HFR cells are formed from homologous recombination due to integratio.pdf

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HFR cells are formed from homologous recombination due to integration of the conjugate plasmid into bacterial chromosome. Hfr cells may donate genes from its chromosomes to another cell. Hfr cells do not possess a complete \"circular chromosome\" i.e. plasmid as F+ cell. Therefore, the major events of Hfr (high frequency recombinant) cells contain F factor in its chromosomal DNA often referred as \"episome\". F+ cell possess F factor known as plasmid & it can donate to another cell through conjugation. Both Hfr & F+ cells are competent for conjugation through sex pili or mating bridge & finally transfer F factor into the recipient cell. Interrupted mating: F factor of HFR cells is mainly pertaining to a class of conjugate plasmids which meticulously originated to control sexual functions in prokaryotes via fertility inhibition. The origin of F- factor is mainly with most common functional segments such as gene traJ, Ori, OriC. This structure is going to promote high frequency recombination through interrupted mating into the recipient cell. The structure of this F factor contains OriT for origin of transfer and acts as a starting point for gene transmission to the bacterium of F- (in which no F factor). A streptomycin antibiotic containing medium is used to kill the remaining Hfr donor cells after interrupting conjugation. This is completely based on the streptomycin-sensitivity allele (str-s) in the Hfr strains. On the otherhand, streptomycin-resistance allele (str-r) presence in the recipient is employed considerably to specifically destroy the Hfr donor cells after conjugation. Solution HFR cells are formed from homologous recombination due to integration of the conjugate plasmid into bacterial chromosome. Hfr cells may donate genes from its chromosomes to another cell. Hfr cells do not possess a complete \"circular chromosome\" i.e. plasmid as F+ cell. Therefore, the major events of Hfr (high frequency recombinant) cells contain F factor in its chromosomal DNA often referred as \"episome\". F+ cell possess F factor known as plasmid & it can donate to another cell through conjugation. Both Hfr & F+ cells are competent for conjugation through sex pili or mating bridge & finally transfer F factor into the recipient cell. Interrupted mating: F factor of HFR cells is mainly pertaining to a class of conjugate plasmids which meticulously originated to control sexual functions in prokaryotes via fertility inhibition. The origin of F- factor is mainly with most common functional segments such as gene traJ, Ori, OriC. This structure is going to promote high frequency recombination through interrupted mating into the recipient cell. The structure of this F factor contains OriT for origin of transfer and acts as a starting point for gene transmission to the bacterium of F- (in which no F factor). A streptomycin antibiotic containing medium is used to kill the remaining Hfr donor cells after interrupting conjugation. This is completely based on the st.

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starting point for gene transmission to the bacterium of F- (in which no F factor). A streptomycin
antibiotic containing medium is used to kill the remaining Hfr donor cells after interrupting
conjugation. This is completely based on the streptomycin-sensitivity allele (str-s) in the Hfr
strains.
On the otherhand, streptomycin-resistance allele (str-r) presence in the recipient is employed
considerably to specifically destroy the Hfr donor cells after conjugation.

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1a- What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these similar and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes? b) Explain how genes in phages are mapped. (This is different from the above question) Solution Ques-1: What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these similar and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes? Answer: Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer is the transfer of genes between two organisms that are phylogenetically unrelated but can readily exchange genes by conjugation or transduction or transformation. HGT commonly occurs in prokaryotes and it plays a key role in their evolution. HGT accelerates evolution. Horizontal gene transfer: 1. conjugation, 2. transformation; 3. transduction Similarities & differences: Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genomes by between bacteria by the routes that does not involve parent-offspring transmission. Conjugation, transduction and transformation are the three mechanism of horizontal gene transfer. In the above case, it has clearly illustrated that the conditions, which can successfully prevents transduction and abolish transfer of chromosomal DNA from one bacterial cell to another by generalized transduction with P22 bacteriophage. Initially recipient cell- surface receptors are important for the attachment of the bacteriophage (P22) and finally spikes of phage enable bacterial membrane to lyse finally incorporate phage genome into the bacterial cell for integration. Therefore, for efficient transduction, presence of recipient cell- surface receptors is essential in the culture otherwise, bacteria exert resistant effects to the phages. Transformation type of gene transfer occurs between bacteria. The genes released by dead bacteria can be transferred to the live bacteria, and get integrated into its genome, which results in genetic recombination of the host. Transduction is also involving the genetic material transfer, but this needs bacteriophage as media. The bacteriophage infects the bacteria in lytic cycle and releases the new virions, the capsids of some of these virions carry the bacterial DNA fragments into the new host bacteria, followed by genetic recombination of the host bacteria. Conjugation: It is the transfer of genetic material from cell to cell by means of direct contact or a bridge like structure. Bacterial conjugation needs the conjugation tube for genome transfer, both transduction and transformation does not need this. Mapping the genome -mechanisms F factor is mainly pertaining to a class of conjugate plasmids, which meticulously originated to control sexual functions in prokaryotes via fertility inhibition. The origin of F-factor is mainly with most common functional segments such as gene traJ, Ori, OriC. The structure of this F factor contains OriT for origin of transfer and acts as a starting point for gene transmission.

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Consider an experiment in which an Hfr strain of E. coli bacteria with the StrS, his+, met+ alleles in its genome is mixed with an F- strain of E. coli with the StrR, his-, and met- alleles in its genome. After the cells have been cultured together for 8 hours, the mixture of cells is plated on minimal media containing Streptomycin. Which genotype do you expect to be most common among the colonies that grow?F+: StrR, his+ and met+ Solution Answer D) F-: StrR, his+ and met+ Explanation - We know that Hfr strain is a high frequency recombination strain in which the F plasmid (fertility factor) is integrated in its genome/chromosomal DNA. this way, Hfr has ability to transfer the entire genome sequence to its recipient (F- strain), but it requires a long time of physical contact with the recipient due to which the recipient get some gene (long time physical contact is rarely achieved) and remains as F- strain. also, there is no back transfer of genes to the Hfr cells from the F- cells. hence, in this case, only F- strain will survive which has resistance against Streptomycin and able to synthesize its amino acids on minimal media. which is a recombinant F-: StrR, his+ and met+..

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Describe the role of plasmids in horizontal (lateral) gene transfer in bacteria. Solution Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to lateral movement of genes or genetic material between unicellar or multicellular organisms, having important role in evolution. In prokaryotes, this HGT happens by transformation, transduction or by conjugation. Plasmids play an important role in bacterial conjugation. During conjugation the donor bacteria transfers a conjugative genetic element to the recipient. This genetic material is mostly a plasmid. It is the process by which the transfer of DNA takes place via a plasmid from a donor cell to the recipient cell, through cell to cell contact. This mode of gene transfer is common in many bacterial strains. The contact between the donor and recipient is stable and the DNA transferred to the recipient gets incorporated in its chromosome by the process of homologous recombination or inserion. Cell-to-cell contact occurs by F-pilus. Through this pilus, a copy of F- (fertility) plasmid transfers to a cell that does not contain the plasmid or F-plasmid sometimes even gets integrated in chromosome of its bacterial host (forming Hfr). This new incorporated DNA may recombine with that of its new host resulting in new gene variants. Some plasmids encode for antibiotic-resistance genes, which are transferred through HGT to other populations of bacteria by conjugation. Thus HGT becomes an evolutionary force for creating diversity within bacterial species..

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A microbial geneticist isolates a new mutation in E. coli and wishes to map its chromosomal location. She uses interrupted-mating experiments with Hfr strains and generalized-transduction experiments with phage P1. Explain why each technique, by itself, is insufficient for accurate mapping. Solution Hfr cells undergoing conjugation transfer host genes in a linear fashion. The genes transferred depend on both the Hfr strain and the length of time during which the transfer occurred. F factors arise from improper excision of an Hfr from bacterial chromosome. They can have only specific bacterial genes on them because the integration site is fixed for each strain. P1 does not recognize pseudo-pac sites on the chromosome. P1 seems to begin packaging from random double-stranded breaks on the chromosome that are generated during phage infection. Generalized transduction is the process by which any bacterial gene may be transferred to another bacterium via a bacteriophage, and very rarely a small number of phages carry the donor. A restricted set of genes will not be able to transfer by this method. She wanted to transfer a specific gene to a specific located which is not doen by generalized transduction, so accurate gene mapping will be difficult by these methods..

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DnaA/ORC: This protein is responsible for initiation of DNA replication. When DNA replication is temperature sensitive, it affects the function of Dna A/ ORC. It cannot bind to the N-terminus and thus DNA replication is immediately stopped. So with the increase in temperature, there is quick stop of the DNA replication. SSB/RPA: This is the protein complex which acts on the single stranded DNA complex. In the presences on non-permissible temperatures, this protein complex will quick stop the process of DNA replication. Thus replication fork is not formed since it requires presence of one of the proteins from the complex. It can be said that since the process is of so high order, quick stop mutation takes please due to non- permissible temperature. DnaB/Mcm: this protein complex is responsible for separating the DNA strand. With the increase in temperature, the protein cannot separate the DNA strands. Thus DNA replication stops immediately. Thus it is a quick stop type mutanation. DNA ligase: there 3 major functions of DNA ligase 1) It seals the repairs in the DNA 2) Joins the recombinant fragment and 3) it joins Okazaki fragment. When there is temperature sensitive mutants, DNA ligase will follow the process of slow stop mutants. It is because DNA replication has taken place only sealing part is left. So DNA replication will be completed but Okazaki fragments will not be joined. Solution DnaA/ORC: This protein is responsible for initiation of DNA replication. When DNA replication is temperature sensitive, it affects the function of Dna A/ ORC. It cannot bind to the N-terminus and thus DNA replication is immediately stopped. So with the increase in temperature, there is quick stop of the DNA replication. SSB/RPA: This is the protein complex which acts on the single stranded DNA complex. In the presences on non-permissible temperatures, this protein complex will quick stop the process of DNA replication. Thus replication fork is not formed since it requires presence of one of the proteins from the complex. It can be said that since the process is of so high order, quick stop mutation takes please due to non- permissible temperature. DnaB/Mcm: this protein complex is responsible for separating the DNA strand. With the increase in temperature, the protein cannot separate the DNA strands. Thus DNA replication stops immediately. Thus it is a quick stop type mutanation. DNA ligase: there 3 major functions of DNA ligase 1) It seals the repairs in the DNA 2) Joins the recombinant fragment and 3) it joins Okazaki fragment. When there is temperature sensitive mutants, DNA ligase will follow the process of slow stop mutants. It is because DNA replication has taken place only sealing part is left. So DNA replication will be completed but Okazaki fragments will not be joined..

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Answer: (19) Mary’s parents are normal, therefore her brother must have got the disease allele from his mother who is a carrier of the disease. Parents XY (Mary’s father) x XhX (Mary’s mother) XhY (Mary’s brother) For a carrier female, with each pregnancy there is a one in two (50%) chance her sons will inherit the disease allele and a one in two (50%) chance her daughters will be carriers. (a) Therefore Mary has 50% chance or ½ chance of being a carrier (b) (c) and (d) For a carrier female, with each pregnancy there is a one in two (50%) chance her sons will inherit the disease allele and a one in two (50%) chance her daughters will be carriers. Among mary’s sons, one will be a carrier and another will be hemophiliac Among mary’s daughters, one will be a carrier and another will be normal (e) the carrier daughter can transmit the disease to her son’s Solution Answer: (19) Mary’s parents are normal, therefore her brother must have got the disease allele from his mother who is a carrier of the disease. Parents XY (Mary’s father) x XhX (Mary’s mother) XhY (Mary’s brother) For a carrier female, with each pregnancy there is a one in two (50%) chance her sons will inherit the disease allele and a one in two (50%) chance her daughters will be carriers. (a) Therefore Mary has 50% chance or ½ chance of being a carrier (b) (c) and (d) For a carrier female, with each pregnancy there is a one in two (50%) chance her sons will inherit the disease allele and a one in two (50%) chance her daughters will be carriers. Among mary’s sons, one will be a carrier and another will be hemophiliac Among mary’s daughters, one will be a carrier and another will be normal (e) the carrier daughter can transmit the disease to her son’s.

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SnO2 (ore) is initially washed and dressed. then it is treated with red hot coke/coall(acts as reducing agent) SnO2(s) + C(s)---------> Sn(molten) +CO(g) thus obtained molten Sn is cooled to Pure solid form Solution SnO2 (ore) is initially washed and dressed. then it is treated with red hot coke/coall(acts as reducing agent) SnO2(s) + C(s)---------> Sn(molten) +CO(g) thus obtained molten Sn is cooled to Pure solid form.

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Amphiprotic. The preferred term is amphoteric. A compound that is amphoteric can behave as either an acid or a base. These are most commonly explained when using the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. Sorry. NONE of these are amphoteric (or amphiprotic). In order to behave as a Bronsted-Lowry acid it must donate a proton. That narrows it down to HCl and HSO4-. In order to behave as a base it must accept a proton. A, D and E can all accept protons. HCl is a strong acid and dissociates to form H+ and Cl-. There is no tendency to gain a proton. HSO4- is a weak acid and can donate a proton, but it won\'t accept a proton to make H2SO4 because H2SO4 is a strong acid and completely dissociates. Even if one of the choices had been HSO3- we would still have a problem. It would be tempting to say that HSO3- could gain a proton to make the weak acid H2SO3. The problem is that H2SO3 does not exist in aqueous solution. It is a fictitious acid, much like H2CO3 which also cannot exist in aqueous solution. The bottom line is that NONE of these are amphoteric. ========= Follow up ========== See! HPV got suckered. Sorry, you can\'t possibly form H2SO4 and OH-. H2SO4 is a strong acid and completely dissociates to form H+ and HSO4-. The H+ will combine with OH- to make water, and you\'re right back where you started. No. HSO4- is NOT amphoteric in aqueous solution. ======= More follow up ========== \"Would it matter about the physical state?\" No. For the substance to gain a proton, it will be in aqueous solution. As soon as HCl interacts with water it will dissociate to form H+ and Cl-. =============================== You may see that HSO4- is listed as an amphoteric substance, but only because whoever wrote that didn\'t think it through. Solution Amphiprotic. The preferred term is amphoteric. A compound that is amphoteric can behave as either an acid or a base. These are most commonly explained when using the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. Sorry. NONE of these are amphoteric (or amphiprotic). In order to behave as a Bronsted-Lowry acid it must donate a proton. That narrows it down to HCl and HSO4-. In order to behave as a base it must accept a proton. A, D and E can all accept protons. HCl is a strong acid and dissociates to form H+ and Cl-. There is no tendency to gain a proton. HSO4- is a weak acid and can donate a proton, but it won\'t accept a proton to make H2SO4 because H2SO4 is a strong acid and completely dissociates. Even if one of the choices had been HSO3- we would still have a problem. It would be tempting to say that HSO3- could gain a proton to make the weak acid H2SO3. The problem is that H2SO3 does not exist in aqueous solution. It is a fictitious acid, much like H2CO3 which also cannot exist in aqueous solution. The bottom line is that NONE of these are amphoteric. ========= Follow up ========== See! HPV got suckered. Sorry, you can\'t possibly form H2SO4 and OH-. H2SO4 is a strong acid and completely dissociates to form H+ a.

Amphiprotic. The preferred term is amphoteric. A .pdf

aquacosmossystems

at equivalence point, Moles OH- added = moles H+ Molarity NaOH x vol. OH- x 1 OH- per NaOH = moles OH- = moles H+ = Molarity H2SO4 x vol H2SO4 x 2 H+ per H2SO4 More generally, M1V1E1 = M2V2E2, where E is the equivalence factor, number of H+ per formula unit for acids and number of OH- per unit for bases Solution at equivalence point, Moles OH- added = moles H+ Molarity NaOH x vol. OH- x 1 OH- per NaOH = moles OH- = moles H+ = Molarity H2SO4 x vol H2SO4 x 2 H+ per H2SO4 More generally, M1V1E1 = M2V2E2, where E is the equivalence factor, number of H+ per formula unit for acids and number of OH- per unit for bases.

at equivalence point, Moles OH- added = moles H+.pdf

aquacosmossystems

We Know that: Water is a Polar component as the property ofthe solubility Like dissolves Like methyl tertiary butyl etherwhich is polar compound is relatively more soluble inwater when compared to other components in gasoline. Solution We Know that: Water is a Polar component as the property ofthe solubility Like dissolves Like methyl tertiary butyl etherwhich is polar compound is relatively more soluble inwater when compared to other components in gasoline..

We Know that Water is a Polar component as .pdf

aquacosmossystems

molar mass of C2H5OH = 46.1 g/mole moles of C2H5OH = mass / molar mass = 47.0 / 46.1 = 1.02 mole 1 moles of C2H5OH contains 6.02 x 1023 C2H5OH molecules, thus, number of C2H5OH molecules = 1.02 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.14 x 1023 C2H5OH molecules Solution molar mass of C2H5OH = 46.1 g/mole moles of C2H5OH = mass / molar mass = 47.0 / 46.1 = 1.02 mole 1 moles of C2H5OH contains 6.02 x 1023 C2H5OH molecules, thus, number of C2H5OH molecules = 1.02 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.14 x 1023 C2H5OH molecules.

molar mass of C2H5OH = 46.1 gmole moles of C2H5O.pdf

aquacosmossystems

What property of PN code makes them suitable for use in spread spectrum communication? Solution Pseudo random noise is used in some electronic musical instruments, either by itself or as an input to subtractive synthesis, and in many white noise machines. In spread-spectrum systems, the receiver correlates a locally generated signal with the received signal. Such spread-spectrum systems require a set of one or more \"codes\" or \"sequences\" such that Like random noise, the local sequence has a very low correlation with any other sequence in the set, or with the same sequence at a significantly different time offset, or with narrow band interference, or with thermal noise. Unlike random noise, it must be easy to generate exactly the same sequence at both the transmitter and the receiver, so the receiver\'s locally generated sequence has a very high correlation with the transmitted sequence. In a direct-sequence spread spectrum system, each bit in the pseudorandom binary sequence is known as a chip and the inverse of its period as chip rate; comparebit rate and symbol rate. In a frequency-hopping spread spectrum sequence, each value in the pseudo random sequence is known as a channel number and the inverse of its period as thehop rate. FCC Part 15 mandates at least 50 different channels and at least a 2.5 Hz hop rate for narrow band frequency-hopping systems. GPS satellites broadcast data at a rate of 50 data bits per second – each satellite modulates its data with one PN bit stream at 1.023 million chips per second and the same data with another PN bit stream at 10.23 million chips per second. GPS receivers correlate the received PN bit stream with a local reference to measure distance. GPS is a receive-only system that uses relative timing measurements from several satellites (and the known positions of the satellites) to determine receiver position. Other range-finding applications involve two-way transmissions. A local station generates a pseudo random bit sequence and transmits it to the remote location (using any modulation technique). Some object at the remote location echoes this PN signal back to the location station – either passively, as in some kinds of radar and sonar systems, or using an active transponder at the remote location, as in the Apollo Unified S-band system.[4] By correlating a (delayed version of) the transmitted signal with the received signal, a precise round trip time to the remote location can be determined and thus the distance..

What property of PN code makes them suitable for use in spread spect.pdf

aquacosmossystems

TLC can be used to help determine the number of components in a mixture, the identity of compounds, and the purity of a compound. By observing the appearance of a product or the disappearance of a reactant, it can also be used to monitor the progress of a reaction. The sample is applied to the layer of adsorbent, near one edge, as a small spot of a solution. After the solvent has evaporated, the adsorbent-coated sheet is propped more or less vertically in a closed container, with the edge to which the spot was applied down. The spot on the thin layer plate must be positioned above the level of the solvent in the container .If it is below the level of the solvent, the spot will be washed off the plate into the developing solvent. The solvent, which is in the bottom of the container, creeps up the layer of adsorbent, passes over the spot, and, as it continues up, effects a separation of the materials in the spot (\"develops\" the chromatogram). When the solvent front has nearly reached nearly the top of the adsorbent, the thin layer plate is removed from the container. Solution TLC can be used to help determine the number of components in a mixture, the identity of compounds, and the purity of a compound. By observing the appearance of a product or the disappearance of a reactant, it can also be used to monitor the progress of a reaction. The sample is applied to the layer of adsorbent, near one edge, as a small spot of a solution. After the solvent has evaporated, the adsorbent-coated sheet is propped more or less vertically in a closed container, with the edge to which the spot was applied down. The spot on the thin layer plate must be positioned above the level of the solvent in the container .If it is below the level of the solvent, the spot will be washed off the plate into the developing solvent. The solvent, which is in the bottom of the container, creeps up the layer of adsorbent, passes over the spot, and, as it continues up, effects a separation of the materials in the spot (\"develops\" the chromatogram). When the solvent front has nearly reached nearly the top of the adsorbent, the thin layer plate is removed from the container..

TLC can be used to help determine the number of components in a mixt.pdf

aquacosmossystems

There may have some variables affect the model. So the error term will reflect a systematic pattern. Or it is not a correct functional form. So there is a bias. I would suggest that it can be remedial by using data transformation. Solution There may have some variables affect the model. So the error term will reflect a systematic pattern. Or it is not a correct functional form. So there is a bias. I would suggest that it can be remedial by using data transformation..

There may have some variables affect the model. So the error term wi.pdf

aquacosmossystems

There are four major functional characteristics of skeletal muscle. (i) Contractility- for muscle movement (ii) Excitability- response to chemical and/or electrical signals. (iii) Extensibility- the ability to stretch to the normal resting length after contracting (iv) Elasticity - the ability to return to the original resting length after a muscle has been stretched. Solution There are four major functional characteristics of skeletal muscle. (i) Contractility- for muscle movement (ii) Excitability- response to chemical and/or electrical signals. (iii) Extensibility- the ability to stretch to the normal resting length after contracting (iv) Elasticity - the ability to return to the original resting length after a muscle has been stretched..

There are four major functional characteristics of skeletal muscle..pdf

aquacosmossystems

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