2) cytochrome C is a small protein that acts as a mobile electron ca.pdf

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2) cytochrome C is a small protein that acts as a mobile electron carrier in the respiratory chain. and Cytochrome Oxidase transfers electrons to oxygen. 3)In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation depends on the electrochemical gradient of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. 4) ADP phosphorylation is the mechanism that couples the synthesis of ATP with the membrane transport process that pumps protons. 5) Redox reactions are the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Solution 2) cytochrome C is a small protein that acts as a mobile electron carrier in the respiratory chain. and Cytochrome Oxidase transfers electrons to oxygen. 3)In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation depends on the electrochemical gradient of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. 4) ADP phosphorylation is the mechanism that couples the synthesis of ATP with the membrane transport process that pumps protons. 5) Redox reactions are the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another..

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A Remarkable Conflict Between Biochemical Dogma And Radical Concept : Traditional Concept : By the 1950s it had been clearly established that oxidative phosphorylation involved the stepwise transfer of electrons through a series of carriers to molecular oxygen. But how the energy derived from these electron transfer reactions was converted to ATP remained a mystery. The general assumption was that ADP was converted to ATP by direct transfer of high-energy phosphate groups from some other intermediate. Thus it was postulated that high-energy intermediates were produced as a result of electron transfer reactions and that these intermediates drove ATP synthesis by phosphate group transfer. Concept Proposed By Peter Mitchell : The fundamental proposal of the chemiosmotic hypothesis was that the “intermediate” that coupled electron transport to ATP synthesis was a proton electrochemical gradient across the membrane. Mitchell postulated that such a gradient was produced by electron transport and that the flow of protons back across the membrane in the energetically favorable direction was then coupled to ATP synthesis

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The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs. As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.

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What are non-tax costs of tax planning? Solution Followings are the main non-tax costs of tax planning; 1. Organizational form costs; Organizational form costs are also known as non-tax costs of tax planning. 2. Risk; Risk of the investment is closely associated with taxation hene it is known as non-tax costs of tax palnning. 3. Administrative costs; Legal, accounting, and data processing fees are known as administartive costs of tax planning. 4. Agency (incentive) costs; Agency (incentive) costs are also known as non-tax costs of tax palnning. 5. Financial reporting costs; Financial reporting costs are also non-tax costs of tax palnning. 6. Transaction costs; Transaction costs are also part of non-tax costs of tax palnning etc..

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The NADH and FADH2 formed in glycolysis, TCA cycle and fatty acid oxidation are energy-rich molecules because they contain a pair of electrons that have high transfer potential. ATP is generated as a result of the energy produced when electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to molecular oxygen by a series of electron carriers, collectively known as the electron transport chain (ETC). The electron transport chain is also called the Cytochrome oxidase system or as the Respiratory chain. The electron transport chains of bacteria (prokaryotes) operate in plasma membrane (mitochondria are absent in prokaryotes). In bacteria, the protons are transported from the cytoplasm of the bacterium across the cytoplasmic membrane to the periplasmic space located between the cytoplasmic membrane and the cell wall . NADH (NADH is the electron donor) to acceptors and moves protons (H+) across the plasma membrane similar to mitochondrial electron transport chain, it is quite different from the latter in its construction. E. coli transport chain is short, consists of two branches (cytochrome d branch and cytochrome o branch), and a quite different array of cytochromes (e.g., Cyt b558, Cytb562, Cyt d, Cyt o). Coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) carries electrons and donates them to both branches, but the branches operate under different growth conditions. The cytochrome d branch shows very high affinity for oxygen and operates at low oxygen levels (low aeration) usually when the bacterium is in stationary phase of growth. This branch is not as efficient as the cytochrome o branch because it does not actively pump protons to periplasmic space. The cytochrome o branch shows moderately high efficiency for oxygen and operates at high oxygen concentrations (high aeration). This branch operates normally when the bacterium is in log phase of its growth (i.e., growing rapidly), and actively pumps protons (H+) in the periplasmic space. COMPONENTS OF ETS OF BACTERIA ELECTRON DONOR Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, like NADH or succinate QUINONE CARRIERS Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. PROTON PUMPS Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). CYTOCHROME ELECTRON. CARRIERS COMPARISON BETWEEN BACTERIAL AND MITOCHONDRIAL ETS The electron transport chains of bacteria (prokaryotes) operate in plasma membrane. In eukaryotes it occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Uses different variety of electron acceptor substances, the bacterial electron transport chains are frequently very different. Bacterial electron transport chains vary in their electron carriers (e.g., in their cytochromes) and are usually extensively branched. Electrons often enter at several points and leave through several terminal oxidases. CONCLUSION Electron transport chains in bacteria are branched

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1) Mitochondria are known as power houses of cell. The mitochondria are the double membrane structure that can grow, fuse with one another and capable of dividing. During the replication of mitochondrial DNA the mitochondria become double in size. They are oval in structure with plain outer membrane and the inner membrane exhibits folding known as cristae. The inner membrane encloses mitochondrial matrix. The matrix contains the DNA and enzymes involved in citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle. The cristae lodge the enzymes required in the electron transport chain to carry out the process of oxidative phosphorylation. The energy is produced through a series of steps in which the electrons are transported and the protons are pumped out of the matrix into the inner space between the two membranes creating the electron potential gradient across the membranes. The protons flow back to the matrix through an enzyme complex known as ATP synthase that is found in cristae and utilizes the energy produced by the flow of protons to phosphorylate the ADP forming the ATP. 2) uncoupler or uncoupling protein (UCP) is a mitochondrial protein located in the inner membrane. These are involved in inhibition of the coupling between the electron transport and phosphorylation reactions. As a result, synthesis of ATP is inhibited without affecting the respiratory chain and ATP synthase (H+ -ATPase). 3) Under availability of oxygen the cell is more efficient in the energy. Under anaerobic conditions the process of glucose breakdown cannot proceed further after glycolysis. The glycolysis takes place in the cytosol producing 2 ATP molecules per each glucose molecule. In presence of oxygen or under aerobic conditions the process of glycolysis further proceeds for mitochondrial processing including the citric acid cycle and the electron transport system. This process supplies enough energy to produce 30 more ATP molecules comprising to the total yield of 32 ATP molecules per glucose molecule at the end of aerobic respiration. Thus, the ATP molecules produced are 2 by glycolysis 2 by citric acid cycle and 28 by oxidative phosphorylation. Hence, aerobic respiration is an energy efficient process than anaerobic respiration. Solution 1) Mitochondria are known as power houses of cell. The mitochondria are the double membrane structure that can grow, fuse with one another and capable of dividing. During the replication of mitochondrial DNA the mitochondria become double in size. They are oval in structure with plain outer membrane and the inner membrane exhibits folding known as cristae. The inner membrane encloses mitochondrial matrix. The matrix contains the DNA and enzymes involved in citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle. The cristae lodge the enzymes required in the electron transport chain to carry out the process of oxidative phosphorylation. The energy is produced through a series of steps in which the electrons are transported and the protons are pumped out of the matrix into .

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Properties of enantiomers?: Their NMR and IR spectra are identical. However, enantiomers behave differently in the presence of other chiral molecules or objects. For example, enantiomers do not migrate identically on chiral chromatographic media, such as quartz or standard media that have been chirally modified. The NMR spectra of enantiomers are affected differently by single-enantiomer chiral additives such as Eufod. Chiral compounds rotate plane polarized light. Each enantiomer will rotate the light in a different sense, clockwise or counterclockwise. Molecules that do this are said to be optically active. Characteristically, different enantiomers of chiral compounds often taste and smell differently and have different effects as drugs – see below. These effects reflect the chirality inherent in biological systems. One chiral \'object\' that interacts differently with the two enantiomers of a chiral compound is circularly polarised light: An enantiomer will absorb left- and right-circularly polarised light to differing degrees. This is the basis of circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Usually the difference in absorptivity is relatively small (parts per thousand). CD spectroscopy [12] is a powerful analytical technique for investigating the secondary structure of proteins and for determining the absolute configurations of chiral compounds, in particular, transition metal complexes. CD spectroscopy is replacing polarimetry as a method for characterising chiral compounds, although the latter is still popular with sugar chemists. Solution Properties of enantiomers?: Their NMR and IR spectra are identical. However, enantiomers behave differently in the presence of other chiral molecules or objects. For example, enantiomers do not migrate identically on chiral chromatographic media, such as quartz or standard media that have been chirally modified. The NMR spectra of enantiomers are affected differently by single-enantiomer chiral additives such as Eufod. Chiral compounds rotate plane polarized light. Each enantiomer will rotate the light in a different sense, clockwise or counterclockwise. Molecules that do this are said to be optically active. Characteristically, different enantiomers of chiral compounds often taste and smell differently and have different effects as drugs – see below. These effects reflect the chirality inherent in biological systems. One chiral \'object\' that interacts differently with the two enantiomers of a chiral compound is circularly polarised light: An enantiomer will absorb left- and right-circularly polarised light to differing degrees. This is the basis of circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Usually the difference in absorptivity is relatively small (parts per thousand). CD spectroscopy [12] is a powerful analytical technique for investigating the secondary structure of proteins and for determining the absolute configurations of chiral compounds, in particular, transition metal complexes. CD spectroscopy is re.

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Huntington\'s disease and other hereditary diseases impact people\'s lives, because they are transferred by defects or incorrect expressions of genetic material. The transfer of dominant and recessive genes has impacted people\'s mating decisions for millenia, which can have very strong impacts on people\'s lives. Solution Huntington\'s disease and other hereditary diseases impact people\'s lives, because they are transferred by defects or incorrect expressions of genetic material. The transfer of dominant and recessive genes has impacted people\'s mating decisions for millenia, which can have very strong impacts on people\'s lives..

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