Rectal Spacer Essay

Rectal Spacer Essay
Introduction
According to the American Cancer Society, nearly 161,360 new cases of prostate cancer are
expected to be diagnosed with an estimated 26,730 prostate–cancer specific deaths in 2017. Prostate
cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death in American men, behind lung and colorectal
cancer. Current available treatments for prostate cancer include active surveillance, surgery,
radiation therapy (external beam or/and brachytherapy), cryosurgery, hormone therapy,
chemotherapy, vaccine treatment or bone directed treatment (1). External beam radiation therapy is
a standard option in treating clinically localized prostate cancer. Prostate radiation treatment can be
delivered using image guided conformal radiation therapy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
It helps reduce the volume of the anterior rectum in the treatment field thus, help reduce rectal
toxicities. A distance of about 1.0–1.5 cm is usually achieved between the rectum and prostate
sparing the rectal wall from the high doses. This separation results in a considerable dosimetric
advantage for the rectum. In EBRT studies, relative rectal wall volume reductions of > 70% within
the 90% isodose levels have been shown comparing treatment plans prior and following spacer
insertion, i.e., only < 5% of rectal volume is included in the 70Gy isodose when a prescription dose
of 78–79Gy is used. Biodegradable spacers, including hydrogel, hyaluronic acid, collagen or an
implantable balloon, can be injected or inserted in a short procedure under transrectal ultrasound
guidance via a transperineal approach (2).
There are two types of rectal spacers available in prostate radiation treatment. SpaceOAR™ System
(Augmenix Inc., Waltham, MA) is a polyethylene glycol gel (PEG) that polymerizes in seconds
creating a hydrogel space. Following hydrodissection with a saline solution and confirmation of
proper needle location, the two liquid hydrogel precursors are injected where they expand the
perirectal space and then polymerize. The hydrogel is mostly made of water, is biocompatible
without local or systemic toxicity. Similar hydrogels are used as surgical sealants on the brain,
spine, and eyes and is
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Radiotherapy Research Paper
Radiotherapy
There are so many diseases found in the world. Some of them can be cured while others cannot.
Cancer is a disease that takes the lives of thousands of people each year. To this day, there are more
than hundred different types of cancers found. Cancer is defined as unwanted growth of cells in any
part of the body. Rapid growth of some of the cells divide in abnormally faster rate and form a
lump. These cells do not belong to the tissue of the organ and they never carry out the function of
the organ. As a result they start to accumulated. Widely, those accumulated lumps of cancerous cells
are known as tumor. Cancer can spread further into the body if the cells break away from the tumor.
There can be many reasons that lead to cancerous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Depending on the type and the stage of the cancer different treatment options maybe more effective
than other. Another very effective cancer treatment option is called chemotherapy. Many people
don't know what is what when it comes to difference between chemotherapy and radiotherapy. It is a
common question that is asked by many. Chemotherapy is actually a medicine or a drug that is
given to patients which travels thru the bloodstream whereas, radiotherapy is targeted directly to a
specific area like breast cancer, prostate cancer etc. The downside to chemotherapy is that it comes
to contact with healthy tissue resulting in side effects. This type of treatment is usually chosen when
the cancer is spread beyond the initial tissue. Radiotherapy would be more effective together with
chemotherapy if the cancerous cells have broken away from the tumor into the bloodstream. When
the cancer spreads out to your body it can affect other organs and tissues resulting in a second

The Cause of Endometrial Cancer Essay
Uterine cancer, sometimes referred to as endometrial cancer, is the most commonly diagnosed
gynecologic cancer in the United States (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012). Each year about 45,000 women
get uterine cancer and about 8,400 women die from it (CDC, 2012). It is a cancer caused by
abnormal cells growing in the lining of the uterus, or endometrium (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012). The
two major types of uterine cancer are adenocarcinoma and sarcoma. Adenocarcinoma develops from
the endometrium, which make up more than 95% of uterine cancers (Amant et al., 2005). The
endometrium plays a major role each month by swelling in preparation for pregnancy in women of
reproductive age; and if pregnancy does not occur, then the lining sheds and flows out of the ...
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Endometrial cancer is rare in women under the age of 45 and slightly more common in white
women; however, black women are more likely to die from it. Other risk factors associated with
endometrial cancer include age, where women over 50 years are at greater risk; ethnicity; and
having other cancers such as breast and ovarian cancer (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012; NCI, 2010).
Classification
Nearly all uterine cancers start in the endometrium and are referred to as endometrial carcinomas or
adenocarcinomas, meaning that they originate from a single layer of epithelial cells lining the
endometrium (Creasman et al., 2003). The most common type of endometrial carcinoma is
endometriod adenocarcinoma, which makes up about 80% of all endometrial carcinomas (Amant et
al, 2005). Endometrioid cancer is composed of cells in the gland that resembles normal
endometrium. The grade of endometrioid cancer is dependent on glands that form and look similar
to the glands found in normal, healthy endometrium. The lower the grade, the more cancerous tissue
forms glands (ACS, 2013; Amant et al., 2005).
Grade 1: tumors have 95% or more of the

Medical Treatments For Patients With Advanced Prostate Cancer
alliative radiotherapy will not cure your cancer but can help slow down its growth and relieve
symptoms such as pain.
Who can have palliative radiotherapy?
Palliative radiotherapy is one of the treatments used to slow down the growth of cancer and control
symptoms in men with advanced prostate cancer. Advanced prostate cancer is not curable but
treatment can keep it under control for months or years. Having advanced prostate cancer means
that the cancer has spread from the prostate, to other parts of the body. Prostate cancer can spread to
any part of the body, but most commonly to the bones or lymph nodes. 'Bone metastases' or 'bone
secondaries' are the terms used to describe cancer that has spread to the bone. This can cause pain
and problems with moving around. In some cases, men with advanced prostate cancer may also
experience painful lymph nodes or blood in their urine, caused by bleeding from the prostate. These
symptoms can sometimes be relieved with palliative radiotherapy.
Palliative radiotherapy may not be suitable for every man with advanced prostate cancer. This will
depend on where your cancer has spread to, whether it is causing symptoms and what treatment you
have already had. Your specialist team will help you to decide whether palliative radiotherapy may
benefit you. You may be offered other treatments to help control the symptoms of advanced prostate
cancer. These include pain–relieving drugs, hormone therapy, chemotherapy and drugs called

Spleen's Role In Physiological Research
The human body has different mechanisms to maintain homeostasis, a condition that sustains
equilibrium within the internal environment of the body; which the immune system plays a key role
in. The immune system protects the human body from any foreign invaders through a series of
steps. The system consists of cells, tissues, and organs, one of the main cells are known as
Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC). Leukocytes are produced and stored in different areas of
the body, such as the thymus, the spleen, and the bone marrow. Moreover, there are two types of
leukocytes; phagocytes, cells that fight invading pathogens and lymphocytes, cells that allow the
body to recognized previous pathogens. (5) Lymphocytes that help to activate the antibodies ...
For instance, cancer treated with radiotherapy that consists of gamma radiation and x–radiation. The
main difference between gamma rays and X–rays is the production leading to the intensity. Gamma
rays being able to penetrate better are produced when atomic nuclei decay, and X–rays are produced
when electrons hit a target or when they are rearranged within an atom. 39.6% of the men and
women in the United States will be diagnosed with cancer and 50% of all the patients with cancer
will be treated with radiotherapy (3). Radiotherapy is a precise method used to fight cancer
compared to other methods, it is designed to more accurately target and destroy cancer cells, but that
doesn't necessarily mean that it gets rid of all of the cancer cells within say a tumor or cancerous
growth.(18). Another drawback is that radiotherapy doesn't necessarily have the best precision
because the radiation can also hit the surrounding organs or cells that do not have cancer, which may
debilitate structure and function of those areas. When radiotherapy is used in the abdominal area of
the body it can affect the spleen, potentially causing irreversible damage. Two–point–three percent
of the cancer patients have cancer in their abdominal area. This includes bladder, colon, rectum,
kidney, renal pelvis, liver, pancreas, and stomach

Hormonal Therapy Case Study Essay
Patient X is a 67year old widowed hospital IT professional who flies propeller crafts for a hobby.
During a routine medical examination his doctor found blood in his urine. A prostate specific
antigen (PSA) test was done that revealed a PSA of 50u/l. His only symptoms were sluggish
morning urinary flow. In December of 2015 he underwent a prostate biopsy. The prostate biopsy
revealed a malignant prostate adenocarcinoma with a staging of T2a and a gleason score of 7(4+3).
At the time of the biopsy his PSA measured 141u/l. The urinary bladder biopsy revealed a low grade
papillary urothelial carcinoma. No deep muscle invasion was identified. 2 weeks after the biopsy he
underwent a baseline bone scan that revealed no bone metastases. In July 2016, he ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hormonal therapy includes Eligard x 2 and LHRH agonist therapy. After evaluation of the
comparison IMRT and VMAT plans, the oncologist decided to treat patient X with volumetric arc
therapy with a prescription 2,1gy x 35 fractions (#), separated into prostate, prostate with seminal
vesicles and nodes, to a cumulative dose of 73,5gy. The verification used during treatment was KV
CBCT for the first 4 days, followed by weekly KV CBCT's (Equra Health patient record, 2017). 2.1.
Anatomy, Physiology & Pathology Figure 3: Anatomy of the prostate in relation to the surrounding
structures (Yoursurgery, 2013). The prostate is a small, oval shaped, muscular gland found inferior
to the urinary bladder. It is approximately 4 cm wide and 3 cm thick, although this varies from man
to man. It has 2 lobes that surround the urethra. A thin layer of connective tissue, separates the
prostate and seminal vesicles from the rectum posteriorly. This is called the Denonvilliers' fascia
(Hricak & Scardino, 2009:3). Below the various zones of the prostate can be seen in Figure

Symptoms And Treatment Of Cancer Patients
1.Introduction:
The numbers of people who are dying due to crucial diseases such as cancer have increased,
according to world health organization (WHO) cited in Jane et al (2008), in
2005, 7.6 million people died from cancer, a figure expected to increase to 9 million people by 2015
, and increasing further to 11.4 million dying in 2030. Therefore, scientists have attempted to find
appropriate solution for those problems. Since the nineteenth century, solutions have been
introduced by scientists, that use radiation for the diagnosis of diseases instead of surgery (Pope,
1999), which has led to great
advances in medicine because diagnostic technology such as CT and X–rays scanning, nuclear
medicine (PET) and mammography, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Figure (1)
2.1 Ionizing radiation:It has a high frequency, which start from 〖10〗^16 Hz, within the
ultrasound band of the spectrum. Thus, it has a high energy,which leads to easily
penetrating matter such as skin (Podgorsak, 2006), whenit interactswith matter, the
interactions are in two main different ways:if ionizing radiationdirectly interacts,it is
calleda chargedparticle. On the other hand, if it indirectlyinteracts,it is known
uncharged particle (Knoll, 2010).
2.1.1 Charged particle: This type interacts directly with matter, which can be
generatedfrom fast electrons such as Beta particles or from heavy charged particle
such as; alpha particle.
Beta particle:Most radioactive nucleuses are not stable. Therefore, they start
emitting radiation to be stable, Beta particle is of the type radiation (Graham et al,2012).

This is emitted by radioactive nucleus, the atomic mass number of radioactive nucleus
decreases by one .On the other hand ,atomic number remain the same. It can be seen
from the equation:
(_Z^A)X→(_Z+1^A)Y+β^– ................. (Knoll, 2010)
Thus, z= is atomic mass number of radioactive nucleus
A= Atomic number
X= is radioactive nucleus before emitting
Y= Radioactive nucleus after emitting
Secondly: Alphaparticle produces from the same way of Beta particle; how
ever, the main difference alphaparticle isheavy charged particle and is used in
diverse applications in the medicine (Carson

Effect Of A Single Dose Of Radiotherapy
Radiation is energy emitted from a source. It has the property to ionise when it has such a high
energy, that at the moment it interacts with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from its
orbit, causing the atom to become charged (ionized).
The ionising effect of X–rays allows them to damage the DNA in cells and divide cells in the body.
This property is used it the cancer treatment.
When a person has cancer, their cells divide uncontrollably because of changes in their DNA,
forming tumours: these are group of abnormal cells that form growths. Rapidly dividing cells are
particularly vulnerable to the effect of ionising radiation. By directing high energy X–rays at the
tumours, the cancerous cells get deeply damaged.This cancer treatment is called radiotherapy.
The effect of a single dose of radiotherapy can lead the damaged cells to repair themselves, repair
incorrectly or die. Healthy cells subject to a dose may recover if given time. Radiotherapy is
therefore given in short bursts over a long period of time.
There are many subsets of radiotherapy including: the Superficial System: treats skin surface
tumours with energies of 50–150kV
MV systems for deep tumours (photons) and superficial skin/thyroid tumours (e's) at 22Mev
Linear Accelerators (Linacs) are used to deliver X–rays to a patient. They are designed to deliver
multiple beams at once. The combined beam needs to focus on tumours and avoid healthy tissue.
Wedges (door stop shaped shields) progressively

Breast Cancer : A Widespread Condition And A Genuine...
Introduction:
Cancer is a widespread condition and a genuine wellbeing issue(1). More than one in three
individuals will add to some type of cancer at some stage in their lifetime. There are several distinct
sorts of cancer(1). The most widely recognized cancer in Saudi Arabia in 2010 are: Breast Cancer,
Colorectal Cancer, Non–Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL), Thyroid Cancer, Leukemia(2). The frequency
of cancer in Saudi Arabia reported by the Saudi Cancer Registry between January 01 and December
31, 2010 was 13,706 cases. General growth was more among women than men(2).
Figure 1 (showing the most cancer incident and type diagnosed in the year of 2010) (2)
As figure 1 showing that the most widely recognized cancer in females is breast cancer(3). The
number of cases of female breast cancer for year 2010 were 1473. breast cancer positioned first
between females representing 27.4% of all recently analyzed female malignancies (5,378) in year
2010(2). The ASR was 24.9/100,000 of female populace. Riyadh was one of the uppermost ASR at
30.6/100,000(2). In Saudi Arabia, half of new breast cancer cases happen in womens beyond 52
age(3).
There are numerous risk factors that promote breast cancer. One of the greatest risk factor is age (1).
The additional risk factors can be:
1. Genetic risk factors.
2. Individual or family breast cancer history.
3. Prior radiation to chest.
4. Women who have had no kids or after age of 3 had their first child.
5. Control of birth.
6. The use of

The Human Body Is A Complex System
The human body is a complex system that is composed of billions of cells, undergoing growth,
division and death in an orderly fashion on a daily basis. When this process occurs in an abnormal
manner, the outcome is typically referred to as a tumor. In today's world, tumor is a term that is
commonly heard throughout the world. Also referred to as neoplasm, a tumor is an abnormal growth
of tissue resulting from the rapid cell division due to some form of mutation (Cooper). They are
classified into four main groups: benign, in situ, malignant and those with uncertain or unknown
behaviour. Of the four classes of tumor, malignant neoplasms are those tumors that are typically
referred to as cancers (Cooper). These tumors involve abnormal cell growth that has the potential to
invade and destroy the surrounding tissue, possibly forming metastases and becoming fatal. Eye
tumors are secondary tumors that results from a primary tumor that has spread from other parts of
the body and have invaded the eye. There are two primary types that occur within the eye:
retinoblastoma in children, and melanoma in adults.
Ocular melanoma is a rare cancer that occurs in the adult eye (Guénel et al.). Although there are
other types of eye cancer, ocular melanoma is the most commonly occurring and the most
dangerous. It is a malignant tumor that metastasizes and become fatal in about half of all occurring
cases. It is the second most common type of melanoma that occurs and accounts for 5% of all

Cancer Treatment : Organ Specific Cancer Treatments Essay
Cancer Treatment – Organ Specific Cancer Treatments
By Dr Priya Rajendran | Submitted On October 25, 2012
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Organ specific cancer treatments
Certain advanced cancer hospitals manage cancer in an organ specific way, and accordingly
oncologists are reserved for treating cancers affecting specific organs only. Accordingly, oncologists
have successfully treated breast cancer, head and neck cancer, gynecological cancer, orthopedic
cancer, lung cancer, neuro cancer, and liver cancer.
Understanding each organ specific cancer and the treatment available for it
Breast Cancer
It is the commonest of cancers affecting women, and it is believed to be the cancer that has caused
the most mortality among women next to lung cancer. The mortality has been the highest among
women whose ages were between 45 and 55. Breast cancer is curable if it is diagnosed at an early
stage, and if the necessary treatments are carried out immediately following its detection. Breast
cancer is growth of breast cells in an uncontrolled manner.
Breast cancer diagnosis
Abnormal presence of a lump
This diagnosis can be carried out by the patient, and the doctor too looks for the

Radiation Therapy Advantages And Disadvantages
First Of All What Is The Radiation Therapy?
(Introduction)
The radiation therapy or the radiotherapy is using ionizing radiation is part of cancer treatment to
kill the malignant cells, and is using the high energy to shrink the tumors such as : x–ray, gamma
ray, and charged particles this is for cancer treatment.
Radiation therapy is a commonly applied to the cancers tumor because is for its abele to be cell
growth. Ionizing radiation working by damaging the DNA of cancerous tissue leading to cellular
death. To replace normal tissues such as: skin and organs that radiation must pass through to cure
the tumor. Shaped radiation beams are aimed from several angles of exposure to meet at the tumor,
given a much larger absorbed dose than in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It concentrations the radiation on the cancer, and minimum the time each treatment takes. It
normally includes one single beam of radiation, sometimes more than. The machine will move
around you in a circle. It may help to minimum the risk of side effects by reducing the amount of
radiation to the close to the organs.
The advantage and disadvantage of the radiotherapy: (the pros and cons of such modality)
The most important advantage of the radiotherapy is that it may be help to control the growth of the
carcinoma.
For a small number of people with locally advanced pancreas cancer and borderline respectable
carcinoma, radiotherapy may make surgery if possible.
Each treatment session will take about 15–30 minutes and you won't usually need to stay in hospital.
You may be able to carry on with your daily life, such as going to work, if you feel up to it.
If you have advance cancer, radiotherapy can help work with symptoms and relieve pain.
The disadvantage of the radiotherapy:
The radiotherapy can be damage the organ is close of the pancreas such as the stomach , small
bowel , large bowel , kidney, liver, this of side

Cancer Research, Section 1 ( Basics Of Cancer )
Cancer Research, Section 1 (Basics of Cancer)
What is cancer? Cancer is a disease where cells split uncontrollably and can invade other tissues,
causing cells in the other tissues to have cancer. Where can cancer occur? Cancer can occur
practically anywhere in the body. This is because cancerous cells can move anywhere in the
amatomy through blood paths and lymph systems (lymph systems are lattice of organs, lymph
intersections (nodes), tubes, and vessels that move lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells,
from place to place. (– http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what–is–cancer )
What is a tumor? What do benign and malignant mean? A tumor ... Show more content on
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This is the stage that is the easiest to cure. Stage 1 cancer is cancer that hasn't grown too far into the
tissues surrounding it and is also called early–stage cancer. Stages 2 and 3 cancers are cancers that
are larger or have grown further into the neighboring tissues and have moved to the lymph nodes,
but not to other body areas. Stage 4 cancer is cancer that has moved to organs and other body parts.
This cancer is also called advanced or metastatic cancer.
Cancer Type Specifics
I am doing my project on retinoblastoma. I chose retinoblastoma because I thought not many people
would pick it; it is a very rare type of cancer. Retinoblastoma is a fast developing cancer that
develops from immature cells in the eye called the retina. It is the most common cancerous tumor of
the eye in children. Retinoblastoma occurs mostly in children under five. Although it is very rare,
Retinoblastoma can develop when a child is just past the age of six. Retinoblastoma occurs in the
eye, developing from the light– sensing tissues of the retina.
Worsening of vision, a red and irritated eye, and faltering growth (delayed development) are
symptoms of Retinoblastoma. Some children with retinoblastoma can become cross–eyed, which
means that their eyes are going in two different directions.
There are many treatments of Retinoblastoma. One of the treatments is

What are Brain Tumors?
Brain Tumour Definition Simply defined, brain tumour is a growth of abnormal cells in your brain.
There are different types of brain tumours – while some brain tumours are noncancerous (benign),
others are cancerous (malignant). Brain tumours that begin from the brain are called primary brain
tumours; and those that begin from other parts of the body and then spread to the brain are known as
secondary or metastatic brain tumours. Symptoms The symptoms of brain tumours vary, depending
on size of tumour, location and rate of growth. However, general symptoms can include: Onset or
change of pattern of headaches More frequent and severe headaches Unexplained seizures, nausea
or vomiting Vision issues such as blurred vision or double vision Loss of sensation in arm or leg
Difficulty in maintaining balance Difficulty in speech Behavioural changes Hearing problems Types
of brain tumours Primary brain tumours Primary brain tumours are those that originate in the brain
or the tissues that surround it, for example, cranial nerves, brain–covering membranes, pineal gland
or pituitary gland. These tumours are a result of mutation that occurs in the DNA of normal cells.
Because of these mutations, the cells grow and divide at an increased rate. Gradually the healthy
cells die while the abnormal cells continue to grow, thrive and gradually form a tumour. Types of
primary brain tumours Acoustic neuroma Astrocytoma Ependymoma Germ cell tumour
Medulloblastoma

Breast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer
Roughly one in eight women in the United States will develop an invasive breast cancer in their
lifetime. In 2016, a projected 246,660 new cases of invasive breast cancer are estimated to be
detected, along with an additional 61,000 new cases of non–invasive breast cancer. There are greater
than 2.8 million women with a diagnosis of breast cancer in the United States, including women
presently being treated and women who have completed treatment. Research developments over the
past twenty years have ultimately altered the prognosis of breast cancer care. In recent years, there
has been an eruption of life–saving advances against breast cancer. Death rates have declined
approximately thirty–six percent, believed to be the product of treatment advancement and earlier
detection. This paper is intended for those breast cancer patients who are considering breast–
conservation surgery, also known as lumpectomy, followed by intracavitary radiation brachytherapy.
Patients must be at least forty years old, with a single primary tumor less than three centimeters,
negative surgical margins by at least two millimeters, and be without lymph nodal involvement, to
be considered candidates for this form of treatment. Radiation therapy is a highly precise and
effective way to extinguish minuscule cancer cells that may have been neglected or undetected
during surgery. Radiation is often delivered after breast–conserving surgery to reduce the risk that
the cancer will recur in the

Systemic Radionuclide Therapy
Introduction
The spine column is one of the most frequent sites for bone metastases that occur in patients with
developed cancer, especially prostate, lung and breast. Intolerable pain is the major symptoms that
appear with bone metastasis and severe pain reduces quality of life [1–4]. Treatment of spinal
metastases is a multidisciplinary approach involving conventional external beam radiotherapy,
surgery, narcotics, bisphosphonates, percutaneous vertebral body augmentation, systemic
radionuclides, stereotactic body radiotherapy or a combination of these systemic therapies [5–8].
Systemic radionuclide therapy with suitable radiotracers has some advantages including the ability
for pain palliation in multiple sites of bone involvement simultaneously, ... Show more content on
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Thus consideration of absorbed dose to minimizing dose delivery and assessment of radiation
damage to bone marrow is important. To attain effective radionuclide therapy, it is essential to
identify appropriate radionuclides as well as to develop better bone seeking agents that could result
in good in vivo localization and desired excretion [12]. There are two major groups of radionuclides
for treating painful bone metastases including, β emitting radionuclides; 32P,89Sr, 90Y, 153Sm,
166Ho, 177Lu, 186Re, 188Re and α emitting radionuclide;223Ra [13–19]. The 32P and 89Sr were
the first radioisotope to be evaluated for palliative treatment of bone metastases [20, 21]. Currently,
there are several commercially available β emitting radionuclides for bone pain palliation as
89SrCl2, 153Sm–EDTMP and 186Re–HDEP [22, 23]. However, another radionuclide is under
research for palliative treatment of bone metastasis, such as 90Y, 166Ho, 177Lu and 188Re.
Recently, 223RaCl2 that uses the bone–seeking α emitter 223Ra has become available and it
approved by the FDA for clinical use in 2013 [24–27]. For each atom of 223 Ra, 4 alpha particles
are released that they are representing 94 % of the total radiation energy emitted

Esophageal Cancer Research Paper
Prevention/Family Teaching
You can take steps to reduce your risks of esophageal cancer for instance:
Quit smoking. If you smoke, take to the doctor about strategies for quitting. Medication and
counseling are available.
Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all.
Eat more fruits and vegetables.
Maintain a healthy weight. If you are overweight or obese, talk to your doctor about strategies to
help you lose weight. Aim for a slow and steady weight loss of 1 or 2 pounds a week.
Control gastroesophageal reflux disease(GERD). See your doctor about getting GERD under
control, it can be controlled early enough to possibly prevent esophageal cancer.
Description of Disease/
Signs and Symptoms
Esophageal cancer is cancer of the tube that runs from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gastrointestinal: belching, blood in stool, hiccups, indigestion, nausea, regurgitation, vomiting, or
vomiting blood.
Also swollen lymph nodes, or lumps in the throat.
Risk Factors/
Diagnostic Testing
Significant risk factors for esophageal cancer include:
Smoking
Poorly controlled acid reflux
Drinking alcohol
Drinking very hot liquids
Lack of eating fruits and vegetables
Being obese
Having precancerous changes in the cells of the esophagus.
Difficulty swallowing because of an esophageal sphincter that won't relax (achalasia).
Undergoing radiation treatment to the chest or upper abdomen.
Diagnostic testing:

Using a scope to examine your esophagus (endoscopy).
Collecting a sample of tissue for testing (biopsy).
Treatment
.
Treatment for esophageal cancer focuses on removing the cancer through surgery. Chemotherapy
and radiation also may be used.
Common treatments:
Chemotherapy regimen: Neoadjuvant therapy
Procedures: Nasogastric intubation, External beam radiotherapy, Percutaneous endoscopic
gastrostomy, Lymphadenectomy, Therapeutic endoscopy, Gastrostomy, Radiation therapy, Digestive
system surgery.
Other common treatments: Esophagogastrectomy, Jejunostomy,

Essay about Radiation Therapy
What do cancer, radiation, and technology have in common? The links between the three are quite
extraordinary. Cancer is a disease that accounts for 13% of all deaths in the world (Delfino and Day
1). The disease has an impact on patients, friends and their love ones. According to WebMD,
radiation is energy that travels in the form of waves through radiation therapy. Through radiation
therapy, radiation is used to stop, slow or cure the growth of cancer. With technology, radiologists
can treat cancer patients through radiation and special computerized imaging (WebMD).
Radiation is one of the main forms of energy (Pettigrew 1). In today's environment we are only
familiar with the basic types of radiation. These types are in the form of ... Show more content on
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High doses of radiation kill cancer cells and stop them from spreading, while at low doses radiation
is used to see insides of the human body, such as x–rays (WebMD).
There are several ways radiation therapy can be delivered. Radiation therapy can be external or
internal. The most common way is by external radiation in which a radiation is directed at the tumor
from a machine (Dollinger, Rosenbaum 62). Internal or systemic radiotherapy delivers radiation by
giving a radioactive source intravenously or by injection (62). Depending on the type of cancer,
some people are treated with both types of therapy. Radiation therapy can be used anywhere in the
body to treat any kind of cancer. Depending on what type of radiation therapy, it can have some side
effects. The most common ones include fatigue, hair loss near the treated area, and skin darkening in
the area exposed to a beam of radiation. ("Radiation Therapy for Cancer," 1) There are also safety
concerns that patients have when they are treated with radiation therapy. Many people that receive
radiation therapy treatment, worry about exposing family and love ones to radiation, as well as the
side effects. Radiation effects on the normal tissues are divided into acute and chronic effects
(Schreiber). Acute effects occur during the course of therapy and during the post therapy period
(approximately 2–3 weeks after the completion of a course of irradiation) (Schreiber).

Bloo Blood Cancer
CANCER– a very crucial disease caused by abnormal growth of cells that can spread in any part of
the body and covers many tissues. In the disease some of the cells begin to spread and some starts to
contract causing very serious illness and sometimes even death.
Human body is made up of trillions and trillions of cells and cancer cells can grow in any part of the
body. In natural human body process all the cells keep breaking and new cells keep taking their
places and that's how the body work properly but when cancer cells grows the old cells keep
becoming abnormal and the natural process disturbs.
Cancer cells usually forms in a tumour that is a mass of tissues. Tumours have highly toxic fluid in
it that spread in the whole body if not taken proper care of. As these tumours develop, some cancer
cells can break off and move to aloof places in the body via ... Show more content on
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In United States, in every 20 minutes every 2nd person is diagnosed with blood cancer, which
means 25000 people yearly came to know that they are suffering from this crucial disease and very
small ratio of people manages to be fully cured. In this type of cancer, the patient have to change his
whole blood in every 2–3 days. Its treatment is radiotherapy and chemotherapy along with proper
very healthy and careful diet because there are many natural foods that helps a lot in treating
cancers.
SKIN CANCER
Skin cancers also occurs due to the development of abnormal cells over the skin. This type of cancer
usually cause because of too much direct exposure to sun, or too less sun exposure, family
background, and use of dangerous or effected cosmetics or equipment over the skin. In 2012,
according to a study 55'000 people dies because of skin cancer and it is even more common in
countries like Australia and New Zealand. It can be treated with external beam radio therapy, skin
surgery and chemotherapy.
Prostate

Causes And Symptoms Of Metastatic Bone Cancer
Introduction
Metastatic bone cancer is a result of primary tumour cell spread, through direct and local invasion,
and vasculature or lymphatic circulation. It is a common feature in solid tumours formed in lungs,
breasts, thyroid and prostate along with multiple myelomas and renal carcinomas. One of the major
signs and symptoms for patients with bone metastases is localized pain, which is often difficult to
control and can be quite sever. This paper will discuss the process of metastasis, the aetiology and
pathophysiology of bone metastases, and the changes that occur within bone due to metastatic
spread. It will outline bone metastases signs and symptoms, and discuss radiotherapy treatment
options based on patient assessments, focussing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cancer cells are able to overexpress the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) protein. This is a
signal protein that stimulates angiogenesis (lymphangiogenisis for lymph canal production) and
allows the tumour to develop. This process is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. The angiogenic process. http://www.medscape.org By secreting this protein, VEGF
receptors in the vasculature then activate the extracellular kinase and mitogen–activated protein
(MAP) kinase signal transduction pathway. This induces proteins that breakdown the blood vessels
basement membrane, allowing endothelial cells to invade. The breakdown of the membrane allows
fluid and proteins to escape through the vasculature. One of these proteins, matrix metalloproteinase
(MMP), breaks down the extracellular matrix between the tumour and blood vessel and allows the
VEGF to stimulate receptors on the new endothelial cells. This causes proliferation of the
endothelial cells, tube formation and migration towards the area signalling VEGF (the tumour cells),
allowing the growth of new blood vessels into the tumour. (Spyridopoulos, I. 2002).
The structure of a malignant tumour is not as solid as regular tissue, in terms of cellular adhesion,
and it is easier for these cells to become detached from one another. The newly formed vasculature
structures are tortuous,

Nursing Essay: Pain Management.
Introduction
This essay will aim to look at the main principles of cancer pain management on an acute medical
ward in a hospital setting. My rational for choosing to look at this is to expend my knowledge of the
chosen area. Within this pieces of work I will look to include physiological, psychological and
sociological aspects of pain management.
Pain, which is defined in its widest sense as an emotion which is the opposite of pleasure (White,
2004, p.455), is one of the major symptoms of cancer, affecting a majority of sufferers at some point
during their condition (De Conno & Caraceni, 1996, p.8). The World Health Organization (WHO,
2009, online) suggests that relief from pain may be achieved in more than 90 percent of patients; ...
De Wit et al (2001) state that the cognitive dimension of cancer pain deals with what patients pain
means to them and how they think of it in terms of beliefs, attitudes and thoughts. This is to do with
their personality. A patient's beliefs effect how they cope with pain. They can initiate coping
strategies and their level of adjustment to pain. Sofaer (1992) notes that pain causes anxiety and in
turn anxiety can heighten pain.
Guidelines for Treatment
Provision of pain relief is a shared responsibility of the interdisciplinary health care team. For
example it may initially form part of the oncologist's remit to determine the most effective pain
management plan for the patient. After treatment has been initiated, oncology nurses may then adopt
responsibility for ensuring that pain relief is adequate via regular assessment and action (NICE,
2004, p.80).
Aside from determining the type of pain suffered, the other major consideration in treating pain for
cancer patients is to determine the level of pain. A significant proportion of patients experiencing
pain would grade this as moderate to severe, but some may have only mild to moderate pain which
may respond to lower risk treatment options (van den Beuken–van Everdingen et al., 2007, p.1437).
Drug therapy is described by Fitzgibbon and Loeser (2010, p.190) as the cornerstone of treating
cancer pain. There is currently no specific NICE guidance on pain management on cancer. However,
opioids

The Discovery Of Radiation Therapy Essay
Radiation Therapy
Diana Salazar
RAD: 211
Mrs. Evelyn Grove
Fayetteville Technical Community College
Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy is the use of high–energy radiation from x–rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons,
and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors (National Cancer Institute, 2016). One of the
main purposes of radiation is to preserve the normal cells while killing the cancer cells. To fully
understand the importance of radiation therapy it is imperative to understand its discovery. The
discovery of radioactivity is attributed to Henri Becquerel in Paris. His discovery was purely
accidental, as most discoveries are, while attempting an experiment that utilized the sun, uranium,
and photographic plates. On 26–27 February 1896, Henri Becquerel took the uranium and
photographic plates wrapped in black paper to initiate his experiment by placing them in the path of
sun light, but to his misfortune it was overcast both days. Thinking that his experiment was a failure,
Becquerel decided to develop the photographic plates and found that uranium did not need the sun's
rays to emit radiation due to its own radioactive properties, thus discovering radioactivity. The
actual term "radioactivity" was coined by Marie Curie, a Polish born physicist, who along with her
husband had been studying the phenomenon that was discovered by Becquerel (Lawrence Berkely
National Lab, 2000).
The use of radiation for medical treatment came very early on after

Radiation Therapy And Its Effects On Cancer
Along with or in place of chemotherapy, patients may need to receive radiation treatments to
successfully rid themselves of cancer. The National Cancer Institute explains that radiation therapy,
also called radiotherapy, "uses high–energy radiation to shrink tumors and kill cancer cells." The
Institute also describes the different forms of radiation used, including gamma rays, x–rays, or other
beams of charged particles ("Radiation"). Like chemotherapy, the goal of radiotherapy is to damage
the DNA of cancerous cells, disabling their reproductive capabilities. Radiotherapy can be delivered
either internally, called brachytherapy, or externally through a machine that emits the beams into the
body. Also, the National Cancer Institute ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In an article in the journal Cancers, the benefits of proton therapy are discussed. A signature
characteristic of proton beam therapy is that it does not penetrate through tumors in ways that other
radiation forms due. This is due to its "Bragg Peak," an area where the amount of energy deposited
peaks (Berman). This area is designed to be where the tumor is, and this accurate targeting means
that less radiation is exposed to the other areas behind and around the tumor. Berman goes on to
discuss in the Cancers article the general reduction of cancerous cells in non–small cell lung cancer
patients. However, there are also side effects associated with this treatment that can be modulated
with evolving technologies that provide more precise targeting. "Pencil Beam Scanning" is a
developing specialized type of proton beam therapy in which the dose is maintained to a very
specific area, which in turn will assist in reducing additional exposure (Berman). As discussed,
radiotherapy and chemotherapeutic agents both can negatively affect the body by causing damage to
healthy cells, not just those of the cancer. This issue has led to the development of a new type of
treatment, one that solely seeks out the cancer cells, kills them, and leaves the bodily cells intact for
the most part. According to the National Cancer Institute, there are many different types of
treatments that target the

Radiotherapy
What are the Benefits and Drawbacks of Radiotherapy?
Cancer is one of our planets most concerning illnesses at this time. It is the uncontrollable growth
and forming of malignant tumours. In 2007, it was said to cause about 13% of all human deaths
worldwide (Kleinsmith, Lewis J. M.D). Some cancers may be cured and this depends on certain
variables such as the type of cancer, where the cancer is, and how early it has been detected.
One method of treatment for cancer is Radiation therapy (Radiotherapy). This is the medical use of
ionizing radiation to control or kill these malignant cells. However, there is doubt among society
about the use of radiotherapy. This is mainly because some long–term side effects include the
growth of scar ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most common types of external radiotherapy, use photon beams (either as x–rays or gamma
rays).
A machine called a linear accelerator focuses high–energy X–rays or other high–energy beams
(gamma rays) at the cancer. It is concentrated so that the radiation destroys the cancer cells and not
the healthy cells around them. Although, healthy cells may be damaged, the cancer cells will take
most of the damage and the healthy cells should be strong enough to repair themselves afterwards.
"The linear accelerator uses microwave technology (similar to that used for radar) to accelerate
electrons in a part of the accelerator called the "wave guide," then allows these electrons to collide
with a heavy metal target. As a result of the collisions, high–energy x–rays are produced from the
target. These high energy x–rays are shaped as they exit the machine to conform to the shape of the
patient's tumor and the customized beam is directed to the patient's tumor.
The beam may be shaped either by blocks that are placed in the head of the machine or by a multi–
leaf collimator that is incorporated into the head of the machine. The patient lies on a moveable
treatment couch and lasers are used to make sure the patient is in the proper position. The treatment
couch can move in many directions including up, down, right, left, in and out. The beam comes out
of a part of the accelerator called a gantry, which can be

Evaluation Of The Keith Durrant Memorial Fellowship
Applicant Statement
I would like to put forward my application for consideration of the Keith Durrant Memorial
Fellowship. I am a final year clinical oncology trainee at the Royal Marsden Hospital currently out
of programme pursuing clinical research having been awarded a CRUK PhD fellowship to study
advanced radiotherapy and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques to optimise
and personalise radiotherapy treatment for patients with bladder cancer.
I wish to undertake a visiting fellowship in 2015 at the Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto,
Canada for 4 weeks in order to gain further experience in image–guided radiotherapy (IGRT) for the
treatment of pelvic malignancy, the integration of functional imaging for ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Given that The Royal Marsden and The Institute of Cancer Research are part of the international
consortium to develop MR–Linac technology, I believe that time spent within the Radiation
Medicine Programme at Princess Margaret Cancer Centre will be useful as it has a dedicated 3T
MRI unit on rails and would provide a unique opportunity to learn how to integrate MRI guided
radiation therapy to improve outcomes for patients.
STTARR (spatio–temporal targeting and amplification of radiation response programme) is the
imaging centre associated with the Princess Margaret Cancer Centre and provides cutting edge
imaging technology. It has five main research cores.
In order to meet my learning objectives I will be mainly involved in:
i. The Clinical Core III; implementing innovative imaging and therapeutic strategies in patients. ii.
The Computational Core IV; providing image registration and analysis support for clinical
investigations.
I will also take the opportunity to see how their pre–clinical work in DNA repair assays for the
prediction of radiation response and toxicity and the identification and validation of response
markers to radiation therapy is used to personalise radiotherapy treatment for patients.
By gaining further experience in these areas I believe I will be better equipped to design specific
research projects to examine the potential applicability of both IGRT and functional imaging. As a
result, I

Cancer Medical History: A Case Study
Cancer Medical History– Patient M.W.
In August 2009 M.W. a 56 year old female, was diagnosed with a stage II–B adenocarcinoma of the
pancreatic head, ductal type, with perinueral invasion, with two of nine lymph nodes involved by
direct extension and positive margin. Shortly after diagnosis, she received the Whipple procedure
followed by treatment with gemcitabine and 5FU chemoradiation. She was diagnosed later with a
regional cancer recurrence in the retro portal space nestled between the portal vein, the inferior vena
cava, the superior mesenteric artery, and the left renal vein. It is possible this recurrence was nodal
in origin rather than in the autonomic neural sheath surrounding the artery which is the typical
region of recurrence. Subsequently, she was treated with six cycles of Folifirinox with 5FU adjuvant
followed by an additional four cycles ending in May of 2012. Following this treatment, a CT scan
showed improvement of her disease. A few months later she received a partial cycle of Abraxane
with Gemcitabine. In the first few months of 2014, she was enrolled in a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
's radiotherapy and Capecitabine treatment he presented a troubling set of symptoms. He was tired,
lacked appetite, and felt an overall depression in his mood and health. His physicians expected his
symptoms to originate from metastatic disease or tumor progression but no signs of either were
found. A CT scan was ordered and revealed thickening of the second portion of the duodenum,
which may have been the first sign of liver disease caused by PVT. By the beginning of 2014 there
were still no tumor recurrence or metastatic disease in the chest, abdomen, or pelvis, but he
exhibited worsening cachexia. The patient took a series of two liver function tests within two
months. The first showed mild elevation of liver enzymes. The next month, repeat liver function
tests revealed the worsening condition of his disease (Table 2) accompanied by declining

Pediatric Implications of Diagnostic, Interventional, and...
Since the beginning of the propitious world, the core aspect that keeps it thriving is the propensity
for people to discover innovations; however, progress of the past is, systematically, detrimental to
the future. Not long after the revolutionary invention of the X–ray in the late 19th Century, an
unprecedented number of medical examiners noticed (unknown to the time) radiation burns all over
their body; decades later, an extraordinary surge in cancer cases had arisen. Perhaps, during the
course of these years, scientists and researchers desired to further progress the x–ray (into the
immense subsidiaries that are here today), and disregarded any flaws in the apparatus. This
systematic inclination continues into the present time as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Diagnostic radiology has evolved into being the foundation of medical institutions across the nation;
yet, with more and more pediatric patients needing a radiographic image, there are greater risks of
calamities. Shortly after the 20th century X–ray scare was resolved, hospitals nation–wide used the
state–of–the–art machine to diagnose broken bones, teeth snags, infections, and even certain
cancers. Along with new medical standards and safety measures, followers of Wilhelm Röntgen (the
inventor of the X–ray) discovered the properties of X–radiation (Hart 48–50). Being close to gamma
rays on the electromagnetic spectrum, X–radiation fully penetrates the human body, and since they
are produced from a changing nucleus, they are able to affect and change the nucleus (cells) of the
absorbing matter (Cancer 1–4; Burrill (2) 59–62). Oftentimes, the radiographer will not line up the
machine correctly with the organ, tissue, or bone in question and, therefore, will tell the patient they
must retake the image. One X–ray of the midsection is equal to three full days of background
radiation (Hart 50). Radiologic technologists do not keep records of patients' prior radiation
exposure so it is up to them to discuss (with a general practitioner) and know their limits (Choy 88).
A

Endometriosis Case Study
Endometriosis is a common gynecological disorder present in females of the reproductive age. This
disease is accompanied by pain and infertility. It usually occurs when tissue grows outside of the
uterus. The tissue can grow into different organ structures in the body. To alleviate the pain
Endometriosis can be treated with the non steroidal anti–inflammatory drugs and hormone
medications. When those medications are not effective Radiation therapy is used. Radiotherapy
helps aid in alleviating pain and treatment for the disorder. In this study, Endometriosis is
thoroughly described within the effects it has with radiation therapy.
Introduction
Endometriosis affects an estimated 1 in 10 women during their reproductive years (ie. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Brachytherapy is the technique that uses internal radiation therapy by placing radioactive materials
inside the body near the tumor. This therapy is given at a short distance and is localized, precise, and
high–tech. Radiation beams penetrate the tissues and deliver the radiation dose deep into the areas
where the cancer resides. When the beams penetrate the tissue the DNA becomes damaged. DNA,
which is the building block of life, consists of a pair of complementary double strands that
ultimately results in the most dangerous type of DNA damage by

Cancer 's Reputation Is Dismal And Menacing
One of the very last words anyone wants to hear from their doctors or loved ones is cancer. The
word automatically instills fear, confusion, denial, and leaves the individual questioning his or her
beliefs wondering "Why me?". It overpowers all previous commitments or opportunities seizing
control over the customary quality of life. Cancer is a disease caused by an uncontrolled division of
abnormal cells in a part of the body often metastasizing elsewhere. With more than two hundred
types of cancer that can affect more than sixty organs, cancer kills a half million people annually in
the United States alone1. It is understandable why cancer's reputation is dismal and menacing.
Although there is no cure for cancer, doctors and researchers ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
X–Ray and Gamma radiation are the heart of this therapy. Either produced through the beta decay of
Cobalt–60 or a linear accelerator, external beam radiation delivers a beam of high–energy x–rays to
a patient's tumor site in order to destroy the cancer cells. In most cases, patients receive therapy in
daily treatment sessions over the course of several weeks. Many types of external–beam radiation
therapy are delivered using a linear accelerator. The Linac uses direct current or radio frequency
voltages accelerating electrons through then length of a waveguide, a hollow tube vacuum chamber,
to a velocity near the speed of light. When the electron reaches the end of the acceleration tube, it
smashes into a metal target, usually tungsten or aluminum. This collision creates the high–energy
radiation used to treat cancer. Depending on the metal target used for the final collision, different
radiation is generated for specific treatments3. Radiation therapy is not limited to an external source
which enters the body via a beam outside for treatment. Some cancers which are too far beneath the
skin or near extremely vital and delicate tissue require a more localized and accurate form of
therapy. Brachytherapy uses radioactive seeds or pellets strategically placed inside the body
delivering an internal for of radiation therapy. Radioactive material is directly placed into or near a
tumor using a

Breast Cancer : Invasive And Non Invasive
Task 2
Breast Cancer
Invasive/Non–invasive
Most breast cancers are diagnosed when a tumour has grown from within a duct or lobule into the
surrounding breast tissue.
Some people are diagnosed when the cancerous cells are still within a duct or lobule. These are
called carcinoma in situ, as no cancer cells have grown out from their original site.
By looking at a sample of breast cancer tissue under a microscope the cancer can be graded:
Grade 1 – cancer cells are slow–growing and less aggressive.
Grade 2
Grade 3 – cancer cells are fast–growing and more aggressive.
Some breast cancer cells have receptors which allow certain types of hormones or proteins to attach
to the cancer cell:
Hormones – testing on a sample of breast ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The treatments used depend on:
The cancer itself – size, stage, grade, and whether it is hormone responsive or contains HER2
receptors
The patient – age, if they have been through menopause, general health and personal preferences for
treatment.
Surgery
The types of operation which may be considered are:
Breast–conserving surgery – a lumpectomy is one type of operation where just the tumour and some
surrounding breast tissue are removed. This aims to kill any cancer cells which may have been left
in the breast tissue. It is common to have radiotherapy following this operation.
Removal of the affected breast (mastectomy) – this may be necessary if there is a large tumour or a
tumour in the middle of the breast.
A sentinel lymph node biopsy – this is a way of assessing if the main lymph nodes draining the
breast contain cancer. This helps to stage the disease accurately and to guide the specialist as to what
treatment to advise following surgery.
Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is a treatment which uses high–energy beams of radiation which are focused on
cancerous tissue. This kills cancer cells, or stops cancer cells from multiplying. The types available
are:
breast radiotherapy – after breast–conserving surgery, radiation is applied to the whole of the
remaining breast tissue.
chest wall radiotherapy – after a mastectomy, radiotherapy is applied to the chest wall.
breast boost – some women may be offered a boost of

Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer
Cervical cancer is the second foremost occurring cancer in women after breast cancer. Cervical
cancer is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the human papillomavirus, or HPV. Infection by
HPV typically occurs in the early years of sexual activity according to the World Health
Organization (WHO), but it can take up to a full twenty years for it to develop into a full–blown
malignant tumor. Scientists believe that for all intents and purposes all cervical cancer cases are
caused by infection with a few types of cancer. Great strides have been made in recent years in the
development of a vaccine to treat the cervical cancer. Scientists have cultivated a prophylactic
vaccine that would protect against the human papillomavirus. HPV's ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Treatment for stage I cervical cancer is a simple hysterectomy, unless the cancer is more than 3 mm
or has invaded the blood vessels or lymph vessels, in which case a radical hysterectomy may be
needed. Radiation therapy may be used post–op if the cancer cells extend to the edges of the organs
that were removed. Recent clinical trials show that a combination of radiation and cisplatin can be
more effective than radiation therapy alone . Stage II cancer occurs when the tumor(s) have
extended beyond the cervix, but not as far as the pelvic wall. Stage II is also classified into two
separate subdivisions. Stage IIA is when the cancer has extended to the upper portion of the vagina,
but not as far as the surrounding tissue, or parametria. Stage IIB occurs when the cancer extends to
the parametrial tissues, but not as far as the pelvic wall. One treatment option for Stage II cervical
cancer is high–dose internal and external radiation therapy. As with Stage I treatment, radiation
therapy in conjunction with medication can prove more effective than with radiation therapy alone.
A second treatment option is radical hysterectomy with selective para–aortic and radical bilateral
(both sides) pelvic lymph node dissection. Stage III entails the cancer moving beyond the
parametrial tissues, but not into the pelvic area. As with Stage I and II, stage III is also classified
into two separate subdivisions. Stage IIIA indicates that the

Informative Essay: Prostate Cancer Treatment Student Choice
Prostate Cancer Treatment Student Choice
The question is what treatment I would chose, and this wasn't an easy choice to make since there is
still clinical trials going on and surgery sometimes isn't the answer. So I chose radiation treatment
therapy. Since there are different forms of radiation therapy it can be used in early stages of prostate
cancer and also advanced and recurrent prostate cancer.
In my research I found that if a patient has a radical prostatectomy he would have several weeks of
recovery and also a catheter is put into the penis to drain the bladder for 1 to 2 weeks while they
heal. With external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) they use MRI's and CT scans to obtain the
location of the tumor cells, they also have a 3–D

Pediatric Sarcomas Form A Heterogeneous Group Of...
Pediatric sarcomas form a heterogeneous group of mesenchymal skeletal and extraskeletal
malignancies [1]. Over the last few decades a multimodal treatment approach has improved
dramatically the prognosis for children with localized Ewing sarcomas (EWS) and
rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) (65–70% event–free survival rate) [2, 3]. Though EWS and RMS are
considered radiosensitive, the proportion of patients whose primary tumors are treated with
external–beam radiotherapy (EBRT) alone has steadily declined over the past 30 years [4].
Increased awareness of the late effects of radiotherapy (particularly second malignancies and growth
disturbances) and advances in imaging and orthopedic surgery has increased the use of surgical
management for these tumors [5]. Due to the fact that complete resection is often difficult or morbid
to perform, adjuvant EBRT still plays an important role in local control (LC) promotion [2, 3]. The
challenge of achieving LC with a suitable therapeutic ratio is especially demanding in the pediatric
population and results in a very narrow therapeutic window in which to balance benefits and late
effects. The known detrimental effects of irradiating large volumes with EBRT, impulsed limited
radiation therapy alternatives such us intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT) as an adapted
technical opportunity to be explored in innovative practice [6]. Several collaborative groups are
trying to determine the optimal radiation therapy dose and volume necessary to further

Radiation Therapy As A Treatment For Cancer
In 2007, it is predicted that almost 1.5 million people will be diagnosed with cancer in the United
States (Pickle et al., 2007). More than half of these cancer patients will undergo the use of radiation
as a means for treating cancer at some point during the course of their disease (Perez and Brady,
1998). Cancer, a disease caused by an uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells, affects millions of
people around the world. Radiotherapy is one of the well known various methods used to treat
cancer, where high powered rays are aimed directly at the tumor from the outside of the body as
external radiation or an instrument is surgically placed inside the body producing a result of internal
radiation. Radiation is delivered to the cancerous regions of the body to damage and destroy the
cells in that area, terminating the rapid growth and division of the cells. Radiation therapy has been
used by medicine as a treatment for cancer from the beginning of the twentieth century, with its
earliest beginnings coming from the discovery of x–rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen. With the
advancements in physics and computer programming, radiation had greatly evolved towards the end
of the twentieth century and made the radiation treatment more effective. Radiation therapy is a
curative treatment approach for cancer because it is successful in killing cancerous tumor cells and
stop them from regenerating.
Radiation therapy treats cancer by killing or slowing down the continuous growth of

Using Charged Particles For Cancer Treatment
About one in two people born today will be diagnosed with some form of cancer in their lifetime
(ref 1 cancer research uk). Almost two–thirds of all cancer patients receive some form of radiation
therapy during the course of treatment predominantly with external–beam photon therapy (ref 40).
Proton beam therapy (PBT) is a novel form of external beam radiotherapy technique that utilises
positively charged particles in cancer management (ref required). However, the idea of using
charged particles for cancer treatment is not new. Robert R. Wilson was a famous American phycist
who proposed that, heavy particles could be used to treat cancer (Wilson, 1946). Thereafter, in 1954,
the first cancer patient was treated using PBT at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in America and
at Uppsala in Sweden in 1957. To date, over 60 000 patients with different cancer have been treated
with PBT worldwide (ref 70).
In the UK, there currently no high–energy PBT facilities; but this is about to change because; the
UK government committed 250 million pound to develop two proton centre; one at UCLH and the
other at The Christie in Manchester (ref 301) following a report The National Radiotherapy
Advisory Group (NRAG) In 2007 (ref 300).
PRODUCTION OF PROTONS.
Proton beam for cancer treatment is commonly produced from hydrogen gas (Macdonald and
Fitzek, 2010). Separating protons from other components of a hydrogen atom and safe delivery is a
formidable challenge that requires advances in both

Radiation Therapy Research Paper
2.3.2 Respiratory Gating for Radiation Therapy
Respiratory gating techniques are used to track the tumor motion in uenced by respiratory cycles
during external beam radiation therapy in order to ensure tumoricidal dose to the target site while
avoiding healthy normal tissue toxicity Vedam et al. (2003); Kini et al.
(2003); Ford et al. (2003); Kubo et al. (2000); Vedam et al. (2001); Mageras et al. (2001);
Wagman et al. (2001); Mageras and Yorke (2004). The word gate is referred to as a window of the
respiratory cycle that is chosen to deliver the radiation beam that maximizes the radiation dose
received at the target site. The three criteria that are considered when designing the gated region of
the respiratory cycle are: The window during respiratory cycle
that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Two important components that are considered when analyzing respiratory motion patterns are
phase and displacement. The beam is red at the target site depending on the phase or displacement
windows chosen during the respiratory motion. Due to the gated technique, the overall treatment
process takes longer when compared to the conventional methods of administering radiation
therapy.
The ratio between the gated beam delivery and the overall treatment time determines the eciency
of the treatment called duty cycle. However, even after the gate has been optimized for a respiratory
cycle, there exists minimal tumor motion called the residual motion Berbeco et al. (2005). To
optimize the gateing technique that improves the therapeutic ecacy of radiation therapy and
provides patient safety, a balance between the two (duty cycle and residual motion) needs to be met.
The location and the size of the gate are dependent on the tracking of the target site or host organ by
means of internal and external surrogates, internal and external markers or markerless

Screening Test For Prostate Cancer Essay
Introduction:
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in New Zealand and third most common cause of cancer
death in the male population.
Serum prostate–specific antigen (PSA) level is generally used as a screening test for asymptomatic
patients. Patients with elevated serum PSA level and/or abnormal digital rectal examination undergo
Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) guided biopsy to detect early prostatic carcinoma. The histological
grade of the cancer usually assessed using the Gleason grading system is currently the world's best
grading histological system for prostate cancer.
It gives information about the invasiveness and metastatic potential. Therefore, the Gleason score is
accepted as an important factor in therapeutic decision making for prostate cancer.The primary
Gleason grading and Gleason score of the final surgical specimen has been proven a reliable
predictor of survival in patients with prostate cancer. However the correlation between the Gleason
score on Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) –guided biopsy and the Gleason score on the prostatectomy
specimen has been shown to be inaccurate in many series
Because the GS in the RP specimen is a more accurate predictor of prognosis, the concern is that the
discordance between the biopsy GS and the RP specimen GS may affect management and overall
survival of patients. This is potentially important for patients resorting to treatments such as external
beam radiation, brachytherapy, and cryotherapy, where there is no post

Symptoms And Treatment Of Cystic Retrochiasmatic...
Abstract:
Cystic retrochiasmatic craniopharyngiomas may reach enormous size by expanding into the
posterior fossa along the retroclival area, which is very unusual finding. A 5–year–old boy presented
with headache for 2 month. On the neurological examination, it was normal. Initial magnetic
resonance (MR) images revealed a huge, thin–capsuled multi–cystic mass, which extended around
brain stem extending bilaterally along the base of the middle and posterior cranial fossa. Subtotal
excision of the cystic wall was done followed by applying of a catheter within the cyst attached to a
reservoir with a favorable outcome.
KEY WORDS: Endoscopic drainage, Cystic, Craniopharyngioma,
Introduction
Craniopharyngiomas usually emerge in the infundibulo–hypophyseal axis of the sella and
suprasellar region occupies the suprasellar cisterns, however may extend in any direction. The
horizontal extension of the tumor may be anteriorly into the pre–chiasmatic cistern and sub–frontal
space, may extend laterally into the sub–temporal space, or may extend posteriorly into the
prepontine and interpeduncular cisterns, cerebellopontine angle and then to the foramen magnum. 7
However, rarely extensive tumors may extend anteriorly in the pre–chiasmatic cistern and
posteriorly into the 3rd ventricle and down along the clivus. Approximately 4 % of the cases have
posterior fossa extension. 2,6
Case Report
A 5–year–old boy was admitted to our department with severe headache, which aggravated over 3

A Short Note On Prevention And Treatment Of Lung Cancer
Over the years, Lung Cancer, a very serious issue, has become more and more common through the
increasing amount of cigarette smokers. Many lung cancer treatments are starting to be questioned
by both patients and their families. One common treatment is Radiotherapy. Throughout this report,
the effectiveness and reliability of this treatment will be discussed and explained.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is a is a method of treating a particular disease, most commonly being a type of
cancer. To do this, different forms of radiation are used, such as X–rays, gamma rays, electron
beams or protons. Whichever form of radiation is used then forms a focused beam of energy and
sends it directly to the cancerous cells, while minimising exposure to ... Show more content on
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The most common lung cancer is non–small cell carcinoma which mainly affects cells which line
the airways. The symptoms of lung cancer can include the following. (Cancer Australia, 2015)
Coughing up blood – this is called Haemoptysis
A chest infection that won't go away
Chest pain and/or shoulder pain
Shortness of breath and wheezing
Weight loss or loss of appetite
There are many treatment options for lung cancer. Which is used depends on the stage of the
disease, how severe the symptoms are and the persons health. Most lung cancers can be treated
using surgery to remove the tumour from the lung. Radiotherapy mixed with chemotherapy is also
commonly used. (Cancer Research UK, 2014)
Explain the benefits of Science in Radiotherapy
Over the years, science has benefited patients who are undergoing radiotherapy largely. One of the
largest benefits is the fact that unlike chemotherapy; a systemic treatment that travels through the
body, radiotherapy is delivered to one particular location within the body. This then means that
damage to healthy cells can be avoided. For example, the radiation will be sent directly to the cancer
in the body, whereas chemotherapy tends to damage most healthy cells throughout the body, whilst
on the way to the cancer. If it wasn 't for science, people wouldn 't have the option to undergo
radiotherapy and they would have to live with the side

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