CULTURE AND SOCIETY I DIVERSITY IN AFRICAN CULTURE African societies depict diversity in ethnicity, language, religion and social class. A. Ethnicity 1. Some nations are relatively homogenous 2. Some nations are highly diverse 3. Violence in Rwanda B. Language 1. Africa has over 2,000 distinct languages 2. Lingua Francas (Fig.) C. Religion – Video: New Gods 1. Christianity 2. Islam 3. Traditional religions D. Social Class 1. Pre-colonial times 2. Colonial period 3. After independence a. Urban social classes b. Rural vs Urban II COLONIALISM AND THE DIFFUSION OF NON-AFRICAN CULTURE A. European Languages B. Importing of Christianity C. Loss of respect for African values III CULTURAL COLLISION Africans vs Europeans IV MODERNIZATION AND CULTURAL CONFLICT A. Modernization and the aged in traditional African societies DYNAMICS OF POPULATION I INTRODUCTION The dynamics of population encompass: A. Population Distribution 1. Unevenness 2. Factors accounting for uneven distribution B. Population Growth 1. Rapid growth 2. Implications C. Population Mobility 1. Explanations for Africa’s high rates of mobility 2. Effects of mobility on source and destination areas 3. Increase in number of refugees II POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY A. Measures of population density · Crude or arithmetic density · Physiologic density · Agricultural density 1. Crude Population Density (Table) a. Small sized countries with: · High densities · Sparse population densities · Medium populations b. Large sized countries with: · High population densities · Sparse population densities · Medium populations densities 2. Physiologic Density – highest in arid and semi-arid lands B. Population Density/Distribution (Fig.) 1. Major zones of dense settlement 2. Zones of sparse population 3. The ecology of population density (factors accounting for variation) a. Precipitation b. Soil fertility c. Human activities Ex. - Kano, Nigeria Machakos District, Kenya d. Diseases, e.g., sleeping sickness e. Development disparities f. Political/military conflicts – produced refugees g. Official land policies · South Africa · Zimbabwe DYNAMICS OF POPULATION CHANGE I INTRODUCTION A. Population growth is a function of: 1. Natural increase (crude birth rate – crude death rate 2. Net migration (in-migration – out- migration) B. The rates of natural increase in Sub- Saharan Africa are high (Table) averaging 2.5% C. The rates of natural increase are high due to the fact that fertility is high while mortality levels have declined. 1. West Africa? East Africa? 2. Southern Africa? II FERTILITY LEVELS AND TRENDS A. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to maintain the highest total fertility rates in the world (Table) 1. East and West Africa have above 5.6.

1. CULTURE AND SOCIETY
I
DIVERSITY IN AFRICAN CULTURE
African societies depict diversity in
ethnicity, language, religion and social class.
A.
Ethnicity
1.
Some nations are relatively
homogenous
2.
Some nations are highly diverse
3.
Violence in Rwanda
B.
Language

2. 1.
Africa has over 2,000 distinct
languages
2.
Lingua Francas (Fig.)
C.
Religion – Video: New Gods
1.
Christianity
2.
Islam
3.
Traditional religions

3. D.
Social Class
1.
Pre-colonial times
2.
Colonial period
3.
After independence
a.
Urban social classes
b.
Rural vs Urban
II
COLONIALISM AND THE DIFFUSION
OF NON-AFRICAN CULTURE
A.

4. European Languages
B.
Importing of Christianity
C.
Loss of respect for African values
III
CULTURAL COLLISION
Africans vs Europeans
IV
MODERNIZATION AND CULTURAL
CONFLICT
A.
Modernization and the aged in
traditional African societies
DYNAMICS OF POPULATION
I
INTRODUCTION
The dynamics of population encompass:
A.

5. Population Distribution
1.
Unevenness
2.
Factors accounting for uneven
distribution
B.
Population Growth
1.
Rapid growth
2.
Implications
C.
Population Mobility
1.
Explanations for Africa’s high rates

6. of mobility
2.
Effects of mobility on source and
destination areas
3.
Increase in number of refugees
II
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND
DENSITY
A.
Measures of population density
· Crude or arithmetic density
· Physiologic density
· Agricultural density
1.
Crude Population Density (Table)

7. a.
Small sized countries with:
· High densities
· Sparse population densities
· Medium populations
b.
Large sized countries with:
· High population densities
· Sparse population densities
· Medium populations densities
2.
Physiologic Density – highest in arid
and semi-arid lands
B.
Population Density/Distribution (Fig.)

8. 1.
Major zones of dense settlement
2.
Zones of sparse population
3.
The ecology of population density
(factors accounting for variation)
a.
Precipitation
b.
Soil fertility
c.
Human activities

9. Ex. -
Kano, Nigeria
Machakos District, Kenya
d.
Diseases, e.g., sleeping sickness
e.
Development disparities
f.
Political/military conflicts –

10. produced refugees
g.
Official land policies
· South Africa
· Zimbabwe
DYNAMICS OF POPULATION CHANGE
I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Population growth is a function of:
1.
Natural increase (crude birth rate –
crude death rate
2.
Net migration (in-migration – out-

11. migration)
B.
The rates of natural increase in Sub-
Saharan Africa are high (Table)
averaging 2.5%
C.
The rates of natural increase are high
due to the fact that fertility is high
while mortality levels have declined.
1.
West Africa? East Africa?
2.

12. Southern Africa?
II
FERTILITY LEVELS AND TRENDS
A.
Sub-Saharan Africa continues to
maintain the highest total fertility rates
in the world (Table)
1.
East and West Africa have above 5.6
average
2.
Several countries in Middle and
Southern Africa have below average

13. rates
B.
Causes of high fertility
1.
Social status – fertility is key to
survival and prosperity of a society
2.
Early marriage
3.
Economic benefits of children
(labor)

14. 4.
High infant and child mortality
5.
Polygamy
6.
Desire for sons
7.
Low prevalence of contraceptive
rates
8.
Ethnic rivalry
III
MORTALITY LEVELS
A.
Why have mortality levels is Sub-

15. Saharan Africa declined substantially?
B.
Regional variations in mortality
1.
Drought stricken Sahel states –
above Sub-Saharan average
2.
Countries with high AIDS cases –
high mortality rates
3.
Countries which have experienced

16. social unrest – civil war – have high
rates
C.
Infant Mortality
1.
Though it has declined in Sub-
Saharan Africa since the 1950s, the
average rate of 94 infant deaths per
1,000 remains high compared to the
average rate in more developed

17. countries of 10 per 1,000
2.
Causes of infant and child mortality
a.
Malnutrition
b.
Disease
c.
Poverty
IV
AFRICA AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC
TRANSITION
A.
The four stages of the Demographic

18. Transition
1.
Stage 1 – high stationary stage
2.
Stage 2 – high expanding stage
3.
Stage 3 – late expanding stage
4.
Stage 4 – low stationary stage
B.
Africa and the stages of the demographic
transition
V
AGE STRUCTURE
A.
African population is typically young,

19. between 40-50% of the population
consists of children aged 1-15 years,
while less than 5% of the population is
over 65 years of age (Table, Pyramid)
B.
Implications of broad based pyramid
1.
Burden of supporting a large
segment of youth
2.
Need for large subsidies for health

20. care and education
3.
Translates into increased fertility
VI
POPULATION GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
The social and economic development is
hampered by rapid population growth in the
following ways:
A.
Losses in GNP per capita
B.
Declining per capita food production –
factors contributing to food crisis
C.
Declining land quality

21. 1.
Deforestation
2.
Desertification
D.
Labor Surplus
E.
Education
F.
Inadequate health systems
G.
Urban crowding
H.
Water supplies
VII
COPING WITH POPULATION
PRESSURES
A.
What problems result from high

22. fertility?
B.
Responses to growing population
1.
Intensify production
2.
Migration
3.
Raise money through other means
VIII
MEASURES TO REDUCE BIRTH
RATES
A.
Creating a demand for smaller families.

23. How?
B.
Promoting family planning?
C.
Expanding family planning services
D.
Delaying marriage
IX
SUCCESS STORIES OF FAMILY
PLANNING
A.
Zimbabwe – successful in promoting
family planning during 1980s
B.
Zimbabwe’s CBR fell from 53 births
per 1,000 in 1970 to 30 in 2000

24. This transition to lower fertility has
been attributed to the country’s
commitment to family planning in
conjunction with:
1.
broad-based economic development
2.
enhanced opportunities for women
3.
improved health care

25. C.
As of 2000, 42% of Zimbabwean
women had adopted modern
contraception
D.
Other African countries are following
Zimbabwe’s footsteps
POPULATION AND MOBILITY
I
EXPLANATION OF AFRICAN
MOBILITY
A.
Migration and Culture

26. 1.
Pastoralists move between seasonal
pastures
2.
Seasonal movement of
agriculturalists to riverine sites
3.
Pilgrimage to Mecca (Fig.)
B.
Migration as a response to perceived
economic opportunities

27. 1.
Rural to urban migration
Push vs Pull factors
2.
Movement from less progressive to
more progressive regions
C.
Involuntary migrations
1.
Resettlement, e.g., modern

28. development irrigation schemes
which displace people (Table)
2.
Refugees
II
COLONIAL AND POST COLONIAL
LABOR MIGRATION
A.
The major foci of the migrants’ job
Search (Fig.)
1.
South Africa
2.

29. Central Africa
3.
East Africa
4.
West Africa
B.
Ghana Case Study
1.
Colonial period – seasonal migrants
were attracted to export crop zones in
southern Ghana and Ivory Coast.
2.

30. After independence, the decline of
Ghanian economy reduced the
country’s attractiveness for migrants.
3.
Implementation of the Aliens
Compliance Order of 1969.
4.
Migration of many Ghanians to
Nigeria after 1970s.

31. 5.
Nigerian government ordered aliens
without valid papers to leave in 1983
and again in 1985.
6.
As Ghana’s economy improved while
Nigeria became less attractive due to
economic stagnation and political
violence, flow of migrants from

32. Nigeria to Ghana started.
7.
Many Ghanians still choose to leave
for destinations in higher income
countries of Europe and America.
C.
20% of all physicians in the Canadian
province of Saskatchewan gained their
first medical degree in South Africa.
D.
South Africa, in turn, draws physicians
from its neighbors to the north.
III

33. THE BRAIN DRAIN
A.
Many African professionals are drawn
by the higher and more stable salaries
abroad. Why?
B.
Some professionals go abroad because
they perceive their opportunities at home
to be limited.
C.
Some studies suggest that the extent of
the brain drain has been minimized in
Africa. Why?

34. 1.
Intra-African migration implies that
some of the exodus of skilled
personnel is offset by qualified
people from other countries.
2.
Leaving relieves pressure on the job
market because the job market is
saturated.
IV

35. REFUGEES
A.
Africa and S.W. Asia have generated
largest number of refugees worldwide.
B.
In 2000, there were 3.3 million refugees
in Africa South of the Sahara.
C.
The principal source areas of refugees in
2000 were eastern and central Africa
(Fig.). Why?
V
THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
A.
Young adult males have been

36. predominant in African labor migration.
Implication.
B.
How do urban areas benefit from in-
migration?
1.
Ready supply of labor
C.
How do urban areas suffer from in-
migration when rapid urbanization
occurs?
D.

37. How do rural areas benefit from out-
migration?
1.
Reduced population pressure
2.
Cash remittances
E.
How do rural areas suffer from out-
migration?
1.
Loss of labor, hence, reduction in
productivity

38. DEFORESTATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
I
DEFINITION AND ISSUES
A. Definition
B. Why should we be concerned with deforestation?
II
DEFORESTATION TRENDS
A. West African region recorded highest rates worldwide
(Table)
B. Coastal West Africa has experienced the most drastic loss
(Table)
C. Rates for Rwanda in 1990-2000 (3.9%)
D. Ghana and Nigeria have less than 15%
of original forest left (Table)
E.
Liberia
F.
Congolian Belt has lowest rate of forest loss. Why?
G.

39. Southern Africa
H.
Eastern Africa
III
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
A. Agriculture
1. Bush fallow
2. Arable land is scarce in some regions (Table)
3. Plantation agriculture – cocoa, coffee, tea, rubber
B. Logging
C. Fuel Wood Consumption
D. Other Activities
IV
EFFECTS OF FOREST LOSS
A. Loss of biological diversity
Examples:
1. Mountain gorillas of Rwanda and Burundi
2. Lemur population in Madagascar
3. Sclater’s guenon (rare monkey) in southern Nigeria

40. 4. Pygmy people in Congo
B. Loss of species diversity has affected:
1.
pharmaceuticals
2.
religious symbols
3.
cultural symbols
C. Ecological effects (Fig.)
1. Accelerated erosion
2. Flooding
3. Watershed destruction
4. Alteration of local climates
D. Direct and indirect benefits of forests
to local inhabitants are destroyed.
1. Local incomes
2. Local diets
3. Wild life
4. Goods than can be substituted for manufactured goods, e.g.,
poles, wild honey
V
RESPONSE STRATEGIES TO
DEFORESTATION
A. Forest reservations and protected areas
(Table)

41. B. Forest plantations
C. Local forestry initiatives
VI
SAVING FORESTS OF AFRICA
A. Population control
B. Alternative energy use
C. Methods of food conservation and storage
D. Environmental education
E. Improvement in overall standard of living
DESERTIFICATION AND
I
INTRODUCTION
· United Nations Conference 1977
II
LOCATION OF THE SUDANO-SAHELIAN REGION (Fig. 1)
III
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMICBACKGROUND
A. Drought (Fig. 2)
B. Population (Table 1)
· National annual increase
· TFR
· Implications of rapid growth of

42. population (Fig. 3)
· Increase in urban populations (Table 2)
C. Increase in livestock numbers (Table 3)
IV
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
A. Natural factors
B. Man-made factors
1. Over cultivation due to pressures of
a.
Food production
b.
For monetary gains
2. Overgrazing – caused by
a.
Expansion of cultivation into

43. marginal lands
b.
Increase in livestock population
c.
Poverty
d.
Decrease in livestock mortality
3. Deforestation – caused by needs of
a.
Fuel wood
b.
Encroachment of farm settlements
onto forest lands
V
RATE OF DESERTIFICATION (Table 4)
Effects of desertification have been used to make assessments
regarding the rate.
VI
COMBATING DESERTIFICATION ANDREHABILITATING

44. DEGRADED LANDS
A. Reforestry and Revegetation
1.
Maggia Valley project in Niger
established by CARE International -
newer species employed
2.
Kenya’s greenbelt movement
3.
Acacia Albida species – Chad, Senegal
and Chad
B.
Soil conservation and soil fertility
improvement
1.
Strip cropping
2.
Animal manure
3.

45. Nitrogen fertilizers
C. Water conservation methods
1. Water retention dams
2. Water catchments
3. Terraces
4. Rainwater collection
VII
PROPOSALS
A. Population control – provide health and family planning
services to affected people, improve status of women
B. Explore alternative energy sources, e.g., biogas
C. Encourage grassroots efforts, especially those done by
women groups
D. Improve overall standard of living, i.e., general development
E. Environmental education
DESERTIFICATION AND
I
INTRODUCTION
· United Nations Conference 1977
II
LOCATION OF THE SUDANO-SAHELIAN REGION (Fig. 1)
III
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMICBACKGROUND

46. D. Drought (Fig. 2)
E. Population (Table 1)
· National annual increase
· TFR
· Implications of rapid growth of
population (Fig. 3)
· Increase in urban populations (Table 2)
F. Increase in livestock numbers (Table 3)
IV
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
D. Natural factors
E. Man-made factors
4. Over cultivation due to pressures of
a.
Food production
b.
For monetary gains
5. Overgrazing – caused by

47. a.
Expansion of cultivation into
marginal lands
b.
Increase in livestock population
c.
Poverty
d.
Decrease in livestock mortality
6. Deforestation – caused by needs of
a.
Fuel wood

48. b.
Encroachment of farm settlements
onto forest lands
V
RATE OF DESERTIFICATION (Table 4)
Effects of desertification have been used to make assessments
regarding the rate.
VI
COMBATING DESERTIFICATION ANDREHABILITATING
DEGRADED LANDS
B. Reforestry and Revegetation
1.
Maggia Valley project in Niger
established by CARE International -
newer species employed
2.
Kenya’s greenbelt movement
3.
Acacia Albida species – Chad, Senegal
and Chad
B.
Soil conservation and soil fertility
improvement

49. 1.
Strip cropping
2.
Animal manure
3.
Nitrogen fertilizers
F. Water conservation methods
5. Water retention dams
6. Water catchments
7. Terraces
8. Rainwater collection
VII
PROPOSALS
F. Population control – provide health and family planning
services to affected people, improve status of women
G. Explore alternative energy sources, e.g., biogas
H. Encourage grassroots efforts, especially those done by
women groups
I. Improve overall standard of living, i.e., general development

50. J. Environmental education
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
I
RELIEF FEATURES (Map)
A. Low Africa
B. High Africa
II
PLATE TECTONICS AND THE
FORMATION OF AFRICA
A. Break up on Pangaea (Fig.)
B. Stages in the break up of Pangaea
III
TECTONIC LANDFORMS
A. Folded Mountains
B. Faulting – produced Rift Valleys
Ex. East African Rift System
C. Volcanism
1. Volcanism is associated with the
Rift System.
2. Some volcanoes are related to
hot spots.

51. 3. Benefits of volcanic activity
IV
COASTLINE
Africa’s coastline is:
A. Nearly smooth
B. Most harbors are artificial
C. Africa’s coasts are exposed to erosion
V
RIVERS
A. 5 Major Rivers (Map)
B. Africa’s rivers have limited navigation.
Reasons?
C. HEP potential of Africa’s rivers, especially Congo
CLIMATE
I
FACTORS AFFECTING AFRICAN
CLIMATES
A. Atmospheric Circulations and
Seasonality

52. 1. January – sun overhead in
Southern Hemisphere – ITCZ
shifts to the South
2. July – sun overhead in Northern Hemisphere – ITCZ shifts to
the North
B. Latitudinal Effect – solar energy received decreases pole
ward
C. Altitude – temperature decreases with altitude
D. Ocean currents, e.g., cold Benguela
Current causes low precipitation
E. Cloud cover determines daily temperature fluctuations. Ex.
Deserts, equatorial regions
F. Maritime vs Continentality – moderates temperatures
II
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATIONS
A. Equatorial climates
B. Tropical wet and dry climates
C. Tropical steppe
D. Desert climates
E. Mediterranean climates
III
CLIMATE CHANGE

53. A. The presence of tillites – rocks made
from till laid down by glaciers shows
past climate change
B. Quaternary climate change on the Saharan margins (Fig.)
1. 18,000 B.P. – desert expanded south
2. 9,000 B.P. – desert margin was 1,000 km north of present
position
3. 5,000 B.P. – Saharan began to dry up
4. 2,000 B.P. – Saharan had become the desert it is today
VIDEO: SAHARA BEFORE DESERT
C. Short term fluctuations (Fig.)
1. Climatologists note difference between 1931-1960 and 1961-
1990 rainfall patterns in the Sahara.
2. Extreme temperature and dust storms (Fig.)
3. Crop failure and hunger resulted
IV
VEGETATION
A. Factors affecting vegetation distribution
1. Climate
2. Elevation

54. 3. Drainage
4. Geology and Soils
5. Human Activities
B. Vegetation Patterns
1. Tropical Rainforest
a.
Location
b.
Characteristics
c.
Human Interference
2. Tropical Savanna
a.
Location
b.
Characteristics
c.
Utilization

55. d.
Problems
3. Steppe
a. Location
b. Characteristics
c. Problems
4. Desert Vegetation
a. Location
b. Characteristics
5. Mountain Vegetation
V
FAUNA
A. Mammals
1. Distribution
2. Elimination
3. Measures to protect animals and side effects