describe the mechanism that has given rise to gene duplications and .pdf

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describe the mechanism that has given rise to gene duplications and enable genome mobility Solution The mechanism that gives rise to genome duplication and enables the genome mobility is DNA REPLICATION. DNA replication is a biological process which a cell undergoes once in its life cycle to create dual copies of its DNA or genome so that the indivivual copies of duplicated DNA can be segregated between the two daughter cells hence produced. DNA replication is crucial during the reproduction in an organism. it ensures the movement of genome across the generations. During DNA replication, each starnd of existing DNA acts like a template for a new complimentary DNA strand. DNA replication starts at a particular location in the DNA TEMPLATE named as ORI or origin of replication. The mechanism of DNA replication in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is slightly different with respect to the machinery and certain steps..

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A series RL circuit includes a 9.05-V battery, a resistance of R = 0.755 , and an inductance of L = 2.97 H. What is the induced emf 1.33 s after the circuit has been closed? So, basically, I tried solving this equation using an RL circuit formula: I = emf/R(1-e^-t/(L/R)) and used V=IR to solve for the current, for which I plugged it back in to obtain the emf. I got an answer of about 31, which was wrong. If you could help me on this, it would make my day! Solution tau = L/R = 2.97/0.755 = 3.9337 V = V0*e^(-t/tau) V = 9.05*e^(-1.33/3.9337) V = 6.453 V.

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What is the dangling pointer? Explain with a proper example. Solution A dangling pointer is a pointer which nce pointed to some data, but because of memory deallocation, points to an invalid or null data. Example: Suppose we declare and allocate some memory to a pointer: char *temp = malloc(some_size); Then we de-allocate the memory allocated to the pointer temp by, free (temp); After execution of the above statement, temp becomes a dangling pointer..

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Which a not a likely location of a bacterial to be found? Atherosclerotic plaque Dialysis catheter Teeth Artificial heart value Solution Bacterial biofilm can easily found in teeth , in teeth bacteria staphylococcus aureus colonizes and make biofilms . Its called the pallised arrangement. Bacteria can\'t form a colony in blood or flowing paths of blood because of immune system. The dialysis catheter is a attractive place for bacteria but generally doctors used a sterile catheter..

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What’s Love Got To Do With It? The Evolution of Human Mating By Meredith F. Small Reviewed By Michael S. Kimmel When Tina Turner first bitterly asked “What’s love got to do with it?” her voice was so drenched with pain and regret, the listener knew better than to believe her. Not so Meredith Small. A physical anthropologist whose main research has been on primate mating behavior, Small joins a coterie of such writers as Robert Ardrey, Desmond Morris and Lionel Tiger, who have sought to make evolutionary biology the foundation of studies of sexual behavior. In “What’s Love Got To Do With It,” Small argues that we’re genetically programmed to experience sexual pleasure; hard-wired to search for young, attractive mates; driven to copulate “Way down deep, underneath all the love and lust, underlying the attachment and intimacy, is DNA pushing us along” Like those male writers, she claims that our genetic predisposition toward reproductive success is the driving force of our sex-seeking behavior. And like them, she assumes that sex is a constant, universal and relatively unchanging experience. But unlike them, Small places no value on judgments on the strategies that individuals may adopt to achieve that reproductive success. Women, she argues, are as sexual as men; homosexuality is as “normal” as heterosexuality. Small exposes many of her colleagues’ conclusions as based more on myth than on evolution. Take, for example, the familiar canard that men are “naturally” predisposed toward promiscuity, while women are “naturally” monogamous. Males’ prodigious sperm production, the argument goes, means that it is in men’s interest to fertilize as many women as possible. But women produce only one egg at a time, and gestation and child care take an extraordinarily long time, which means that it is in their interest to mate with only one man for life. Not only do such arguments assume what they are trying to explain, but their assumptions are wrong to begin with. Sperm and eggs do not have little personalities, complete with ambitions and motivations. What’s more, the evidence actually tilts the other way. Female humans are among the only mammals who conceal estrus; that is, they do not go into “heat” when they are sexually receptive. They are potentially sexually receptive all through their cycle. What’s more, a woman has a clitoris, which “exists only to receive and give off sexual pleasure.” What could be the evolutionary function of that? Small argues that it is just as likely that women may be designed to maximize their reproductive chances by promiscuity. If they have sex with a large number of male partners, they can ensure that their offspring will have a significant number of men who believe that they are the father, and who will, therefore, protect the baby and provide it with food. “The ability to move from male to male certainly improves a female’s chance of finding the best genes for her future offspring,” Small writes. Males, by contrast, wo.

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What is the Surface characterization techniques of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy (microscopy, TIRF) explain what are they measuring, their uniqueness, working principle briefly Solution Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a powerful analysis tool for characterizing and identifying organic molecules. It is the spectroscopic technique that is the most widely used for determining the characteristics of new membranes. In attenuated total reflectance mode, this type of spectroscopy enables functional groups present over a depth of about 1 m to be identified. During ATR analysis, the sample is kept in contact with a crystal allowing total internal reflection. An infrared ray arrives at the crystal where the material under study has been placed. The internal reflection of the ray in the crystal gives rise to an evanescent wave which, at each reflection, continues beyond the surface of the crystal and penetrates the sample over about 1 m. The penetration depth depends on the wavelength, the angle of incidence of the beam on the crystal, and the nature of the crystal. Spectra are thus obtained (curves of absorbance vs. wavelength) that have absorption peaks characteristic of the functions present at the membrane surface. FTIR-ATR is a sensitive, nondestructive method that can be used qualitatively and quantitatively. However, it requires prior drying of the membrane sample. One of the applications of FTIR-ATR is the characterization of modified surfaces. In this case, the spectra show bands characteristic of the basic membrane with, in most cases, bands characteristic of the new functional groups related to the modification. FTIR-ATR also enables the efficiency of membrane cleaning to be assessed . This method can also be used to analyze the adsorption of macromolecules at the membrane surface and to check whether the conformation of the adsorbed compounds (e.g., proteins) has been modified by comparing the spectra of the adsorbed product with those of the same product in solution . When the deposits are very small, however, it is difficult to determine the presence of fouling agents; this necessitates the use of elaborate data-processing methods that eliminate the contributions of the membrane and water from the raw spectra. UNIQUENESS: There are three principal advantages for an FT spectrometer compared to a scanning (dispersive) spectrometer. TIRF Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy (TIRFM) is an elegant optical technique that provides for the excitation of fluorophores in an extremely thin axial region (‘optical section’). The method is based on the principle that when excitation light is totally internally reflected in a transparent solid (e.g., coverglass) at its interface with liquid an electromagnetic field, called the evanescent wave, is generated in the liquid at the solid-liquid interface and is the same frequency as the excitation light. Since the inte.

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What is the running time complexity and space complexity of the following procedure (n = R - L + 1). Explain your answer. def foo(V, L, R): if L==R: return V[L] mid = (L+R)//2 m1 = foo(V, L, mid) m2 = foo(V, mid+1, R) if m1==m2: return ml count1, count2 = 0, 0 for i in range(L, R+1): if V[i] == ml: count1 += 1 if V[i] == m2: count2 += 1 if count 1 > (R-L+D/2: return ml if count2 > (R-L+D/2: return m2 return None Solution We are removing half the data at each turn so time complexity is O(log n). We divide it into 2 till we find 1. Thus, 1= N/2x 2x = N Thus x = log2 n.

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A species has a diploid number of chromosomes of 6. If a cell from an individual of this species undergoes meiosis, what is the probability that a gamete made from this diploid cell will inherit only maternal copies of chromosomes (ie, that the gamete will not inherit any paternal chromosomes) a. 0 b. 1/4 c. 1/3 d. 1/8 Solution b)1/4 1 diploid produces =4 haploid childs =>6 diploid =>6*4=24 haploid childs ratio: diploid/haploid=6/24=1/4.

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What are the security requirements and challenges of Grid and Cloud Computing? Solution security issues: A. Policies: 1) Inside Threats: good supervision should be done for having trusted employees . 2) Access Control:Digital signature can be implemented for access control. 3) System Portability: The problem of vendor lock-in should be handled . B. Software Security: 1) Virtualization technology: up to date version of virtualization product should be installed for the security reasons. 2) Host Operating System:should be up to date and secure from hackers 3) Guest Operating System: should be up to date and secure from hackers 4) Data Encryption:should be done on all the data for its safety. C)Physical security: 1) Backup:Either a backup plan should be provided automatically for each customer, or they can use the plans provided elsewhere in the cloud. 2) Server Location:It should be at appropriate place. Room should have adequate space and isolated. A Cooling System and Fire Suppression System should be installed there. 3) Firewall: Cloud Computing service providers should provide a complete firewall solution to their clients. Challenges: A)No clear standard:Grid computing uses various standards, but all grids are not use same standards. Example all grid operating system such as Linux, Apache,and My SQL are using WSRF, WWW, SOAP and XML standards. B)Distributed computing Vs Grid computing: Grid computing involves dynamic virtual organisation, resource sharing and peer to peer computing. The Grid intends to make access to computing power, scientific data repositories and experimental facilities as easy as the Web makes access to information. Same all facilities provide the grid computing. So it is a challenge for grid computing. C)Lack of grid enabled software: The software, which are enabled the grid computing are less, It has limited software on Grid. Much software has not copyright issues and source code of licence. It is need for more company developing grid-enabled version, need more developers on grid development and need to develop open source software. D)Sharing Resources between Various types of Services:Grid used for sharing resource from various sites and grid hosts. It handles a massive amount of data as a grid platform. A lot of sites and multiple servers gathered there it is so complex infrastructure. It provides difficulty for hardware resource sharing within virtual organisation..

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Resistance A primitive adaptive immune Zone of inhibition The ability of a microbe to grow Bacterial lawn Bacteriophage or Enrichment Dense, solid growth across the surface of a petri dish. A lawn of bacteria is prepared and filter disks containing antimicrobial agents are applied A molecule that specifically kills or inhibits bacterial cells Mixture of a bacterial host culture, viral sample, and bacterial media A primitive adaptive immune response in bacteria; that is, bacteria can \"learn\" to become resistant General term to describe a molecule or substance that kills or inhibits microbes The ability of a microbe to grow in the presence of an otherwise toxic molecule, such as an antimic Dramatic change in population-level genetics, in response to a selective pressure A kind of virus that preferentially and exclusively infects bacterial cells A circular clearing within a lawn of growth; surrounding a disk or colony containing an antimicrobial Solution The basic principle of Enrichment is that of selection. Enrichment culture provides favourable growth conditions for the organism of intrest and unfavourable conditions for the competing organisms. This technique can be used in many ways. for example, if we want to culture a thermophile bacteria, incubate the sample at high temperature i.e., at above 55 degrees centigrade because at that temperature, only the thermophilic bacteria can grow while this temperature hampers the growth of other bacteria in the sample. Likewise, enrichment culture may also contains antimicrobial agents to which the selective organism is resistant hence the required organism\'s growth is facilitated hampering the growth of other organisms which are not resistant to the antimicrobial agent. Enrichment culture may also contains pesticides or N2 (used for selective growth of nitrogen fixing bacteria) depending upon the type of microorganism selected. Hence the Answer is a lawn of bacteria is prepared and filter discs containing antimicrobial agents are applied..

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