003). Some examples of valued normative behavior in spe-
cific lesbian communities that have been studied include pos-
sessing an athletic physical appearance and disclosing sexual
orientation through personal style (Atkins, 1998; Clarke &
Turner, 2007; Krakauer & Rose, 2002; Rothblum, 1994),
endorsing a strictly lesbian identity and having sex with only
women (Hartman, 2005; McLean, 2008; Rust, 1992, 1993),
belonging to a clique of lesbian friends who are similar to the
self in terms of race and ethnicity, and attaining a high level
of education and financial independence (Bennett & Gibbs,
1980; Lehavot, Balsam, & Ibrahim-Wells, 2009).
Explorations of the content of lesbian community norms
have largely relied on demographically specific and geogra-
phically defined participant samples; in other words, they
have assessed perceptions of a specific lesbian community
by sexual minority women with experience in that commu-
nity. However, the values, norms, and characteristics of les-
bian communities, as well as the ways in which women
define and perceive those communities, vary greatly by geo-
graphy, culture, race, and class in the United States (Lehavot
et al., 2009; Moore, 2006, 2010). There is not a single lesbian
community ‘‘reality,’’ nor is there a universal set of norms for
all lesbian communities. Accordingly, our approach to asses-
sing lesbian community norms and perceptions of normative
fit is consistent with the perspective offered by standpoint
theory (Collins, 2000, 2004; Harding & Norberg, 2005;
Smith, 1987, 2005). Specifically, a standpoint is a place from
which an individual views and sees the world; it is this stand-
point that determines what is focused on as well as what is
obscured. Said another way, knowledge is inherently and dis-
tinctly subjective, and it varies depending upon the social
conditions under which it is produced or perceived. In keep-
ing with this perspective, we explored the perceptions of fit or
match with salient characteristics and behaviors of subjec-
tively experienced lesbian communities among diverse
YSMW. Furthermore, we drew from SDT (Higgins, 1987,
1989) in linking indicators of mental health to these percep-
tions of relative normative fit.
Self-Discrepancies and Negative Affect
SDT holds that different emotional states result from people
comparing themselves to internalized standards called self-
guides (Boldero & Francis, 2000; Boldero, Moretti, Bell, &
Francis, 2005; Higgins, 1987, 1989; Moretti & Higgins,
1999). Three self-guides, in particular, have received the bulk
of empirical attention: the Actual self, the Ideal self, and the
Ought self. The Actual self refers to people’s perceptions of
themselves as they actually are; it consists of the characteris-
tics people believe they currently and actually possess. The
Ideal self is the representation of what person desires to be
and consists of the characteristics the person wants to have
or the traits they would like to possess. The Ought self repre-
sents what the person feels they should be and includes the
characteristics the person feels they should have or the traits
they ought to possess.
As derived from this theory, perceived mismatches or
discrepancies between self-guides reliably lead to either
depression-related or anxiety-related emotions depending on
the self-guides implicated in the mismatch. Thus, discrepan-
cies between Actual and Ideal selves (AI-S) are associated with
34 Psychology of Women Quarterly 38(1)

3. psychological states characterized by the absence of positive
outcomes and the presence of depressive symptoms such as
sadness, dejection, and disappointment. Meanwhile, discre-
pancies between Actual and Ought selves (AO-S) are associ-
ated with psychological states characterized by the presence
of negative outcomes and can lead to experiences of agitation
and anxiety (for a review, see Moretti & Higgins, 1999).
SDT further suggests that these patterns of discrepancy-
induced negative affect occur when self-representations are
perceived by the individual, as well as when the individual
considers representations and discrepancies from the perspec-
tive or standpoint of a significant other. Note that standpoint,
as used in SDT, refers to the person or persons from whose
perspective the discrepancy is perceived (and thus is different
from standpoint theory in which standpoint refers more
broadly to the social and psychological locations of individ-
uals from which they view the world). Thus, perceptions of
discrepancies produce negative affect regardless of whether
they are perceived by a YSMW herself or if she simply thinks
that other people who are important to her (e.g., a parent or
relationship partner) perceive them. Recent studies provide
support for the predicted patterns of discrepancies and emo-
tional experiences for global self-perceptions and also when
specific domains of the self are considered (Bessenoff & Snow,
2002; Holmes, 2002; Moretti & Higgins, 1999). For example, a
study on women’s body image focused on discrepancies
between Actual, Ideal, and Ought selves and significant-others’
representations of this physical self-domain (Bessenoff &
Snow,2002).Similarly, a study ofAfrican American women’s
roles in heterosexual relationships focused on women’s
gender-role self-representations in the sexual self-domain
both as perceived by the self and from the imagined stand-
point of the woman’s relationship partner (Holmes, 2002).
The findings from both studies revealed that greater
Actual-Ideal (AI) discrepancies predicted more depression
whereas greater Actual-Ought (AO) discrepancies predicted
heightened anxiety, with this pattern holding true across
perceptions from the standpoints of both the self and the
significant other.
Discrepancies From the Lesbian-Community Standpoint
Focusing on YSMW in the current study, we examined AI
and AO discrepancies in the domain of the sexual minority
self. Whereas SDT frequently considers Actual and Ought
standards from the self and/or significant-others’ standpoints,
our study extended the theory and related research to consider
the lesbian community, a social group, as an influential stand-
point from which discrepancies may be assessed. In line with
SDT findings for significant-other standpoints (Bessenoff &
Snow, 2002; Holmes, 2002; Moretti & Higgins, 1999), we
expected YSMW to experience depression and anxiety to the
extent that they view their sexual minority selves as discre-
pant from the ideal and ought representations of salient
lesbian communities.
Recent SDT studies have demonstrated that the likelihood
that self-discrepancies from the significant-other standpoint
result in negative emotional states depends on three factors: the
size of the discrepancy, the accessibility of the discrepancy,
and the importance of the significant other (Boldero & Francis,
2000; Boldero et al., 2005). People experience negative emo-
tions when discrepancies are large, highly salient, and cogni-
tively accessible. Additionally, relatively large discrepancies
relate to strong negative emotional states when the implicated
significant-other standpoint is for a person of high importance
to the individual. Extrapolating from these findings, we pre-
dicted that Actual and Ought discrepancies from relevant
lesbian-community standpoints would predict greater depres-
sion and anxiety for YSMW who considered the lesbian com-
munity to be an especially important social group.
Hypotheses
Therefore, consistent with a large body of SDT research
focused on specific self-domains, we expected YSMW who
perceived greater AI discrepancies for their sexual minority
self from the self-standpoint to report greater depression
(Hypothesis 1a). Meanwhile, greater AO discrepancies from
the self-standpoint were expected to predict greater anxiety
(Hypothesis 1b).
We expected a similar pattern of associations for discrepan-
cies judged from the lesbian-community standpoint. That is,
AI discrepancies were expected to be positively related to
depression (Hypothesis 2a) and AO discrepancies to be posi-
tively related to anxiety (Hypothesis 2b). However, further
extending SDT and findings, degree of identification with the
lesbian community was expected to moderate these discrepancy
! emotion links. Among YSMW more highly identified with
the lesbian community, AI discrepancies from the community
standpoint were predicted to be more strongly associated with
depression (Hypothesis 3a) and AO discrepancies to have stron-
ger associations with anxiety (Hypothesis 3b), at least as com-
pared to the associations among YSMW less identified with
the lesbian community.
Method
Participants
YSMW (n ¼ 504) completed an online survey advertised as the
‘‘NonheteroUStudy.’’ Participants were 18–35 years old, with a
mean age of 25.93 (standard deviation [SD] ¼ 4.78). By race,
347 (68.8%) participants were Caucasian; 52 (10.3%) were
Hispanic/Latina; 50 (10.0%) were African American/Black;
13 (2.6%) were Asian American/Pacific Islander; 10 (2.0%)
were American Indian or Alaskan Native; and 32 (6.3%) were
biracial, mixed ethnicity, or other. Participants reported living
in all regions of the United States. Using designations from the
U.S. Census Region, 152 (30.1%) participants lived in Southern
Region states, 125 (24.9%) in Western Region States, 123
Boyle and Omoto 35

4. (24.4%) in Midwest Region states, and 104 (20.6%) reported
residences in North Eastern Region states.
Participants also reported their sexual identity label and
relationship status. For sexual identity, 309 (61.3%) partici-
pants identified themselves as lesbians; 85 (17.0%), as bisex-
ual; 53 (10.5%), as queer; 43 (8.5%), as not labeling their
sexual identities; and 14 (2.7%), as fluid. In terms of relation-
ship status, the sample was nearly evenly split between parti-
cipants in committed relationships (n ¼ 261, 52%) and those
who reported being single (n ¼ 243, 48%). Of those women
in relationships, 199 (76.25%) were currently with a female
partner and 62 (23.75%) were currently with a male partner.
Procedure
Survey measures for our study were included in an online
survey advertised as a study about the experiences and percep-
tions of nonheterosexual young women. The advertised recru-
itment criteria included being a nonheterosexual woman
between the ages of 18 and 35 years and residing in the United
States. YSMW in a qualitative pilot study that was conducted
to inform our research reported a preference for the phrase
‘‘non-heterosexual woman’’ to the phrase ‘‘sexual minority
woman’’ in reference to those aspects of self. Participants
generally reported that nonheterosexual sounded more pos-
itive and inclusive. Accordingly, the phrase nonheterosexual
woman was the phrase used in all recruitment materials and
survey items. Across materials (including advertisements, con-
sent form, and survey), the first time the phrase nonheterosex-
ual was used, it was followed by a standard parenthetical list of
examples (e.g., lesbian, bisexual, queer, fluid, or, preferring
not to label your sexual identity) for clarification purposes.
The study was advertised online primarily via advertise-
ments on MySpace and Facebook social networks. However,
participants were also encouraged to repost the survey link
on their personal blogs and webpages and to pass it on to
friends. Most participants (n ¼ 396, 78.6%) reported obtaining
the link online from an advertisement or a friend on MySpace
or Facebook social network, 61 (12.1%) reported the link was
sent to them by a non-MySpace/Facebook friend, and 47
(9.3%) reported finding the link elsewhere on the Internet
(e.g., posted on lesbian/bisexual website, discussion forum,
bulletin board, etc.).
The study link took potential participants to an information
page about the study from which they provided electronic con-
sent and then proceeded to complete the survey. After complet-
ing the survey, participants were taken to a debriefing page that
described the goals of the study, provided contact information
for the researcher, and encouraged them to pass on the study
link to their sexual minority female friends.
Measures
The online survey included some measures that were being
collected to inform our future research and were unrelated
to the current hypotheses. Among these were survey items
assessing substance use, perceptions of specific lesbian com-
munity norms, and a new author-developed measure of les-
bian community involvement that was being pilot tested.
All told, the entire survey took participants an average of
12 minutes to complete. The measures pertaining to the
current hypotheses appeared first in the survey; they are
described in the following sections in the order in which they
were completed.
Sexual Minority Self-Discrepancies. Boldero and Francis
(2000) and Boldero, Moretti, Bell, and Francis (2005) devel-
oped a simple idiographic technique for assessing domain
specific AI and AO self-discrepancies. In one study on discre-
pancies in the academic self-domain, for example, participants
wrote a short paragraph describing their actual ‘‘student’’
selves to make these self-aspects salient. Participants then read
over their self-descriptions and separately rated the extent to
which the description fell short of the student they ideally
wanted to be and the student they believed they ought to be.
We employed the same procedure here, but we asked partici-
pants to write about their actual sexual minority selves and
then to rate discrepancies from both self and lesbian-
community standpoints. Thus, after describing themselves as
a nonheterosexual woman, participants reread their descrip-
tions and responded to 4 items rated on 7-point scales from
1 (extremely close) to 7 (extremely far away): (a) ‘‘How close
or far away is your description from the nonheterosexual
woman you would ideally like to be?’’ (AI-S); (b) ‘‘How close
or far away is your description from the nonheterosexual
woman you feel you should, or ought to be?’’ (AO-S); (c)
‘‘How close or far away is your description from the nonheter-
osexual woman the lesbian community would like you ideally
to be?’’ (Actual and Ideal community [AI-C]); and (d) ‘‘How
close or far away is your description from the nonheterosexual
woman the lesbian community believes you should, or ought
to be?’’ (Actual and Ought community [AO-C]).
To support the use of these discrepancy ratings from the
standpoint of the lesbian community as an indicator of nor-
mative fit within this community, we examined ratings in
relation to several specific lesbian community normative
attribute items derived from a pilot study with 70 geographi-
cally diverse YSMW. The lesbian community normative
attributes most commonly reported by pilot study participants
included being sexually attracted to women only, being
‘‘out’’ to family and peers, perceiving oneself as having been
born gay, and being financially independent. Validity of the
AI and AO lesbian community discrepancies as measures
of normative fit were supported by significant negative
correlations between discrepancy ratings and all five of the
commonly reported lesbian community normative attribute
items in the pilot sample. Sizes of correlations between
lesbian community discrepancy ratings and lesbian commu-
nity normative attribute items ranged from À.32 to À.76
(all ps < .001).
36 Psychology of Women Quarterly 38(1)

5. Lesbian Community Identification. Identification with the les-
bian community was assessed by the 4-item Importance to
Identity subscale of the widely used collective self-esteem
measure developed by Luhtanen and Crocker (1992). The
reliability and validity of this measure have been established
with reference to a variety of social groups including both gay
male and lesbian communities (Herek & Glunt, 1995). Like
Herek and Glunt (1995), we altered the wordings of items
so that they assessed the importance of the lesbian commu-
nity to identity (e.g., ‘‘My membership in the lesbian commu-
nity is an important reflection of who I am’’). Participants
indicated their agreement with each item on a 7-point scale
from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). We reverse
scored 2 items before averaging across the items to create a
measure of importance of the lesbian community to identity
in which higher scores indicated greater importance. The les-
bian community adapted version was highly reliable in the
current study; its Cronbach’s a of .81 compares favorably
to the reliability coefficient reported by Luhtanen and
Crocker (1992; a ¼ .80) and Herek and Glunt (a ¼ .84).
Depression and Anxiety. The short version of the Depres-
sion, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS21; Lovibond & Lovibond,
1995) assessed the negative emotional states of depression
and anxiety during the past week through two 7-item sub-
scales. The depression subscale assessed feelings of dys-
phoria, hopelessness, and self-depreciation (e.g., ‘‘I felt that
I had nothing to look forward to’’). The anxiety scale assessed
autonomic arousal and subjective experience of anxious
affect (e.g., ‘‘I was aware of dryness in my mouth’’). Partici-
pants used 4-point severity/frequency scales in rating their
experiences over the past week from 1 (did not apply to me
at all) to 4 (applied to me very much or most of the time).
In keeping with the scoring directions for the short form by
Lovibond and Lovibond (1995), depression and anxiety sub-
scale scores were computed by summing responses across
subscale items and then multiplying subscale totals by 2 to
create subscale scores consistent with the full-length DASS.
The DASS21 subscales have demonstrated good reliability
in clinical and nonclinical samples (as ¼ .90 to .94 for
depression and as ¼ .80 to .87 for anxiety), and their validity
has been supported by positive associations with the Beck
Depression and Anxiety Inventories, as well as factor analy-
ses showing superior separation between depression and
anxiety factor loadings for the DASS items (Lovibond and
Lovibond, 1995). Both subscales were highly reliable in our
sample (a ¼ .92 for depression and a ¼ .82 for anxiety).
Results
Missing Data
There was a small amount of missing data within completed
surveys. Analyses of the patterns of missing data revealed
that less than 0.4% of all items for all cases were missing,
and 37.9% of the items were not missing data for any case.
Considering individual cases, 89.5% of participants had no
missing data, whereas at an item level, no item had greater
than 3% missing values. Data were not systematically miss-
ing according to the order in which measures appeared in the
online survey. Little’s Missing Completely at Random anal-
ysis revealed a nonsignificant w2
statistic, w2
(722) ¼
768.36, p ¼ .113, indicating that data were probably missing
at random. Moreover, because the majority of missing values
were on individual items from which internally consistent
composite scores were calculated (e.g., lesbian community
identification; depression or anxiety scales), the listwise
method of handling missing data in analyses resulted in the
exclusion of only one participant. Thus, the final sample of
504 is used across the reported analyses.
Descriptive Information and Preliminary Analyses
Table 1 presents sample demographic characteristics and
descriptive statistics for the primary measures along with the
correlations between the demographic characteristics and mea-
sures. As often done in SDT research, two paired sample t-tests
were conducted to compare the two sets of discrepancy ratings
(i.e., AI and AO) from self- and lesbian-community stand-
points. The AI discrepancy from the self-standpoint (AI-S;
M ¼ 2.65, SD ¼ 1.55) was rated significantly smaller than the
discrepancy from the lesbian-community standpoint (AI-C;
M ¼ 3.97, SD ¼ 1.88), t(505) ¼ À14.71, p < .001. Similarly,
the AO discrepancy from the self-standpoint (AO-S; M ¼ 2.83,
SD ¼ 1.68) was significantly smaller than that from the
lesbian-community standpoint (AO-C; M ¼ 4.12, SD ¼
1.84), t(503) ¼ À15.23, p < .001. In other words, the YSMW
in our sample saw themselves as falling short of both the ideal
and ought standards of the lesbian community to a greater
degree than they saw themselves falling short of their own per-
sonal standards.
Examining correlations between primary measures and
demographic characteristics in Table 1, lesbian community
identification was negatively associated with AI-C and AO-C
discrepancies, meaning that YSMW who perceived greater
discrepancies between their Actual selves and lesbian com-
munityidealandoughtstandardstendedtoidentifylessstrongly
with the lesbian community. None of the racial categories were
systematically related to any the primary measures. By U.S.
Census Region, residing in the Southern Region was weakly
but significantly related to greater discrepancy ratings from the
self-standpoint and greater depression, whereas residing in
the Western Region was related to less depression and anxiety.
Although these correlations were statistically significant,
they were small in magnitude and may reflect regional trends
in acceptance and visibility of sexual minorities (Lewis,
2009). In addition, being in a committed relationship was asso-
ciated with less depression and anxiety. In our sample of
YSMW, which had a relatively narrow age range, older age was
also associated with less anxiety and greater AI discrepancy
from the lesbian-community standpoint.
Boyle and Omoto 37

6. In terms of sexual identity label, the point-biserial correla-
tions revealed that self-labeling as a lesbian was positively
associated with lesbian community identification, less depres-
sion, and smaller discrepancies from both the self-standpoint
and the lesbian-community standpoint. These correlations are
not surprising, given the apparent normative value attached to
claiming a strictly lesbian identity within lesbian commu-
nities (Hartman, 2005; McLean, 2008; Rust, 1992, 1993).
None of the nonlesbian identity labels were systematically
associated with depression, anxiety, or ratings of discrepan-
cies from the self-standpoint; however, the majority of these
labels were weakly to moderately associated with larger dis-
crepancy ratings from the lesbian-community standpoint.
Bisexual, queer, and unlabeled sexual identities were also
associated with decreased identification with the lesbian
community. Although these YSMW perceived themselves
as further away from normative standards of the lesbian com-
munity, they also identified with the community to a lesser
degree. Because the moderator in our study organizes YSMW
of diverse sexual identity labels according to the degree to
which they identify with the lesbian community, it is impor-
tant to note that sexual identity label was weakly associated
with primary predictor measures (discrepancy ratings and les-
bian community identification) in ways consistent with the
previous literature and the current study’s hypotheses.
Demographic characteristics have not been the focus of
research on SDT (see Boldero & Francis, 2000; Boldero
et al., 2005; Higgins, 1987, 1989; Moretti & Higgins, 1999)
because person-level variables are assumed to be implicated
in both ratings of discrepancies and the importance of particu-
lar standpoints to the self. Similarly in our study, demographic
variables were largely related to ratings of discrepancies and
identification with the lesbian community to a greater degree
than they were related to depression or anxiety. Thus, consis-
tent with SDT, we did not pursue analyses stratified by demo-
graphic variables, nor did we control for these variables in
regression models testing hypotheses. However, it might be
worthwhile for future research with a larger, more diverse sam-
ple to repeat the correlations reported here and examine more
complex interactions between demographic variables (e.g.,
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among Study Variables.
% or M (SD) AI-S AO-S AI-C AO-C
Identification
(ID)
Depression
(Dep)
Anxiety
(Anx)
Primary variables Pearson correlations
AI-S 2.65 (1.55) – .618** .317** .300** À.056 .241** .160**
AO-S 2.82 (1.68) – .286** .401** À.059 .182** .231**
AI-C 3.97 (1.88) – .706 À.176** .334** .214**
AO-C 4.12 (1.84) – À.174** .217** .311**
ID 3.87 (1.57) – .069 .140**
Dep 23.72 (9.97) – .671**
Anx 21.43 (7.91) –
Demographics Point-biserial adjusted Pearson correlations
Race/ethnicity
African American 9.8% .005 .025 .001 .030 .007 À.082 À.027
Hispanic/Latina 10.2% .056 À.024 À.015 À.007 À.003 .018 À.002
Asian/Pacific Islander 2.6% À.025 À.047 À.056 .021 .036 À.048 À.043
Indian/Alaskan 2.0% .034 .036 .048 .079 À.024 .025 À.038
White 68.4% À.025 À.004 .046 .027 À.037 .065 .025
Biracial/other 6.3% À.076 À.077 À.077 À.010 À.013 À.017 À.031
U.S. Census Region
Southern Region 20.36% .097* .088* À.022 À.016 À.016 .093* .072
Western Region 24.31% À.067 À.014 .056 .041 .007 À.095* À.088*
Midwest Region 30.43% À.001 À.024 À.060 À.029 .026 À.040 .008
North Eastern Region 24.90% À.033 À.049 .029 .005 À.020 .039 .001
Sexual identity
Lesbian label 61.7% À.088* À.115** À.343** À.353** .265** À.089* À.046
Bisexual label 17.2% .038 .051 .170** .180** À.118* .051 .064
Queer label 10.7% .006 .080 .221** .187** À.121* .064 .028
Fluid label 3.0% .010 À.041 .092* .096* À.035 .046 .045
Unlabeled 7.2% .054 .066 .061 .116* À.086* .003 À.036
Other variables
Relationship status 51.8% À.060 À.046 À.051 .006 À.039 À.165* À.089
Age 25.93 (4.79) À.044 À.072 .127** .068 À.063 À.061 À.159**
Note. N ¼ 504. AI ¼ Actual-Ideal discrepancy; AI-C ¼ Actual and Ideal community; AI-S ¼ Actual and Ideal selves; AO ¼ Actual-Ought discrepancy; AO-C ¼
Actual and Ought community; AO-S ¼ Actual and Ought selves; M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation.
*p < .05. **p < .001.
38 Psychology of Women Quarterly 38(1)

7. sexual identity label, race, and relationship status), discrepancy
ratings, and lesbian community identification in predicting
depression and anxiety.
Hypothesis 1: Discrepancies From the Self-Standpoint
As derived from SDT, sexual minority AI-S discrepancy was
expected to be positively associated with depression
(Hypothesis 1a) and AO-S discrepancy was expected to be
associated with anxiety (Hypothesis 1b). As predicted, the
correlation between AI-S discrepancy and depression was
significant (see Table 1). Consistent with a large body of SDT
findings focusing on the self-standpoint, however, greater
AO-S discrepancy was also related to depression although not
as strongly. A Steiger (1980) Z-test was conducted to test for
the difference between these two dependent correlations,
finding that the difference in the strengths of these correla-
tions was nearly significant (Z ¼ 1.607, p ¼ .054). Supporting
Hypothesis 1a, the larger the discrepancy between AI stan-
dards for the sexual minority self, the more frequently and
severely the YSMW reported experiencing depressive symp-
toms in the past week.
As predicted in Hypothesis 1b, AO-S discrepancy was sig-
nificantly correlated with anxiety (see Table 1). In addition,
however, AI-S discrepancy was related to greater anxiety.
In this case, a test for the difference between the two depen-
dent correlations confirmed that they were statistically differ-
ent (Steiger’s Z ¼ 1.863, p ¼ .031). In other words, and
consistent with SDT, the greater the discrepancy between the
Actual and Ought sexual minority selves, the more anxiety-
related symptoms experienced by YSMW. This AO-S discre-
pancy proved to be a more potent predictor of anxiety than
the discrepancy between AI-S.
Hypothesis 2: Discrepancies From the
Lesbian-Community Standpoint
Hypothesis 2 extended SDT in conceptualizing the lesbian
community as a significant-other standpoint and predicted
that sexual minority AI-C and AO-C discrepancies would
be related to depression (Hypothesis 2a) and anxiety
(Hypothesis 2b). The correlation between AI-C discrepancy
and depression was positive and significant; larger perceived
discrepancies between the Actual self and what YSMW
believed was the ideal for the lesbian community, the greater
their depressive symptoms (see Table 1). In addition, this
correlation was larger than the correlation between AO-C dis-
crepancies and depression (Steiger’s Z ¼ 3.17; p ¼ .001).
This pattern of findings provides support for Hypothesis 2a.
Consistent with Hypothesis 2b, greater AO-C discrepancy
was related to more anxiety (see Table 1). Although AI-C dis-
crepancy was also related to anxiety (r ¼ .214, p < .001), the
test for the difference between the two dependent correlations
confirmed that they were statistically different (Steiger’s
Z ¼ 2.59, p ¼ .005). Thus, not only did rated discrepancies
from lesbian community standards predict different types of
negative affect among YSMW, but the predictive pattern also
was precisely as hypothesized. To the extent that YSMW
reported falling short of perceived lesbian community ideal
standards, they experienced depressive symptoms. To the
extent that they fell short of perceived community ought stan-
dards, however, they reported more frequent and severe
experiences with anxiety-related symptoms. These results
fully support Hypotheses 2a and 2b.
Hypothesis 3: The Moderating Role of Community
Identification
In the next set of analyses, we tested whether the associations
between discrepancies from the lesbian-community stand-
point and negative affect were moderated by the degree of
identification with the lesbian community. In particular, we
predicted that the two types of discrepancy-negative affect
links would be stronger among YSMW more highly identi-
fied with the lesbian community. Consequently, two sets of
hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test these
hypotheses: one predicting depression (Hypothesis 3a) and
the other predicting anxiety (Hypothesis 3b).
Hypothesis 3a: Depression. The first regression model tested
Hypothesis 3a and attempted to predict depression from mean-
centered AI-C discrepancies and lesbian community identifi-
cation entered in a first step (see Table 2). These variables
together accounted for 12.8% of variability in depression
scores, F(2, 502) ¼ 36.94, p < .001. Examination of the regres-
sion coefficients in the first step of the model indicated that
both high lesbian community identification and greater AI-C
discrepancy were associated with greater depression. In
the final step of the regression analyses, we added the multipli-
cative interaction term (AI-C Â lesbian community identifica-
tion) to the prediction equation. As hypothesized, the addition
of the interaction term significantly boosted the cumulative R2
for the model (DR2
¼ .01), F(1, 501) ¼ 5.81, p ¼ .016, provid-
ing support for Hypothesis 3b. Lesbian community identifica-
tion moderated the relationship between AI-C discrepancies
and depression. Cohen’s F2
effect size indicating the propor-
tion of explained variance over unexplained variance for the
model was .17, slightly exceeding the magnitude of a moderate
effect (F2
¼ .15) used in estimating effects of multiple regres-
sion models (Cohen, 1992).
To interpret the statistically significant interaction, regres-
sion lines were plotted using an equation which included
terms for the two main effects (AI community discrepancy
and lesbian community identification) and the interaction
term (lesbian community identification  community discre-
pancy), along with the corresponding unstandardized regres-
sion coefficients and regression constant. As recommended
by Aiken and West (1991), depression scores were plotted
as a function of AI-C discrepancy separately for participants
with high lesbian community identification at þ1 standard
Boyle and Omoto 39

8. deviation above the mean of the lesbian community identifica-
tion scale and low lesbian community identification at À1 stan-
dard deviation below the mean of the lesbian community
identification scale (see Figure 1). In support of Hypothesis
3a, Aiken and West’s (1991) simple slope analysis showed
AI-C discrepancy predicted depression for YSMW with high
lesbian community identification (B ¼ 2.42, standard error
[SE] ¼ .31), t(501) ¼ 7.75, p < .001, and for YSMW with low
lesbiancommunityidentification(B¼ 1.38,SE¼ .30),t(501)¼
4.51, p < .001, indicating that AI-C discrepancy predict depres-
sion for women with both high and low levels of lesbian com-
munity identification, but this relationship is stronger among
YSMW who more strongly identify with the lesbian
community.
Hypothesis 3b: Anxiety. Table 2 also presents a summary of
a parallel hierarchical regression analysis with AO-C discre-
pancy and lesbian community identification predicting
anxiety. In the first step, mean-centered AO-C discrepancy
and lesbian community identification together accounted for
13.6% of the variability in anxiety scores, F(2, 502) ¼ 39.34,
p < .001. Examination of the coefficients at this step indi-
cated greater AO-C discrepancy and higher lesbian commu-
nity identification were associated with greater anxiety.
Adding the interaction term in the final step significantly
contributed to the predictive model (DR2
¼ .032), F(1,
501) ¼ 19.10, p < .001. Consistent with Hypothesis 3b, les-
bian community identification moderated the relationship
between AO-C discrepancy and anxiety. Cohen’s F2
effect
size indicating the proportion of explained variance over
unexplained variance for the model was .17, again slightly
exceeding the magnitude of a moderate effect (F2
¼ .15)
used in estimating the effects of simultaneous predictors in
multiple regression models (Cohen, 1992).
Parallel steps consistent with Aiken and West (1991)
were taken to interpret the significant interaction. Anxiety
scores were plotted as a function of AO-C discrepancy sep-
arately for participants at high (þ1 standard deviation above
the mean) and low (À1 standard deviation below the mean)
lesbian community identification (see Figure 2). Supporting
Hypothesis 3b, the simple slopes analysis revealed that AO-
C discrepancy predicted anxiety for YSMW with high les-
bian community identification (B ¼ 2.25, SE ¼ .25),
t(501) ¼ 9.01, p < .001, and also for YSMW with low
lesbian community identification (B ¼ .77, SE ¼ .24),
t(501) ¼ 3.18, p ¼ .002. As Figure 2 shows, however, the rela-
tionship between AO-C discrepancy and anxiety is stronger
among YSMW with high lesbian community identification;
this pattern of results is consistent with Hypothesis 3b.
Figure 1. Plotted interaction for Hypothesis 3a: Depression scores
for Actual-Ideal community discrepancies at high (M ¼ þ1.57) and
low (M ¼ À1.57) lesbian community identification.
Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Results for Tests of Hypotheses 3a and 3b.
Step Variables b R2
R2
D FD df
Depression
1 Main effects .128 .128 36.95** 2,502
Community identification .130*
AI community .357**
2 Interaction term .140 .010 5.82* 1,501
AI community  identification .100*
Anxiety
1 Main effects .136 .136 39.35** 2,502
Community identification .351**
AO community .204**
2 Interaction term .167 .032 19.09** 1,501
AO community  identification .178**
Note. AI ¼ Actual-Ideal discrepancy; AO ¼ Actual-Ought discrepancy; df ¼ degrees of freedom. b reflects values for the final regression equations.
*p < .05. **p < .001.
40 Psychology of Women Quarterly 38(1)

9. Comparing Self- and Community-Standpoints
To further explore the relative importance of the different
types of discrepancies in predicting negative affect, we con-
ducted additional regression analyses using corresponding
discrepancies from the self and lesbian-community stand-
points as simultaneous predictors of depression and anxiety.
For the model predicting depression, AI-S and AI-C discre-
pancies together accounted for 13% of the variability in
depression scores, F(2, 503) ¼ 37.99, p < .001, with discre-
pancies from both standpoints making unique contributions
to the prediction of depression. The regression coefficient for
the AI-C discrepancy (b ¼ .286, p < .001) was approximately
twice the size of the coefficient for the AI-S discrepancy (b ¼
.149, p ¼ .001) suggesting the relatively powerful influence
of the lesbian-community standpoint.
Similar results were obtained for the model predicting
anxiety from AO-S and AO-C discrepancies. AO-S and
AO-C discrepancies together accounted for 11% of the varia-
bility in anxiety, F(2, 503) ¼ 30.76, p < .001. Discrepancies
from both standpoints made unique contributions to predic-
tion, although the regression coefficient for the AO-C discre-
pancy (b ¼ .259, p < .001) was double the size of the AO-S
discrepancy (b ¼ .126, p < .001). Again, the influence of les-
bian community standards appeared to overshadow the
impact of discrepancies from self-standards.
Discussion
Our study examined the consequences of perceived fit with les-
bian community norms for experiences of depression and anxi-
ety among YSMW. Extending SDT (Higgins, 1987, 1989), the
lesbian community, a social group, was considered as a poten-
tially important standpoint from which AI and AO discrepan-
cies in self-perceptions were assessed. As we predicted, when
YSMWbelievedthattheyfellshortofperceivedidealstandards
of the lesbian community, they reported greater depression-
related emotions. Meanwhile, failure to live up to ought stan-
dards of the lesbian community was associated with anxiety-
related emotions. Importantly, lack of fit with lesbian commu-
nity ideal and ought standards was related to greater depression
andanxiety,especiallyforYSMWwhoreportedthatthe lesbian
community was highly important and self-defining. As sug-
gested by our results, then, the perceived standards or expecta-
tions of valued social groups may play a similar (and
perhaps even more powerful) role as those of significant others
in SDT. Furthermore, failure to meet the group’s normative
standards may be associated with different types of negative
self-related emotions.
In addition to our results for standards as assessed from the
community standpoint, sexual minority discrepancies were
assessed from the self-standpoint and replicated previous
SDT findings. Specifically, when YSMW reported that they
were not living up to their own ideal and ought standards
as a nonheterosexual woman, they experienced greater nega-
tive affect. Moreover, YSMW’s perceptions of fit with ideal
and ought self-standards were only moderately correlated
with their perceptions of fit with lesbian community stan-
dards—with discrepancies from both standpoints uniquely
predicting negative self-related emotions in theoretically con-
sistent ways. Of note, participants also saw themselves as
falling short of lesbian community standards to a greater
degree than their own personal standards (see means in
Table 1). It would appear, then, that YSMW may perceive
strict norms in lesbian communities that they find difficult
to live up to, with these discrepancies having powerful conse-
quences for experiences of depression and anxiety.
Greater identification with the lesbian community was
associated with greater depression and anxiety within our
YSMW sample. This finding is consistent with models of
sexual minority stress (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009; Meyer,
2003) in that identification with a stigmatized social group
is associated with visibility as a community member and,
consequently, greater experienced stigma. In turn, experi-
ences of stigma negatively impact mental health. At the
same time, other research suggests that involvement in com-
munity activities may foster a sense of belongingness and
connection that helps people deal with stigma and other neg-
ative experiences related to being a sexual minority (Finger-
hut et al., 2010; Ramirez-Valles, Kuhns, Campbell, & Diaz,
2010). Future research should more fully and separately
assess community identification, involvement activities,
feelings of connection, actual access to coping resources,
and experiences with prejudice and discrimination, as well
as investigate the circumstances under which these factors
individually or in combination affect the psychological
well-being of YSMW.
Figure 2. Plotted interaction for Hypothesis 3b: Anxiety scores for
Actual-Ought community discrepancies at high (M ¼ þ1.57) and
low (M ¼ À1.57) lesbian community identification.
Boyle and Omoto 41

10. Limitations and Future Research
The current study has a number of limitations that are also
suggestive of potential future research. For example, we
focused on YSMW, so the age range of participants was
restricted. And, although roughly half the participants
reported current involvement in a committed relationship, our
analyses did not test for direct effects of age or relationship
status on negative affect or for possible moderating effects
of these variables in the links between self and community
discrepancies and negative affect. It is possible that sexual
minority women age-out of the distress associated with les-
bian community normative pressures (Rothblum, 1994; Taub,
2003), with older sexual minority women depending less on
the lesbian community for behavioral guides and support than
for the YSMW in this sample. Older lesbian women also may
draw more from alternative social networks and/or serious
long-term relationships and partners for support than YSMW,
and the support from these sources may buffer them from
experiencing distress from not fitting lesbian community
norms. Our study was not designed to investigate life span
or cohort influences, and the covariation among measures
made it difficult to tease apart any effects of age and relation-
ship involvement. Thus, future research might utilize quota-
sampling methods based on age, relationship status, and
degree of lesbian community identification in creating sub-
groups of participants of roughly equal size for comparisons
and to provide greater insight into the roles these variables
play in perceptions of fit with community norms, importance
of lesbian community identification, and negative affect.
Additionally, the majority of participants in our study were
White (68%), obviating the need for future research to
include larger numbers of ethnic and racial minority partici-
pants, so that the roles played by lesbian community norms
in the mental health of YSMW from different racial/ethnic
backgrounds can be more thoroughly assessed.
Our study also relied on cross-sectional and self-report data.
Thus, it did not allow for observations of changes in perceptions
ofcommunitynormsorfitwithinthelesbiancommunityorhow
these changes may be related to identification and mentalhealth
over time. It is impossible to know if YSMW initially identify
with the lesbian community, and then at some later point chan-
ged their identification or sought to fit with an entirely different
community. In addition, the present results speak only to the
concurrent relations between perceived discrepancies and
negative affect, so that they remain mute on both the causal
relations between them and how discrepancies may motivate
self-change. An alternative explanation for findings could be
that people with poorer mental health are more likely seek
self-definition with a group (as opposed to themselves) and are
also more likely to perceive more discrepancy between group
norms and self. Although there is a lack of group dynamics
research supporting this alternative explanation, longitudinal
research that utilizes converging sources of data could more
definitively rule out this possibility.
Practice Implications
Limitations aside, knowledge of the findings from our study
may inform mental health professionals working with
YSMW. Therapists and counselors are likely to be familiar
with sexual identity development and mental health literature
that consider participation in gay and lesbian communities to
be protective, positive factors associated with the mental
health and development in sexual minority young people
(Fingerhut et al., 2010; McCarn & Fassinger, 1996;
Ramirez-Valles et al., 2010; Troiden, 1998). Results of our
study suggest a more complicated picture than the literature
suggests for YSMW. Community participation may be pro-
tective for the mental health and development of YSMW pos-
sessing attributes consistent with lesbian community
normative values. But, for YSMW who do not fit the norms
of the lesbian community, participation may be related to
experiences of depression and anxiety, with experiences of
negative affect even more likely among YSMW for whom the
lesbian community is more self-defining. Mental health pro-
fessionals working with YSMW should be aware that intra-
group stress, specifically perceived normative pressures
within the lesbian community, may be implicated in negative
mental health experiences such as depression and anxiety.
Assisting a YSMW who is having problems may involve not
problematizing her, but instead, calling attention to her per-
ceived norms (e.g., by asking: Are they accurate? Why are
they important?) or encouraging her to seek out and identify
with alternative sexual minority communities or self-defining
social groups.
Findings from our study also might be used by lesbian
community organizations and media outlets to attempt to
change perceptions of lesbian community norms through
programming and other interventions. For example, print
and social media campaigns targeting young women with
messages about lesbian community diversity and inclusivity
could reduce YSMW’s perceptions of strict community
norms. Convincing YSMW that variability in communities
and community norms is reality (Lehavot et al., 2009;
Moore, 2006, 2010) may make it easier for women to see
themselves as fitting within a community and thereby
decrease their vulnerability to experiences of depression and
anxiety.
Conclusions
The findings from our study that extended SDT standpoints to
include those from salient social groups or communities
connect to and may inform two different theories of group
processes: shared reality theory (Hardin & Conley, 2001;
Hardin & Higgins, 1996) and self-categorization theory
(Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987). Both
theories suggest reasons why normative attributes and values
are important in defining social groups and specific processes
by which groups enforce normative standards. In shared
42 Psychology of Women Quarterly 38(1)

11. reality theory, personal experience is established as valid and
reliable only to the extent it is shared with others (Hardin &
Higgins, 1996). Similar to the current lesbian community
results, research from this perspective demonstrates how nor-
mative standards within shared social environments impact
people’s perceptions and cognitions about their own beha-
viors as well as the behavior of others (Wan, Torelli, & Chiu,
2010). For self-categorization theory, social group norms or
prototypes for characteristics and behaviors help define the
group, and they also are important in distinguishing the group
from other groups and provide value to group memberships
and enactment of prototypic behaviors (Turner et al., 1987).
The findings that YSMW who more strongly identified with
the lesbian community were apparently more impacted by
their discrepancies from the group norm are consistent with
the tenets of this theoretical perspective and related research
(Hogg & Reid, 2006; Terry & Hogg, 2001).
Research derived from both frameworks has demonstrated
consequencesfor violating normative sharedrealitiesand group
prototypes. For example, group members react when another
group member speaks against shared values of the group by
defending the group’s shared reality (Wan et al., 2010) and also
report less liking for group members who do not fit the group
prototype in terms of their attitudes and behaviors (Hogg &
Reid, 2006). However, these perspectives do not offer specific
predictions for the self-related emotions likely experienced by
group members who violate shared realities or group proto-
types. In the current research, and underscoring the potential
utility of integrating SDT with these other theoretical perspec-
tives, perceived discrepancies from group norms were related
to the specific negative self-related emotions of depression and
anxiety. Moreover, the method of assessing normative fit as
subjectively perceived in relation to a potentially important and
self-identified social group that we recruited for our study may
have broader utility and applicability for future research on
sharedrealityandself-categorization,especiallybecause itdoes
not rely on normative content specified by the researcher or
other outside observer.
Finally, our findings also suggest novel directions for
researchers interested in the mental health of sexual minority
individuals. Whereas considerable research in this area has
focused on intergroup sources of stress, such as experiences
of prejudice and discrimination (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009;
Meyer, 1995, 2003), we focused on processes and perceptions
within lesbian communities and among a subset of the sexual
minority population—YSMW. Although it is undoubtedly
important to recognize and attempt to reduce societal-level
prejudice and institutional stigma, our findings call attention
to the need to also study and better understand intragroup pro-
cesses in sexual minority social environments and their impli-
cations for the mental health of different groups of sexual
minority people. Thus, whereas connections to a supportive
social network may help buffer sexual minority individuals
from pernicious effects of experienced stigma and prejudice
from outside the community, perceived normative standards
within the community may be yet another source of stress for
individuals who do not fit community norms. A consideration
of the complex interactions between different sources of
stress as well as person-level variables (e.g., community iden-
tification and involvement; habitual methods of coping)
should lead to a more complete understanding of sexual
minority health and inform the development of services to
assist sexual minority individuals most at risk of experiencing
negative outcomes.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
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