Advantages And Disadvantages Of Transfersomes

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Transfersomes
The name is derived from the Latin word "transferre" which means "to carry across" and the Greek
word "soma" means "body" means "carrying body". Transfersomes, a novel class of modified
liposomes, was first reported by Cevc [Cevc et al; 1992] and are described as deformable, elastic or
ultra–flexible liposomes or vesicles [Benson; 2006]. They are claimed to improve in vitro
transdermal delivery of a variety of drugs. The deformability possessed by transfersomes is the
outcome of incorporation of an edge activator within the phospholipid bilayers and this improves
elasticity by means of lipid bilayer destabilization [Dubey et al; 2007]. Commonly used edge
activators are single chain surfactants such as sodium cholate and Tween 80. It is well known that
barrier of stratum corneum prevent hydrophilic and large molecular drugs through skin but
transfersomes are able to squeeze through conduits one–tenth the diameter of the vesicles, allowing
them to spontaneous penetrate the stratum corneum [Cevc et al; 1996] Moreover, Cevc et ... Show
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Antigen entrapped in transferosomes induce more strong immune response as compared to those
entrapped in liposomes and present in antigenic solution alone [Li et al; 2011].The usefulness of
transfersomes for peptides and proteins has been expansively investigated [Mishra et al; 2006].
Mishra et al.
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Coma Membrane: Lipid Rafts
Lipid rafts are defined as the subdomains of the plasma membrane that exist as distinct liquid–
ordered regions of the membrane [1]. These membrane domains preferentially arise due to the
interaction of specific lipids. They are mobile, dynamic and insoluble in non–ionic detergents such
as Triton X–100 [2]. Lipid rafts are enriched in cholesterol, sphingolipids and phospholipids within
cell membranes (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Organization of lipid rafts (Note the higher concentration of cholesterol and sphingolipids)
within the raft region. (Image: WikiBooks Structural Biochemistry/Lipids/Lipid Rafts).
Sphingomyelin (SM) (also called ceramide phosphocholine), a type of sphingolipid, is a ubiquitous
component of the animal membrane [3].The major sources of sphingomyelin are the bovine brain,
egg yolk and milk [4]. It is, being analogous of phosphatidylcholine, typically consists of a ceramide
unit with a phosphocholine moiety attached to position 1. A typical example of sphingomyelin is a
d18:1/16:0 molecular species: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These lipid rafts have been proposed to serve many functions in cell signalling, membrane
trafficking and signal transduction [7]. There are some special types of proteins (e.g.,
transmembrane proteins and GPI–anchored proteins) that can anchor on the nanodomains to play an
important role in transporting chemicals through the membrane [8]. Sphingomyelin rich rafts act as
hotspots or platforms to enable transmembrane proteins to aggregate so that they can promote cell
signalling events

5 Major Compounds That Make Up the Human Body
The Five Major Compounds That Make Up the Human Body
The human body is one of the most complex and fascinating things on this planet. There are five
major groups of compounds that compose the human body. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
nucleotides, and water. These compounds are all very important to humans and without them
humans would not be able to survive. Compounds have many functions that encourage a human cell
and a human body to function.
Compounds are pure substances made up of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined
together in fixed ratios determined by mass. When a compound is formed from its components, a
chemical change takes place through chemical reactions. Elements form compounds to ... Show
The lipid molecules are most well known as forming basic structures of cell membranes and as
energy storage molecules as well. There are various types of lipids, three main types include: true
fats (triglycerides), phospholipids, and steroids.
Lipids are also described as fatty acids. Fatty acids are merely carboxylic acids with long
hydrocarbon chains. The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological
lipids, and is commonly used as a building block of more structurally complex lipids. Fats that
include these molecules are unsaturated fats. Other fatty acids have no double bonds. Fats that
include these fatty acids are saturated fats. In most human health situations, the consumption of
unsaturated fats is preferred to the consumption of saturated fats. Like carbohydrates, lipids can also
be categorized into simple and complex.
Simple lipids are defined as those that are on hydrolysis yield at most two types of primary product
per mole; complex lipids yield three or more primary hydrolysis products per mole. Hydrolysis is a
"chemical process in which a certain molecule is split into two parts by the addition of a molecule of
water". Alternatively, the terms "neutral" and "polar" lipids respectively are used to define these
groups, but are less exact. The complex lipids for many purposes are best considered in terms of
either the glycerophospholipids which contains a

Cell Membranes Of Proteins And Proteins Essay
Chapter One – Introduction
Cell membranes of eukaryotes are complex in structure, comprised of a highly regulated
heterologous distribution of lipids and proteins (Hanada, 2010). This distribution is determined to
some extent by the location and topology of lipid synthases, and results from the trafficking of
proteins and lipids (Hanada, 2010). Within the cell, transport vesicles and tubules mediate
trafficking by loading desired sets of proteins at one organelle and delivering them to the next
(Hanada, 2010; Kumagai et al., 2005). Lipid influx routes such as the endocytosis of membrane
lipids add further to the diversity (Hanada, 2010). The result is an asymmetric distribution of protein
and lipid types across the membrane phospholipid bilayer (Hanada, 2010).
Ceramides are an example of a family of cellular lipids found in the cell membrane (Yasuda et al.,
2001). Ceramides are synthesised at the endoplasmic reticulum from precursor compounds and are
transported to the Golgi apparatus for conversion into one of several sphingolipids (Yasuda et al.,
2001). The transport of such compounds is highly selective if not specific (Kumagai et al., 2005;
Yasuda et al., 2001). Inhibiting transport is a useful tool in investigating the role of substrates
(Yasuda et al., 2001) and makes an attractive target for biochemical manipulation of the cell (Ueno
et al., 2001).
Intracellular trafficking of ceramides is highly regulated. Two ceramide transport pathways have
been identified

Lipid Simulation
Firstly the shortcut simulation of BTX separation was conducted. The first shortcut column that
receives the feed is representative of the prefractionator, which is the left side of the dividing wall.
Therefore this first column is meant to do sloppy splits of the feed. In this case, the prefractionator is
expected to do a sharp split of Benzene and p–Xylene and a sloppy split of Toluene. For the
prefractionator (SRCT–1), the heavy key will be p–Xylene and light key will be Benzene. This is
because Benzene is the lightest component that is to be removed from the top of the column and p–
Xylene is the heaviest component that is to be removed from the bottom. Since a sloppy split of
Toluene is done, it is divided to the top and bottom of the shortcut ... Show more content on
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In this column, the main separation occurs between the heavy and middle components. Therefore,
p–Xylene is the heavy key and Toluene is the light key. Since the required purity of p–Xylene in the
bottoms is 92%, the remaining 8% must be made of Toluene. Therefore the mole fraction of light
key in the bottoms is specified to be 0.08. Since Toluene is meant to have 9% impurity and 4.5% is
already accounted by Benzene from the top part of the column, the mole fraction of p–Xylene in the
top can be estimated to be 0.045. This is done under the assumption that the molar flow rates of both
middle streams are the same. When SRCT2–Bottoms stream and SRCT3–Distillate stream is mixed
using a mixing unit, it showed the mole fraction of Toluene to be 0.9098. To make the shortcut
simulation to reach the specification, the light key in the SRCT–2 column and heavy key in the
SRCT–3 column was adjusted. After several trail and errors a mole fraction of 0.0505 for Benzene
in SRCT–2 and 0.0402 for p–Xylene in SRCT–3 column gave a mole fraction of 0.91 for toluene in
the side stream. The number of stages calculated by the SRCT–3 column was 29 and the optimal
feed stage was 18. The conditions at which SRCT3–Distillate and SRCT3–Bottoms are produced
can be seen on table 6. Figure 36 shows the SRCT–3 shortcut column. When SRCT2–Bottoms and
SRCT3–Distillate

Role Of The Egf Receptor On Lipid
The Role of the EGF Receptor LET–23 on Lipid Biosynthesis in Caenorhabditis elegans
N. R. Contos
Thesis Abstract
The Caenorhabditis elegans LET–23, which is an Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) receptor, controls
multiple developmental pathways. In humans, EGF receptor mutations are implicated in a large
number of cancers due to excess signaling promoting cell growth and cell division. Recent work has
shown that in C. elegans LET–23 may also affect lipid production, specifically that of the
phospholipid phosphatidylcholine. To investigate the role of the LET–23 receptor on lipid
production, I have examined the cellular location of a fluorescent–tagged SBP–1 marker under
different conditions within the worm and from these inferred levels of lipid production. I will
discuss my results and their impact on our understanding of EGF signaling and lipid biosynthesis.
Thesis Intro: As a whole the world is becoming more aware of how fats affect the body. Not only are
lipids a key element in cell membranes, they also lead to many issues regarding health. Obesity is an
ever–increasing risk factor for many diseases including type II diabetes, cardiac disease, and some
forms of cancer (Kopelman 2000). As obesity transitions from little known problem into a full–
blown global epidemic, it is important to understand how lipids are synthesized and regulated within
the body. Lipid synthesis pathways involve a complex interaction between the endocrine system,
tissues, nutrient storage and

Essay On Lipid Based Carry System
As of late, a lot of intrigue has been focussed on lipid based carries systems. The most prevalent
approach is the fuse of the active poorly water dissolvable part into inert lipid vehicles, for example,
oils, surfactant dispersions, solid dispersions, solid lipid nanoparticles, emulsions, micro emulsions,
Nano emulsions, self–emulsifying plans (SEF), micro/nanoemulsifying formulations, and
liposomes.
The essential component of activity by which a lipid formulation prompts enhanced bioavailability
is typically avoidance of a slow dissolution process which constrains the bioavailability of
hydrophobic drugs from solid dose frames (Shweta Gupta, 2013). Ideally the plan enables the drug
to stay in a dissolved state all through its travel in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Regardless of the extensive potential that these lipid excipients offer, not very many lipids based
Formulations have achieved the pharmaceutical commercial place. This might be because of the
inadequate data with respect to the generally complex physical science of lipids and worries about
figured drugs substance and physical stability. In addition to these concerns, the interaction of a
lipid–based formulation with the GI condition and its effect on drug absorption is also important.
For example, edible lipids have been appeared to be extensively more productive enhancers of
poorly soluble drug ingestion, as compared to nondigestible lipids (e.g., liquid paraffin).
Unsaturated fat chain length of the lipid likewise impacts drug absorption. Both long and medium
chain triglyceride oils with various degrees of saturation have been utilized for the design of self–
emulsifying formulations.
2. Surfactants: The self–emulsifying properties require the incorporation of moderately a lot of
surfactant in the formulation notwithstanding the oily drug carrier vehicle. The surfactants may
improve the affinity between lipids and intestinal membrane or increase the permeability of the
intestinal membrane (Gershanik T, 2000). Surfactants increment the

Taking a Look at Surfactant Protein-D
Surfactant protein–D (SP–D) is a C–type lectin which is synthesized in various parts of the body.
SP–D plays a key role in the auto immune disorders, lung infections and also helpful in the postnatal
pregnancy. This also plays an active role in the host–defense mechanisms. In the host defense
mechanism SP–D binds with various micro–organisms and other particles that enter the human body
and act against them. In our present study we targeted on the interactions of surfactant protein –D
with the lipid molecules where their interaction plays an important role in the defense mechanism.
In our study lipid molecules were docked against the SP–D protein and interaction studies were
carried–out. Mutations were generated at sites F335G and R343V and interactions of the lipids with
the mutated protein molecules were studied. Among the wild and the mutant protein molecules,
mutant protein F335G showed highest interaction with the lipid molecule
distearoylphosphatidylcholine with cDocker energy of 94.726. These studied showed that mutant
molecules are showing highest binding with the lipid molecules when compared to the wild protein
molecule. Among all ligand molecules chosen, distearoylphosphatidylcholine showed highest
interaction followed by dilaurylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine with
tocopherol showing the least binding affinity with both wild and the mutant protein molecules.
Key words: Surfactant protein –D (SP–D), Host–Defense mechanism, Auto immune

Fats and Lipids: What Is the Difference? Essay
1. Lipids
A lipid is a group of naturally occurring molecules. That group includes fats, waxes, steroids, fat–
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) phospholipids, etc. They are broadly defined as hydrophobic or
amphiphilic small molecules. The amphiphilic molecules form structures such as vesicles,
liposomes, and membranes in an aqueous environment.They are insoluble in water, yet soluble in
alcohol. (Human Biology)
Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but they have far less oxygen than carbohydrates. They
have high melting points. (Human Biology) The saturated acids have a higher melting point than
unsaturated acids. Lipids can be extracted from plants and animals using solvents such as ether,
chloroform and acetone. (Chemistry: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If a person doesn't get enough of these unsaturated fats, they can see problems such as skin
problems or a delay of growth. These types of lipids are typically seen in foods such as canola oil,
fatty fish, and soybean oil. (Diet for a Small Planet)
Saturated fats, however, can put your body at a risk of bad cholesterol, heart problems, and many
other harmful health risks. They usually come from foods from animals, such as meat, milk, and
butter. Those foods tend to have a high concentration of saturated fats.
There is a fat type that is worse than saturated fats. They are trans–fats. These types of lipids can
actually hurt the function of the membrane receptors that help the body clean out cholesterol from
the blood. These kinds of fats occur when unsaturated oils are hydrogenated. (Diet for a Small
Planet)
3. The difference between fats and lipids
"Although all fats are lipids, not all lipids are fats." Fats are only one type of lipid. Lipids include a
wide variety of different molecules. A "lipid" is a general name that is assigned to a group of fat
soluble compounds found in the tissues of plants and animals. They compose the building blocks of
structure and function of living cells. (Combining Forms)
Fats have become synonymous with lipids, but really, they are just a sub–group of lipids. They are
known as triglycerides. Fats are the fatty acid esters of glycerol and are the primary energy base of
animals. The energy bases are used for storing energy

Microalgae Lipid Case Study
Microalgae lipid production combined with HM removal is a cost–effective and environment–
friendly method for microalgae biofuel production and hazardous waste treatment. Chlorella
minutissima UTEX 2341 had strong resistance to Cd, Cu, Mn, and Zn ions under heterotrophic
culture conditions and could efficiently remove them through intracellular accumulation and
extracellular immobilization. Meanwhile, lipid accumulation was not inhibited by heavy metals.
Instead, the algae lipid content significantly increased by 21% and 94%, respectively with the
addition of cadmium and copper. Furthermore, the heavy metal residue in lipid was within μg range
and satisfied the commercial standard. This artificial wastewater–algae biofuel–heavy–metal ...
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Arsenic [As(V)] was reported to improve the growth of cyanobacterium Nostoc minutum and
microalgae Chlorella salina and Chlorella sp. (Miazek et al., 2015). Mahdavi et al. (2012) reported
that the removal of Ni, Cu, As, Sr, Mo and Ba by Parachlorella kessleri, from Syncrude tailings
pond water was significantly enhanced by high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, whereas
the high nutrient concentrations adversely affected the removal of Co, Ni, As, Sr and Mo in samples
of Albian tailings pond water. In order to make it more suitable for biosorption process, algae waste
obtained after oil extraction, have been activated by alkaline treatment and used for cadmium(II)
removal in batch and column systems. For batch systems, the effect of initial cadmium(II)
concentration and contact time was studied in optimal experimental conditions (pH of 5.0, 8 g
biomass L–1). Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo–second order kinetics model describe the
experimental data well. For column studies, the alkaline treated algae waste biomass was mixed
with an industrial ion exchanger resin (Purolite A–100) in order to prevent the clogging of column.
Bohart–Adams, Thomas and Yoon–Nelson models were used to fit breakthrough curves obtained
under varying conditions. Five biosorption/desorption cycles have yielded between 98.83 and
92.39% biosorbent regeneration. The biosorbent could efficient remove cadmium (II) from
industrial wastewater, and obtained effluent has

The Lipid Bilayer And Membrane
The Lipid Bilayer is a membrane that contains protein. The lipid bilayer is a part of all cell
membrane. The structural parts provide support that marks the boundaries of the cells. It is called a
lipid bilayer because it has two layers of fat cells put in order on two sheets. Lipid Bilayer
(Phospholipid bilayer)
Assessments and Measures The Lipid Bilayer is simply a thin polar membrane made of two layers
of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that surround the cells as a barrier. Lipid bilayer
cause viruses, and living organism in the cell membranes. There also membranes that form cell
nucleus and any sub– cellular structures. The lipid bilayer keeps ions, proteins and other molecules
where they need to be. Lipid bilayer are usely waterproof towards ions which also allow cells to
keep salt in check. Amphiphilic phospholipids are usually composed in biological bilayers.
Phospholipid that have certain head groups that can change the chemistry of the bilayer. Also, just
like the head the tails of lipids can be affected by the membranes properties. At lower temperatures,
solid gel can adopt by the bilayer and transferred to a fluid state. The mechanical properties can be
affected by the way the lipid bilayer was packaged.
Biological membranes have typically many types of molecules other than the phospholipids. An
example of the animal's cholesterol with also helps strengthen the bilayer. Cholesterol also helps
control the activity of membrane proteins, because

Effluents from many food processing industries,...
Effluents from many food processing industries, slaughterhouses, edible oil processing industries,
and dairy product industries contain high lipid. These lipid–rich wastes content lipids as a main
ingredient and causes problems during the anaerobic treatment of waste. One of the operational
problems associated with lipid is clogging. Besides clogging, it also causes the mass transfer
limitation forming a layer on the surface of granules by absorbtion. Due to adhesion of fat, biomass
wash out is another problem in anaerobic reactors treating any lipid–based wastewater (Cirne et al.,
2007). All these operational problems restrain the efficiency of anaerobic reactors. To overcome
these operational problems, generally the lipid content in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Liquefaction of lipid was indicated as the process–controlling factor due to their low bioavailability
in the presence of high amounts of suspended solids (Petruy and Lettinga, 1998; Sayed, 1988).
LCFA exert an acute inhibitory effect on acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens,
acetogens, and to the β–oxidation itself (Kim et al., 2004; Lalman and Bagley 2000, 2001, 2002;
Templer et al., 2006). Moreover, LCFA degrading bacteria have a very slow growth rate (Mackie et
al., 1991). As a consequence, during anaerobic digestion of lipid–rich wastes, accumulation of
LCFA is most likely phenomenon and subsequently, inhibition of the biomethanation occurs. Oleic
acid is the major LCFA in various kinds of industrial and domestic lipid–rich wastewaters (Pereira et
al., 2002). It was also reported as the most toxic LCFA (Cirne et al., 2007). Adsorption of LCFA to
the cell wall (Koster and Cramer, 1987), and binding of LCFA to cell membranes, changing their
surface property with interference in transport functions (Hook et al., 2010), have been suggested as
potential mechanisms underlying inhibition by LCFA. Nevertheless, Pereira et al. (2004, 2005)
observed mineralization of biomass–associated LCFA up to 5 g COD–LCFA g–1 volatile solids, and
concluded that LCFA inhibition is reversible which is primarily caused by physical transport

Lipids Lab Report
The purpose of this experiment is to isolate and identify the different lipids within and rat adipose
and calf brain tissue. Lipids are biochemical molecules that alter the structural and functional
properties of cells. Lipids such as cholesterol can affect membrane fluidity and be precursors for
hormone and vitamins synthesis. Lipids such as Fatty acids (FA) and triacylglycerol (TAG) can act
as energy storage molecules whereas phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine (PTC) can also
participate in signal cascade to modify gene expression by protein kinase phosphorylation. Hence
the occurrences of a lipid in a tissue can be indicative of its unique role. The accumulation of the
phospholipid sphingomyelin (SM) in tissues such as spleen, liver brain ... Show more content on
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For example FA such as oleic acid (OA) are completely nonpolar whereas glycerophospholipids
such as PTC are polar due to the presence of the phosphate and choline molecules. These innate
differences in polarity means that lipids have different solubility in polar and non–polar solvents.
This property of the lipids was exploited in order to strategically isolate them by the method of
solvent fractionation. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) technique was used to identify the types of
lipids found in the adipose and brain tissue. These differential polarities in lipids enable partitioning
in the stationary and mobile phases of the TLC. The extracted lipids will be compared against
known lipid standards by using the Rf–value which is ratio of the distance migrated by a lipid to the
solvent front. One silica plate will be immersed in solvent A to reveal the polar and nonpolar lipid
constituents in the fractions. Since the solvent A has a weak polar and strong nonpolar composition,
therefore all the nonpolar lipid will travelled closer to the solvent front and have an Rf–value closer
to 1, while the polar SM and PTC will have an intermediate Rf–value. The other silica plate will be
immersed in a highly nonpolar solvent B to further improve the partitioning resolution between
nonpolar lipids such as triacylglycerol and fatty acids. Therefore the most nonpolar lipids will have
an Rf–value closer to

The Lab Must Stay Clean And Sterile
Laboratories across the United States have many different ways of operating in order to collect
sufficient and precise data and make adequate conclusions. In order for a laboratory to run smoothly
and collect good data, the lab must stay clean and sterile. Through Dr. Williams section of LB 133,
Introduction to History, Philosophy and Sociology of Science, I had the opportunity to complete a
two hour non–participant, unstructured, naturalistic observation at the MSU–DOE Plant Research
Laboratory. After extensive research of multiple laboratories hosting studies on Michigan State
University campus, the laboratory I chose was Dr. Christoph Benning's plant lipid research
laboratory study. Benning's lab had a strong tie to the STS concept of good data.
Shortly after emailing him about observing the lab, he connected me with a graduate student name
Anastasiya. With her help, I was able to take a tour of the plant laboratory; and observe her conduct
parts of the laboratory work, as well as collect data. When I observed this lab, I did not participate at
all and did not affect the results in any way. In order to gain information, I used techniques such as
note taking, asking extensive questions, and drawing a sketch of the lab. In order to understand the
steps that were taking place, quickly I realized, that extensive note taking on everything that I could
see, smell, hear, and touch, was an adequate way to gain knowledge about the laboratory. I watched
Anastasiya

Essay on Lipids and Carbohydrates
Lipids and Carbohydrates
Lipids are a group of substances, which include fats, oils and waxes. Carbohydrates include sugars,
starches, glycogen and cellulose. They are stored in plants as starches and in animals as glycogen.
There are many differences between carbohydrates and lipids. For example lipids are insoluble in
water whereas carbohydrates are soluble in water. This is because lipids contain non – polar
hydrocarbon units whereas water contains polar hydrocarbon units. So when the two are mixed
together there is no attraction between particles so no breakdown is possible. But lipids care soluble
in non – polar solvents, e.g. alcohol. Carbohydrates have polar hydroxyl groups, so there ... Show
B. Using examples to illustrate your answer, describe the functions of lipids in organism.
Lipids are a useful energy source. They are also an energy store, since they are insoluble in water
and have a high energy content it makes them ideal for storage. This energy store is used make up
for heat, movement and energy lost by respiration. This energy store is also useful in plants (e.g.
sunflower) because it is needed for seed dispersion. Lipids can also be used as insulation. Fat
insulates the body because it conducts heat slowly. This type of energy store can be seen with polar
bears, for example. They have a thick layer of fat beneath their skin for insulation. Some mammals,
e.g. whales or penguins, don't have fur like polar bears do so they need extra insulation called
'blubber' because there is no fur there to trap air and to insulate further. The insulating feature of
lipids also protects internal organs. Lipids also store energy useful for hibernation. Phospholipids are
the major components in cell membranes; they are ideal for this due to their ability to be permeable
with some substances but impermeable to others. Oils and waxes prevent evaporation through the
skin or through the leaves of plants. Another important function of lipids is that

The Anatomy and Physiology of Lipids Essay
The Anatomy and Physiology of Lipids
Abstract
When you get up each morning and look outside your window looking out at the beautiful plants
and adorable little animals, have you ever wondered what makes all living things? Lipids are what
help create all the living things we see everyday. Lipids are found in all membranes, mainly plasma
membranes, meaning animals and plants contain lipids. In this paper I will display and explain the
formation of micelles and bi–layers from lipid amphiphilicity. A variety of books were used to study
different types of lipids; the three major components, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and
sterols, and their affects in the cellular and multicultural systems.
3
Lipids are structural ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1 David Hames and Nigel Hooper, Biochemistry (New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005) 132.
2 Hames and Hooper 132.
4
Ex. of glycerophospholipid
Structure of phosphatidylinositol
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v3/n8/images/ncb0801_e196_f1.gif Sphingolipids is another
sub–group of lipids that is similar to the glycerophospholipids.
However instead of the glycerol, it is replaced by a sphingosine backbone.4 These lipids are
commonly located within the myelin sheath which is found close to the nerve cells.5 This
component's responsibility within the neural tissue is to signal transmission and cell recognition.
Signal transmission detects any viral or harmful factors among the surface of the cell and physical
properties and cell recognition is interface with cells that rely on specific adhesion.6 This is very
essential for communication and function throughout living cells.
5 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a7/Sphingolipid.png The most common sterol that
primates encounter is cholesterol. Sterols are subunits that feel rigid due to its fused ring system.7
Cholesterol makes up part of the cell membranes for animals and affects the fluidity within the

membrane. It can also assist, as a subgroup, cellular communication by signaling messages. Within
the cell

Fatty Acid and Test Specific Objective
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
LIPIDS
I NUR 4
GROUP 9
POLICARPIO, JOHN PAUL (A & B)
QUERUBIN, KIMBERLY (C & D)
QUILALA, REGENE (E & F1)
RAMOS, PRACCEDES (F2a & F2b)
SABALDICCA, VENZ (F2c & F2d)
INTRODUCTION Lipids are organic compounds found in living organisms that are insoluble or
slightly soluble in water but soluble in non–polar organic solvents.
Lipids can be classified into four groups which are –fats, oils, and waxes, –compound lipids, –
steroids, and –derived lipids.
Various experiments are done on lipids. Some tests are for saturation, presence of certain
compounds, or for the different chemical reactions that lipids undergo.
Lipids may be composed of esters, amides, alcohols, cyclic, acyclic, or polycyclic ... Show more
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It is predominantly composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Many classes of lipids
also contain nitrogen and phosphorus. The relative amounts of these elements, as well as their
structural positions, determine the degree of solubility of the lipid in various solvents. Lipids with
high hydrocarbon content are relatively nonpolar in nature and insoluble in water. The ionic
character of a lipid can be altered by changes in solvent pH. For example, if the solvent contains a
strong acid or a strong base, hydrolysis of some of the ester bonds will occur. When this happens,
the products of hydrolysis may have solubility properties very different from those of the original
lipid molecule.
Structures of the different Samples and Solvents

Sample 1: Vegetable Oil (Oleic acid)
Oleic acid has the chemical formula C17H33COOH
Due to its large nonpolar portion, oleic acid is insoluble in water and, being less dense than water, it
floats on the water surface. The polar –COOH end, however, is attracted to water molecules. So, a
thin coating of oleic acid on the surface of water results

Metabolization Of Lipids
Lipids are the generic names assigned to a group of fat soluble compounds found in the tissues of
plants and animals and are broadly classified as: fats, phospholipids, sphingomyelins, waxes and
sterols. Fats are the fatty acid esters of glycerol and are the primary energy depots of animals. Fish
have the unique capability of metabolizing lipid and fats readily and as a result, can exist for long
periods of time under conditions of food deprivation. In general lipids in marine fish species contain
more HUFA with a higher n–3/n–6 ratio than those in freshwater fish species (Henderson & Tocher,
1987).
As the sole dietary lipid source marine fish oils (FO) have traditionally been used in commercial fish
feeds given their ready ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Providing an adequate carbohydrate level in the diet of fish is important in order to reduce
catabolism of protein for energy and for synthesis of glucose, which reduces protein retention and
increases the nitrogen release to the environment. Several studies have proved that optimal levels of
non–protein energy sources in the diet of fish can minimize the use of protein as a source of energy
(NRC, 1993). The protein–sparing effect which is obtained by increasing lipid or carbohydrate
levels in the diet has been reported in several fish species (Cho and Kaushik, 1990; Vergara et al.,
1996).
The optimal dietary inclusion level of digestible carbohydrates has been established between a
recommended 20% maximum for carnivorous species and 40% for hot water omnivorous species
(Wilson, 1994), although the observed responses for different types and levels of carbohydrates are
varied (McMeniman, 2003; Mohapatra et al., 2003).
Soluble carbohydrates such as starch are primary energy source found in seeds, tubers and other
plant structures. Animal tissues such as liver and muscle contain small concentrations of soluble
carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, which is structurally similar to starch. This glycogen reserve
can be rapidly mobilized when the body needs glucose. In addition to being a source of energy,

The Effects Of Freezing Stress On The Lipid Membrane Of...
The Effects of Freezing Stress on Lipid Membranes of Select Turfgrasses James R. Underwood
Oklahoma State University Author Note James R. Underwood, Department of Horticulture and
Landscape Architecture, Oklahoma State University Correspondence concerning this review should
be addressed to James Underwood, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture,
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074. Contact: james.r.underwood@okstate.edu
Abstract The Effects of Freezing Stress on Lipid Membranes of Select Turfgrasses Introduction The
intention of this literature review is to assess the current knowledge regarding freezing tolerance on
American buffalograss, bermudagrass, perennial ryegrass, St. Augustinegrass, and zoysiagrass.
While papers do not directly address the lipid membranes specifically they look at factors that are
known to strengthen lipid membranes and increase their tolerance to freezing stress. Before moving
into the literature review section a quick review of freezing damage to lipid membranes to provide
the connection of freezing stress to that of lipid membrane damage as mentioned in the papers.
Freezing Damage to Lipid Membranes Freezing stress can cause multiple stress and damages to the
cell, but what has been best shown Literature Review American Buffalograss A study over two years
into American buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides) by S. Ball, et al. in 2002 established a
correlation between endogenous soluble

Lipid Chromatography Lab
We are testing for the presence of lipids, the amount and how polar they are. The bigger the dot, the
higher the concentration and the farther the dot the more nonpolar it is. A positive test for lipid
chromatography appears to have phospholipids, fatty acids and triglycerides in that order on the
powdered strip while a negative test appears to not have those three in that order or even have all
those three show up. We tested chromatography solvent and placed it on the silica gel strip. Our
hypothesis was that the nonpolar molecules in the solvent would move up farther from the solvent
causing the Triglycerides to be at the top of the paper but the polar molecules would move slower
causing the phospholipids to stay at the bottom of the paper.

Lipid Profile Essay
Abstract Introduction: Abnormal lipid profile causes maternal mortality and impairs fetal
development. This study investigated the effect of Ramadan fasting on plasma lipid profile in
pregnant women. Material and Methods: This self–control, cohort study was performed in healthy
volunteer fasted pregnant women. Serum cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein
(LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and body mass index (BMI) were measured on 0, 7th, 14th,
and 28th days of Ramadan, and two weeks after Ramadan. Statistical analysis was performed by
SPSS. Results: The mean age and BMI of participants was 26.9±6.4 year and 25±4.2 kg/m
respectively. Weight and BMI of women did not change during the study. Cholesterol and LDL
significantly increased during Ramadan and decreased after Ramadan (p< 0.05 and data analysis
was performed by SPSS version 17 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA). Results ... Show more content on
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Weight and BMI of women did not change during the study. Cholesterol and LDL significantly
increased during Ramadan and decreased after Ramadan. Tests of within subject contrasts showed a
significant increase in the cholesterol and LDL in the fourth week of Ramadan compared to the first
week (P< 0.01). Some studies about the effect of lipid profile in Ramadan fasting in healthy
individual have been done, as well. In a study, serum cholesterol and TG significantly decreased in
Ramadan fasting (19). According to Adlouni et al study (8), the TC and LDL–C significantly
decreased during Ramadan. These two studies are not consistent with our study. In a study Ramadan
fasting led to significant increase in LDL (29). Another important finding in our study was that TC
and LDL significantly increased during Ramadan and decreased after the Ramadan. The rise in TC
and LDL may be due to an increase in hepatic lipase activity and a decrease in lipoprotein lipase
activity

Lipid Disorder: Hypolipidemia
Hypolipidemia, also called low blood cholesterol is a cholesterol disorder in which there is a
diminution in cholesterol–containing lipoproteins, in other words, there is an abnormally low level
of fat in the blood. This condition may be due to either primary or hereditary factors or secondary
factors. Unlike hyperlipidemia, that is, high blood cholesterol, hypolipidemia is frequently seen as
not much of a threat compared to the former as it is a great risk factor to atherosclerosis among other
diseases. It may be induced from there that possessing low cholesterol levels is significantly always
better than the adverse, but this is not entirely true. It may be less common; however having low
blood cholesterol that is below the normal level may too lead to pathology. There are studies that all
commonly show links between low blood cholesterol and signs of severe depression and anxiety
leading to violent and even suicidal behavior among people compared to those with higher
cholesterol levels.
Diagnosis
Hypolipidemia is asymptomatic and it is diagnosed incidentally on lipid screening when the total
cholesterol found in the blood is only below 120 mg/dL or when the low density lipoprotein LDL is
lesser than 50 mg/dL.
Causes and Treatment
The genetic disorders that cause the underproduction of LDL include Bassen–Kornzweig syndrome,
hypobetalipoproteinemia, and chylomicron retention disease. Bassen–Kornzweig syndrome is a
recessive condition that results from gene mutations of a

The Consumption Of Fats Plays A Key Role On The...
During pregnancy, the consumption of fats plays a key role in the development of the fetus. A
dietary fat is an essential nutrient that helps the body function by providing protection, fuel and
absorption for cells, tissues and organs. The fats consumed are Triglycerides and the mechanism
behind this process is for lipoprotein lipase (LPL) to break the triglycerides into smaller
components. They mostly contain fatty acids, cholesterol, fat–soluble vitamins and other lipids that
will be delivered to target tissues for performing activities, or stored as fat if not directly used. The
increased consumption of triglycerides can raise blood lipid levels such as low–density lipoprotein
(LDL) that promotes the risk of developing cardiovascular ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Over time, collected data from the third trimester (G130) of all pregnancies resulted in a significant
decrease in blood volume flow of the HFD maternal and the placental portion of the fetus.
The authors revealed that A, Uterine artery (Uta) PI is 0.74 in a representative control animal. B,
The Uta PI is 1.17 in a representative HFD–S animal with a Doppler waveform that demonstrates
decreased diastolic flow consistent with increased vascular impedance when compared with A. (1)
The study is suggesting that the accumulation of fat molecules in the placenta restricted the blood to
flow through. Moreover, Insufficient oxygen and nutrients from the placental can interfere with the
growth of the fetus.
The immunohistochemistry, confirmed no TLR4 staining in the chorionic villous stroma in control
placentas. Conversely, there were increased levels of TLR4 staining in chorionic villous stroma and
syncytiotrophoblast in HFD placentas. (1) The TLR4 is a protein pathway responsible for activating
the fetus immune system by providing a supply of nutrients and protection. However, constant
irritation of circulating blood lipids within this pathway has changed the function of the protein,
becoming vulnerable to the hazardous environment. At the same time, the TLR4 in both parts of the
placenta of the mother and fetus has developed inflammation. Although this study was on non–
human primates, we can still see similarities when comparing structures of the human uterus.
Critically,

Amphipathicity In Negatively Charged Membranes
As previously suggested, AMPs can partition themselves into the lipid–rich areas of biomembranes
and disrupt the proper functioning of bacterial lipids regulating cell division. Hydrophobicity is an
important factor that determines the extent to which an AMP can distribute itself among membrane
lipids. The percentage of hydrophobic residues in a peptide is termed hydrophobicity. It is usually at
50% for most peptides. [1] However, highly hydrophobic peptides can prove to be toxic to the cell,
therefore AMPs must be moderately toxic to be able to show antimicrobial activity while at the same
time have minimal effect on mammalian cells. [1]
The relative abundance and distribution of hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues in a peptide is
called ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Antibiotic resistant pathogens have evolved various mechanisms to evade antibiotic action. These
include preventing the antibiotic from binding or entering it, modifying the binding site of the
antibiotic or producing an enzyme that deactivates the antibiotic. Therefore it has become crucial to
be able to design new antimicrobial substances that can overcome these existing antibiotic– resistant
pathogens. [3]
Such an antimicrobial agent should be highly target–specific, making them non–toxic towards
mammalian cells. This is not very difficult to achieve since there are significant differences between
mammalian and microbial cells based on structural features, membrane charge and composition,
transmembrane potential etc. as discussed above.
Due to their ability to permealibilize microbial membranes, AMPs have the potential to act
synergistically by facilitating the passage of antibiotics across the microbial membranes. Moreover,
it is difficult for microbial cells to develop resistance towards AMPs. This is possibly due to the fact
that AMPs attack the entire cytoplasm as well as intracellular molecules, and kill bacterial cells very
quickly using several complex mechanisms.

Essay On Phospholipids
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are created by two fatty acids with a phosphate group, they are classed as fats and
they are made up of lipids. The fatty acids in the phospholipid are hydrophobic and the phosphate
head is hydrophilic and it is outwards and the tail is inwards, this causes to create the cell
membrane.
Triglycerides
Triglycerides contain three fatty acids and glycerol molecule, whereas phospholipids have two fatty
acids and a phosphate group. Triglycerides stop the loss of heat by insulation and they have ester
bonds.
The difference in uses of triglycerides and phospholipids
Phospholipids
The cell membrane is formed by phospholipids, the cell membrane controls what substances and
gases go in and out of the cell. When inside the water the phospholipids organize themselves into
position, the hydrophilic head is on the outside of the membrane because they can handle water,
however, on the inside of the membrane the hydrophobic tail does not like water. ... Show more
Triglycerides are aqueous at room temperature or sold at room temperature and some are saturated
fats, they consist of single bonds triglycerides are commonly known as oils, such as butter or sun
flower oil.
Reference: Btec level 3 90 credit diploma Author – Catharine Richard Title – Carbohydrates Date
and time – 3/14/2016 8:22PM
Reference of image:

Lipids
Fatty acids are composed of a hydrophilic carboxylic acid group attached to a fatty hydrophobic
chain of carbon atoms, referred to as the fatty tail. The fatty acids are classified as either saturated or
unsaturated depending on the structure. Saturated fatty acids contain only single bonds with
hydrogen atoms throughout the length of the carbon chain fatty tail and are therefore considered
saturated with hydrogen. The regular structure of saturated fatty acid molecules makes it possible for
them to stack close together causing them to easily form solids. Saturated fatty acids are solid at
room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds to hydrogen in the
carbon chain. The double bonds create a bend in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
REFERENCES
Davidson, M. (2004). Plasma Membrane. Retrieved from
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html
Hudon–Miller, S. (2012). How do Fatty Acids Make Energy? Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8Yh6Zf51qc&feature=youtu.be
Lyman, E. (2012) Model building lipids. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/4km6BOaj9pg
Mandal, A. (2010, March 22). Vitamin A Functions. Retrieved from http://www.news–
medical.net/health/Vitamin–A–Functions.aspx
Neitzel, J. (2010). Fatty Acid Molecules: A Role in Cell Signaling. Retrieved from
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/fatty–acid–molecules–a–role–in–cell–14231940
O'malley, M. (2014) Fatty acid oxidation leads to ATP production. Retrieved from
https://wgu.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=0a7a8229–fcac–43a8–913e–
16871f29545a
Sanders, J. (2013) Fatty acid structure. Retrieved from
http://wgu.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer/Default.aspx?id=defcf97e–dd60–4de2–9055–
d72a7e3334a3
Sanders, J. (2014, October 10). Recorded Webinar on Lipids. Retrieved from
http://wgu.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=e5d56401–a5a4–4a57–9db0–
5da97a7ee574

Wilson, L. (2013, November 12). A Balancing Act – The Importance of the Fat Soluble Vitamins: A,
D, E & K. Retrieved from

Biochemistry 208.5.5
Desiree Schmitt
208.5.5
In humans/animals, the main cells that store fat for energy are adipocytes. These fat cells are found
under the skin, in the abdominal cavity and surround major organs. The fatty tissue is the body's
main means of storing energy for long periods of time. Lipids, like triglycerides are stored in the
adipocytes until ready to be used by the body for energy. Fat is broken down through metabolism in
the mitochondria of the cell. The triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty acids. The
glycerol can be easily converted to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis. From
there it can go through the Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain to make ATP. The 3 fatty acids
can be broken ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Every cell membrane incorporates a fluid mosaic model. The "mosaic" of protein molecules
embedded in a lipid bilayer. It's fluid as most proteins and lipid molecules drift through it. The
membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with various proteins. The proteins help to
get polar/hydrophilic molecules through the plasma membrane. Polar molecules have difficulty
passing thru the hydrophilic membrane. Nonpolar molecules however, easily pass thru. The proteins
can be integral proteins, meaning they go all the way through the lipid bilayer or peripheral proteins
that sit on the hydrophilic outer layer and wait for something to happen. The layers are somewhat
fluid, allowing the proteins to move across them. See diagram below.
No fat diets can actually do more harm than good. The body needs moderation of all energy
producing macronutrients; fats, carbohydrates and proteins. By not eating any fat, the body starts to
utilize the fats stored in the body, thus depleting the stores and people lose weight. However, once
those stores are gone, the good fats or HDL's, are no longer able to filter out the bad cholesterol.
This can lead to increased cholesterol levels in the blood and heart disease. A no fat diet also causes
poor vitamin absorption of the necessary fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Fats transport those
vitamins from the liver to various parts of the body.
Sanders, J.

Essay On Proteins And Lipids
Proteins and lipids are major components that construct the human body. From a microscopic
standpoint, proteins and lipids take on multiple roles to maintain homeostasis in the body as
enzymes, substance transporters, and metabolic regulators. When a protein or lipid has the
appropriate number of peptide chains or fatty acids that allow it to retain its structure and carry out
its function properly, it is considered a healthy. These are highly abundant in animal–based foods
such as fat–free or low–fat milk, lean meats, eggs, and fish, as recommended by the 2010 Dietary
Guidelines for Americans (McGuire & Beerman, 2013). In people who have food allergies, these
food sources are unhealthy because the proteins in them elicit minor or ... Show more content on
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Similarly, cholesteryl storage disease involves the same types of fats being stored in the blood and
lymph. These 2 conditions are called acid lipase deficiencies. In contrast, non–essential lipids are
fats that the body can synthesize when required. While animal–based foods provide saturated fatty
acids, plant–based foods provide polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, excessive consumption of
these sources results in diseases such as Gaucher disease, Krabbe disease, and metachromatic
leukodystrophy. In both Gaucher and Krabbe disease, the body cannot produce adequate amounts of
certain enzymes to digest large amounts of fatty acids quickly enough. Therefore, fat products
remain undigested and can collect in major vital organs such as the liver, kidneys, lungs, brain, and
bone marrow (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke). These prohibit the growth
of important organs and stunts the body's homeostatic functions. Metachromatic leukodystrophy
focuses more on fat building up in the central nervous system of the body and impairing nerve
functions throughout the body.
Henceforth, in addition to monitoring proper lipid intake, maintaining the right amounts of protein
in one's diet is another crucial factor to living a healthy lifestyle. When the body is lacking in
protein, several

Unidentified Foods Lab Report
Testing Food for Nutrients
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to find out the nutrient content of unidentified food samples and
to use chemical reagents to see if the unidentified foods for sugar, starch, protein and fat (lipid)
content. After comparing the color changes in each unknown substance then you will be able to see
the amount of sugar, starch, protein or fat there is in the unknown substance.
Introduction
Carbohydrates are used for energy and structural support in cell walls of plants and exoskeletons of
crustaceans and insects. They are also used to make cell structures and can make a large group of
chemical compounds. Carbohydrates are also made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The testing
solution for carbohydrates is Benedict and iodine. Next is proteins, they help bulk up all solid
materials inside your body, such as your muscle, hair, skin, and inside organs. Proteins also make up
some hormones which help with the chemical control in the body. They ... Show more content on
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Materials
Glass test tubes/rods
Safety googles
Burner
Brown paper
Procedure
Testing for Carbohydrates: sugar
1. Place 5 test tubes into a rack and then label them 1–5.
2. Add the unknown into their own test tube, about 20 drops.
3. Add about 5 drops of benedict into each test tube.
4. Mix each one with a glass rod and always make sure to wipe the glass rod after each use.
5. Carefully heat the test tubes in the heated bath of water for 5 minutes.
6. After carefully taking them out, observe each test tubes color and then fill Table 2 with the results.
Testing for Carbohydrates: starch
1. Place 5 test tubes into a rack and then label them 1–5.
2. Add 20 drops of the unknown into the labeled tubes.
3. Then add about 1 – 2 drops of Lugol's solution into each test

Pulmonary Embolism Of Lipids
Lipids are a vital component to sustaining human life. While important, an excess or insufficient
amount of lipids can cause detrimental health effects, such as skin problems, heart disease, and other
illnesses. An illness affected by lipids is pulmonary embolism. Pulmonary relates to the lungs, while
embolism is the obstruction of the arteries. Due to excess lipids, it will have a negative effect on
pulmonary embolism. Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that is hydrophobic, encompassing all
fatty acids and their derivatives. They are essential in human life, functioning as a long term energy
source, a heat insulator, and a membrane structure for cells and organelles. Fatty acids are a
component of lipids, with a basic structure of a

Full Cream Milk Lab Report
Full cream milk was used in the experiment as a source of triglyceride lipid. Triglyceride lipids can
be hydrolyzed to form glycerol and fatty acid as shown in the equation below.
Triglyceride + 3 water → glycerol + 3 fatty acid
The enzyme lipase acts as a biological catalyst where it provides an alternative energy pathway for
the hydrolysis of triglycerides. This will lower the energy barrier, the activation energy needed, for
this reaction. Hence the reaction will take place at a higher rate since lesser energy is needed. This
hydrolysis reaction occurs in the duodenum which is an alkaline environment. This makes the
optimum pH, which the lipase works most efficiently in. be alkaline as well. Sodium carbonate
solution is used to provide the alkaline environment as it is a relatively strong base. When sodium
carbonate is added to water to form the solution, sodium hydroxide, a base, is formed as shown in
the equation below.
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, the alimentary canal has a generally hydrophilic medium. This causes the lipid molecules
to coalesce into a very big lipid globule. This globule has a very small surface area to volume ratio
and hence the hydrolysis of this globule would be extremely inefficient even with the presence of
lipase. Therefore bile is secreted to emulsify the globules. Bile is produced by hepatocyte cells and
stored in the gall bladder below the liver. Bile is secreted into the duodenum via the bile duct. Bile
molecules have a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic end. This allows them to insert themselves between
lipid molecules and thus prevent them from coalescing1. This forms many small lipid globules with
a high surface area to volume ratio instead of one large molecule with a low ratio, allowing the
lipids to be hydrolyzed more

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Liposomes
Liposomes
Liposomes are artificial vesicles with lipid bilayer which are made of phospholipids and cholesterol.
Liposomes have certain limitations like tendency to be taken up by the RES system, in the body.
When given orally they increases the absorption, clinical potency, and decreases the toxicity of the
drug. As they also resembles nanoemulsions in transparency, fluid like consistency, they are also
good for cosmetic preparations.
Every new approach in the targeted therapy of rheumatoid arthritis could contribute to the
effectiveness in treating the chronic disease.
Advantages of Lipids Lipids are a class of materials which includes fatty acids, glycerides,
phospholipids, sphingolipids, waxes and sterols etc. They may be poorly soluble in water, but have
other characteristic properties like hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions which can be identified by
their fatty acid composition, melting point, HLB value, and their solubility in solvents like
Glycerine and other organic solvents. Vegetable oils and primarily used in the preparation of
different types of formulations. A adult's ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They also provide a favourable hydrophobic environment to delay the drug release. This
characteristic property has been extensively used in the development of sustained release dosage
forms like beads, tablets, suspensions, implants. Their hydrophobic properties can also be used for
masking the unpalatable taste of certain drugs by hot melt coating. Lipids also offer advantages for
preparation of drugs with low melting point or poor compression properties. Development of Lipid–
based drug delivery system have been developed over the years, mostly for oral delivery.
Formulations can be classified as: Liquid lipid–based formulations eg. Emulsions or microemulsions
(oil/water; water/oil, bicontinuous

Cla Research Paper
Mechanism of the Health–promoting Effects of the Food Ingredient
Evidence suggests that the biological effectiveness of CLA are due to the separate actions of cis– 9,
trans 11 and trans– 10, cis 12 isomers.It is likely that numerous health effects are enhanced by
synergistic actions of these isomers. Findings such as, inhibition of chemically induced
carcinogenesis, enhanced immune system, reduction of atherosclerosis, enhanced growth, fat
reduction are attributed to a mixture of these CLA isomers (Pariza, Park, & Cook, 2001).
Weight reduction
Researchers have theorized about the many mechanisms CLA have an effect on. Some proposed
mechanisms such as reduction of proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes, decreased
esterification ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Insulin resistance can also be caused by increased triglycerides and free fatty acids intake. This is
due to the effect Triglycerides and free fatty acids have on insulin stimulated signal pathways,
translocation protein–4 and glucose uptake (Choi, Jung, Park, & Song, 2004). It is found that CLA
has a regulatory effect on glucose and lipid metabolism regulators. CLA affects the PPAR–y ligand,
a major receptor that influences the expression and transcription of genes that are related to the
metabolic effects of glucose and lipids. Such protein regulators as aP2, insulin–dependent glucose
transporter 4, FATp, ACS and adiponectin are all influenced by increased CLA. (Xiao–Rong Zhoua,
Chang–Hao Suna, Jia–Ren Liua, b, Dan Zhaoa, 2008). It was also theorized that CLA may act on
other glucose regulators such as phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, glucose–6–phosphate,
glucokinase, sterol–regulation element finding protein, acyl coenzyme A oxidase, fatty acid synthase
and uncoupling protein. Testing done on rats with a mixture of cis 9, trans 11 and trans 10, cis 12
CLA had found that the only effected regulatory agents were regulators involved in gluconeogenesis
such as Phosphoenol carboxykinase and transcriptional factors, sterol–regulating element binding
protein–1c and PPAR–y (Choi, Jung, Park, & Song, 2004). The main regulatory effect on insulin
resistance was the effect on ligand PPAR–y, a key regulator in lipid homeostasis. Mixtures of CLA
isomers consisting of cis 9, trans 11 and trans 10,cis 12 effect gene expression of PPARy mRNA in
rats. It was found to have affected the levels of aP2, FATP, ACS and adipoenectin mRNA expression
in adipose tissue. CLA increased These regulatory proteins resulting in an uptake of free fatty acids
into the adipose tissue and decreasing uptake into the muscle tissue. This has been found to improve
muscle insulin

Lipids And The Proteins Of Lipids
Lipids
Lipids are part of a group of molecules which consist of fats, sterols, vitamins, phospholipids and
others.
We can find in our cell membrane glycerol–phospholipids (phospholipids), which are part of the
lipid bilayer. The phospholipids can be found in biological membranes and their main function is to
bind proteins from the outside to the inside of cell membrane.
The structure of phospholipids is:
The phospholipids have 2 fatty acids and 2 long CH2 chains which are attached to a glycerol top.
The glycerol has a phosphate group which is hydrophilic –'attracted to water' complete opposite to
the fatty acids chain which is hydrophobic – 'scared of water'.
The glycerol is an alcohol which is an organic compound with hydroxyl ... Show more content on
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In general lipids are known as fats, and even though the normal idea in society that fats aren't good
for our body that isn't always true. Fats can be of extreme help, our body uses fats to produce energy
and protect us.
Lipids will come into work and store energy if a large number of unneeded fats are consumed; they
will store the calories in adipose cells and release them again when necessary such as while
exercising.
Another way fats are helpful to our body is in order to protect us; lipids use fats to isolate our body
to maintain our balanced temperature also it can be found surrounding our main organs (kidneys and
heart) serving as protection in case of injuries.
Last but not least our body uses lipids while digesting food; here lipids will support the body
absorbing nutrients. The bile acids in our liver will allow the mixture of water and fats in order to
break down and absorb food which will later on be 'translated' into vitamins and used to maintain
our vision and blood correct levels.
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA is composed by a double helix structure. In this structure we can find a phosphate group, a
deoxyribose and a nitrogenous base.
DNA as we know is a molecule which carries our genetic material; this will have all the coded
information necessary of our

Essay On Lipid Based Delivery System
In recent years, a great deal of interest has been focussed on lipid based carrier systems. The most
popular approach is the incorporation of the active poorly water soluble component into inert lipid
vehicles such as oils, surfactant dispersions, solid dispersions, solid lipid nanoparticles, emulsions,
micro emulsions, Nano emulsions, self–emulsifying formulations (SEF), micro/nanoemulsifying
formulations, and liposomes.
The essential component of activity by which a lipid formulation prompts enhanced bioavailability
is typically avoidance of a slow dissolution process which constrains the bioavailability of
hydrophobic drugs from solid dose frames (Shweta Gupta, 2013). Preferably the formulation allows
the drug to remain in a dissolved ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Regardless of the extensive potential that these lipid excipients offer, not very many lipids based
Formulations have achieved the pharmaceutical commercial place. This might be because of the
inadequate data with respect to the generally complex physical science of lipids and worries about
figured drugs substance and physical stability. In addition to these concerns, the interaction of a
lipid–based formulation with the GI condition and its effect on drug absorption is also important.
For example, edible lipids have been appeared to be extensively more productive enhancers of
poorly soluble drug ingestion, as compared to nondigestible lipids (e.g., liquid paraffin).
Unsaturated fat chain length of the lipid likewise impacts drug absorption. Both long and medium
chain triglyceride oils with various degrees of saturation have been utilized for the design of self–
emulsifying formulations.
2. Surfactants: The self–emulsifying properties require the incorporation of relatively large amounts
of surfactant in the formulation in addition to the oily drug carrier vehicle. The surfactants may
improve the affinity between lipids and intestinal membrane or increase the permeability of the
intestinal membrane (Gershanik T,

Lipid Vesicles
a– Free drug mechanism: The mechanism concluded that the drug permeates the skin independently
after releasing from the vesicles. Thus the amount of drug permeated the skin will be a function of
its awn physicochemical properties and not on the vesicle composition. Many researchers do not
support this mechanism as the vast majority recommended the effect of vesicles size and
composition on the overall amount of the drug transport [44]. b– Mechanism of penetration
enhancing effects: It was proven that surface active agents which are the backbone of the formulated
lipid vesicles can enhance the transdermal delivery of drugs by lowering the permeability barrier of
the skin and interacting with the SC in vitro [45]. On the other hand, Studies also reported that the
drug molecules to be effectively transported across the SC they must be entrapped within the lipid
vesicles suggesting that the vesicles act as drug carrier systems and not as penetration enhancers
[46]. c– Fusion with the SC and/or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Otherwise, the lipid vesicles may adsorb to the SC surface and subsequent drug partition inside the
cell could happen. This has been reviewed the conclusion was indicating that lipid vesicles could be
taken into SC as they dissolve and form a unit membrane structure [47]. d– Intact vesicular
penetration mechanism into the skin. Studies on liposomes based on electron micrography showed
intact liposomal vesicles in the dermis. The authors postulated that the liposomal drug can penetrate
the epidermis. Also, it was shown that vesicles can penetrate a diseased ruptured SC as in eczema
but cannot transport a skin with hyperkeratosis such as in psoriasis [48]. On the other hand, Zellmer
et al. [49], and Korting et al [50] showed no evidence of intact carrier penetration after application
of DMPC or soy–lecithin liposomes. e– Mechanism of transfersome transport through the stratum

Molecular Structure And Its Effects On Human Body
ABSTRACT:
In this Glycoglycerolipids are clearly vivid from where they are extracted. The molecular structure
is stated and how glycoglycerolipids structure give rise to its derivatives. Being an important lipid in
the membrane they are transported and hence the degradation takes place for other activities to
begin. This lipid can be detected by instrumental techniques HPLC and TLC. The related diseases
and functions are determined. Various experimental work is being performed on this lipid. And
being a helpful lipid it is used in determining various disorders caused in human body.
INTRODUCTION:
Glycoglycerolipids exists in plants, prokaryotes, eukaryotes but extensively found in marine algae
(1,2,3). They were screened from seaweed–associated aquatic living organism actinomycete strain,
which was determined as Streptomyces coelescens positioned on 16S Rdna sequence analysis.
Glycoglycerolipids was isolated by two chromatographic techniques: silica gel chromatography and
its analogues are mainly derived from high performance liquid chromatography (4).
STRUCTURE:
The basic structure of glycoglycerolipids is represented by 1,2–diacyl–sn–glycerol moiety with
mono– or oligosaccharide positioned at the sn–3 position of the glycerol backbone which can be
seen in (Figure 1)(5). Figure 1: The basic structure of glycoglycerolipids (6)
And its analogues are detrived as when the basic mooeity (1,2–diacyl–sn–glycerol) of lipid is
attached with

Ing A Balance Assessment: Lipase
ing A Balance Assessment – Hand in Component
Part A (1)
Lipase
Role:
Lipase is a general class of enzymes that help the body process and absorb dietary facts. Lipase
enzymes catalyses the hydrolysis (splitting of a compound by the addition of a water molecule) of
the lipids like triglycerides (that cannot be absorbed) to fatty acids and glycerol so the intestine can
absorb them. Lipase enzymes work in conjunction with bile, which helps facilitate the work of
lipase.
There are three different types of lipase enzymes:
– Pharyngeal lipase  attacks fatty acids the moment they are in the mouth
– Hepatic lipase  regulates the level of fats in the blood
– Pancreatic lipase  released into the beginning of the small intestine (duodenum) to ... Show more
By helping break down fat, lipase helps prevent excess weight gain and curb obesity. In addition, it
streamlines the entire digestive process and boosts the nutritional value of the healthy natural fats
you're receiving from whole foods.
Most people produce sufficient levels of lipase enzymes however those suffering from major health
disorders or serious health conditions can benefit from taking lipase supplements, for example:
– Cystic Fibrosis: taking pancreatic supplements including lipase can help someone suffering from
CF to better absorb much needed energy and nutrition from foods
– Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Supplements containing lipase and other pancreatic enzymes can help
reduce bloating, gas and fullness following a meal, especially one high in fat.
Ideal Conditions:
pH:

Amphotericin B Research Paper
Sterols are categorized as organic molecules, specifically a lipid. A common trait a lipid has is it is
insoluble to water. The chemical structure includes four carbon–fused molecules with an additional
oxygen molecule attached. The most known animal sterol is cholesterol. Cholesterol is fundamental
to the structure of the cell membrane. It also functions as a fat–soluble in the body.
In order for amphotericin B to work, there must be sterols present. This is because it is susceptible to
sterols. A bacterial membrane does not contain sterols, which means it can't be used as an agent
against bacterial infection. The antibiotic amphotericin B is an antifungal drug because Fungi have
sterol in its membrane.
Amphotericin B should only be used

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