How The Properties Of Water Are Related To Its Roles In...

How the Properties of Water are Related to Its Roles in...
How the Properties of Water are Related to Its Roles in Living Organisms and as a Living Environment for Living Organisms
Over 70% of the world's surface is covered by water, 95% of which consists of salty oceans; water is essential to all life forms. A molecule of water
consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bound to one atom of oxygen which gives a formula of H2O. When water molecules are close together
their positive and negative regions are attracted to the oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules. The force of attraction, shown in the diagram
below as a dotted line, is called a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four others. It is these hydrogen bonds and the ... Show
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This also means that, compared with air, water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat helps organisms
to regulate their body temperatures more effectively. Water vapour is a greenhouse gas, and both the capability to keep heat in and to transfer heat
from the tropics serves to buffer temperatures on Earth. For example, as one–half of the Earth rotates away from the sun the fall in temperature is much
more gradual than it would have been if there was no water vapour in the atmosphere.
As water expands when it freezes it allows ice to float on the surface which creates an insulating layer on lakes and rivers. This prevents the entire
body of water and all the organisms living in it from freezing. The weak hydrogen bonding means that ice has a lot of empty space. When ice melts
the "frozen" geometry is removed, but not all the hydrogen bonds are broken. The molecules begin to pack more closely together to fill some of the
empty space. Thus, liquid water is denser than ice. Water has its greatest density at 4В°C and this is why the top of a lake freezes first. The cooler
part freezes and the more dense water at slightly higher temperature sinks to the bottom. This helps to protect fresh water organisms which live in the
bottom. The empty space also means that ice does not conduct heat very well
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Diels-Alder Reaction Lab Report
This week in lab a Diels–Alder reaction produced 4–cyclohexene–1, 2–dicarboxylic anhydride by combining 1,3 butadiene and maleic anhydride. They
reaction basically combined 4 pi electrons from a diene and 2 pi elections from a double bond to produce an alkene ring. The diene must be in s–cis
conformation for the reaction to even happen. All of the p–orbitals, both from the diene and the double bond must line up so it can attack from top or
bottom, which creates a chair structure. Because of this, the trans conformation is favored due to the lesser steric interactions.As for the
2,3–difluorobutadiene and 1,3–butadiene, the rate of the reaction would be slower. The 1,3– butadiene is unstable, which makes it extremely reactive.
The use of the

Emergent Properties Explain The Increasing Complexity Of...
ESSAY #1:
Emergent properties explain the increasing complexity of living things as they go from the cellular level. Therefore, with rising levels of complexity,
new patterns will take form. This is exemplified in numerous ways in biology. For instance, the heart is made up of cells, which on its own, are unable
to perform the pumping function of a heart unless put together. Amino acids, alone, cannot function as a protein except when the right enzymes are put
together in the right way. Speaking generally, the fact that atoms make up molecules and molecules make up cells which make up tissue is a clear
example of an emergent property. Complex organisms are not merely a sum of their parts, but resultant of the interactions between cells that are
specializing to perform tasks essential to life.
In nature, all organisms are considered open systems because they are continuously exchanging matter with their environments and modifying in
reaction to it. Materials and energy are transferred between organisms and the world around them. Within the body, the digestive system is an open
system as a result of its interaction with the outside environment. Our mouths are open to the outside world and the nutrients ingested flow through the
esophagus and a series of other internal organs back out into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example in H–H, each hydrogen atom has an electronegativity value of about 2.2, therefore the covalent bond between them is nonpolar. A polar
covalent bond, however is the attraction between two nonmetal atoms with unequal electronegativities and therefore sharing of the bonding electron
pair is not equivalent. For example in H–Cl, the electronegativity is displaced more toward the electronegative atom, giving this atom a partial
electronegative charge and the other a partial electropositive

Physics : Physics And Physics
Memari, Arian
AP Biology, V
November 3, 2014 Chapter 2, 3, 4 Review 1. An ion is an atom/molecule that contains a net charge because of the loss/gain of either one or many more
electrons.Ions are different from other atoms of the element since they either contain an extra/missing electron in their valence shells. Ions interact
with other ions through ionic bonds. When the charge of an atom is positive then the ion is specifically known as a cation. An anion is a negatively
charged ion. Since these ions have opposite charges, these cations and anions attract each other. Polar substances would interact with ions because
when two or more atoms form a bond the resulting molecule will be either nonpolar or polar. The polar ions will be able to interact with these polar
substances since they are both "water–loving." Non–polar substances also interact with ions since the ending result of two or more atoms bonding
could be non–polar. Since the substance and the ion are both non–polar, they are able to interact. We could tell if an atom would be likely to form an
ion when it gains or losses one or more electrons. 2. The six elements that re commonly found in biological molecules are CHONPS (Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur). The atomic number for Carbon is 6, its atomic mass is 12 Dalton's, it has 4 electrons in its
valence shell, and it can typically form 4 bonds. The atomic number for Hydrogen is 1, its atomic mass is 1 Dalton, it has 1 electron in

Different Types Of Covalent Bonds
A noncovalent bond is very weak but it is necessary to form the shape of DNA. The 4 different types of covalent bonds are: electrostatic interactions,
hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactions. They are very different in their strength, specificity, geometry, and the way
they are affected by water. Electrostatic interactions occur when a charged group on one molecule interacts with an oppositely charged group on a
different molecule. Coloumb's law gives the energy of an electrostatic interaction in the following equation: E=kq1q2/Dr. In this equation, the "E"
represents the energy, the "q" values represent the charges on the 2 different atoms, the "r" represents the distance between those 2 different atoms,...
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Therefore, an atom that has a partial negative charge can bond with a hydrogen atom.
Van der Waals interactions are based upon the distribution of the electronic charge around an atom because it fluctuates over time. Therefore, at any
given time, the distribution of the charge is not perfectly symmetric. This lack of symmetry acts to induce a lack of symmetry in the distribution of the
electrons with an atom that is next to it. Then, the atoms attract each other. The attraction increases as they get closer and close together, until they
become separated by something called the "contact distance." If the distance between 2 atoms becomes shorter than the contact distance, the outer
electron clouds of the 2 atoms overlap, and very strong repulsive forces dominate. Van der Waals interactions are associated with energies that are
actually quite small.
The hydrophobic effect very clearly displays the properties of water. Nonpolar molecules are not able to participate in ionic interactions, or even in
hydrogen bonding. The interactions between water molecules and nonpolar molecules are not as favorable as the interactions between the water
molecules with each other. The water molecules form "cages" around the nonpolar molecules when they are interacting with each other. But, some of
the water molecules are released when 2 of the nonpolar molecules are interacting with each other. The water molecules being released

1.Introduction. Halogen Bonding, Xb, Is The Product Of
1.Introduction
Halogen bonding, XB, is the product of a non–covalent interaction between a halogen X and a negative site B (e.g., Lewis base). The halogen, X, is
usually part of an R–X molecule where R can be another halogen, an organic or an inorganic electron–donating–group. Halogen bonding (XB) is in
some ways analogous to hydrogen bonding (HB). In the latter, a hydrogen atom is shared between an atom, group or molecule that "donates" and
another that "accepts" it.[1–3] In halogen bonding, it is a halogen atom X that is shared between a donor R and an acceptor Y. Thus the two forms of
interaction can be illustrated by:
HB : R_H...Y
XB : R_X...Y
Because of their high electronegativity; halogen atoms in halo–organics are classically ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
More recent studies of the halogen bond in the solid state have been conferred by both Pennington et al and Laurence et al. [19–21]
The seventies and the eighties of the last century witnessed the further extension of the experimental inspections by introducing infrared spectroscopy
of Lewis base–dihalogen complexes isolated in solid inert gas matrices at temperatures low enough to cease reaction, even when the dihalogen was
ClF or F2. Lattice effects in cryogenic matrices are lesser than those present in Hassel's crystals however, they are not fully absent. [22–37]
The introduction of supersonic expansion techniques endorsed studying the rotational spectra of HF...ClF12 and HF...Cl2 13 in active isolation via
molecular beam electric resonance spectroscopy. Klemperer et al referred to such complexes as anti–hydrogen bonded, with HF acting as a Lewis base.
The advantage of the supersonic

Why Water Is Essential For All Living Organisms And Its...
"Water"
Water is essential for all living organisms. It is known to everyone around the world as one of the most important requirements for life. Based on a
research by Harvard University, water covers about 75% of the earth's surface and it's necessary in all different natural environments such as forests,
grasslands, tundra, marine etc. Water also plays a major role for industry and commerce, recreation, energy, health environments and more.
As we observe, water is essential for life in any matter of existence without water this planet will not exist.
The intension of this paper is to explain why water is important for all living organisms and its structure. I chose this topic because for me is very
interesting to see that water is one ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1811 Amadeo Avogadro found the H20 formula for water. These experiments were proven that H2 and O2 were the fundamental component of water.
After many years of research, Scientifics confirmed that water is a strong solvent; it's a molecule that contains two hydrogen (H) and one oxygen (0)
atom and they both are non–metals. It's referred as the chemical equation H2O. Oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell and it is in the group six
in the periodic table. Hydrogen atom has one electron in its outer shell and can form only one bond. Water is tasteless, Odorless, and colorless and It
has a molar mass of 18.01 g/mol. Everything is made of atoms, which is the smallest particle of an element (Introductory Chemistry, Steven S. Zumdahi
and Donald J).
The oxygen atom also called "the apex of the water molecule" bears a slight electronegative charge while hydrogen possesses a more positive one
(Kirk 225). Because of the opposite charges attract, the water molecules are drawn together. When an oxygen atom is linked to a molecule 's
hydrogen atom, a bond called a hydrogen bond is formed (Kirk 256). Hydrogen and oxygen would like to have stable electron configurations but do
not as individual atoms. They can do it by sharing electrons throughout covalent bonds.
The figure below is an illustrative representation of a water molecule having polar covalent bonds between the Oxygen atom and the Hydrogen atoms.
"Covalent Oxygen shares one of its outer electrons with

Day-To-Day Mechanisms: The Biological Properties Of Water
Water is a substance that is in great abundance on this planet and life almost certainly originated from it. It is required for multiple purposes and
explains several day–to–day mechanisms (Chemical Elements and Water, 2007). The biological significance of water in the human body alone is 70%
therefore demonstrates how crucial it is.
An important feature of water is its polar nature. A single watermolecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom (Henry Cavendish, 1782)
(Gay–Lussac and Humboldt, 1805) [1] [3], however the electrons in the covalent bonding are not shared equally. Since oxygen has a greater
electronegativity than hydrogen, the side of the molecule with the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. This attraction is known as hydrogen
bonding, explaining several properties of water. The hydrogen bonding is relatively weak in comparison to the covalent bond within the molecule
itself, therefore is responsible for many of water's physical properties [2]. Example of one such property is its high melting and boiling points as more
heat is required to break the hydrogen bonds between molecules. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The molecules have the ability to form hydrogen bonds with other poplar substances. Adhesion enables water to "climb" upwards, along narrow
spaces, in a process called capillarity. This can be observed on extremely smooth glass whereby the water may form a thin film as the molecular forces
between glass and water molecules– adhesive forces, are stronger than the cohesive forces. This is achieved as the water molecules are more attracted
to the glass than they are to the other water molecules (as glass molecules have greater polarity than water

Task 1: Intermolecular Force
TASK 1–activity 2–M1
The stronger an intermolecular force, the higher the boiling point of the substance will be. This is because more energy is required to break the
intermolecular forces. The order of strength of intermolecular forces is;
Hydrogen bonding> permanent dipole–dipole interaction> Van der Waal's force
Magnesium Oxide has a very high melting and boiling point of 2852 and 3600 respectively. Magnesium oxide is held toghether with ionic bonds, and
therefore require a lot on energy to separate the ions, and due to the strong electrostatic force of attraction between the ions, it makes the magnesium
oxide less soluble.
Calcium carbonate also known as limestone has a very high melting point of 1339ЛљC and boiling point due to strong ... Show more content on
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The most electronegative elements are those highly reactive non–metallic elements (such as Oxygen, Fluorine, and Chlorine).
The Pauling Scale is used to calculate the relative electro negativity's of different elements.
Permanent dipole–dipole interactions:
The partial charges on polar molecule attract opposite partial charges on another polar molecule and create a weak intermolecular forces called
permanent dipole–dipole interactions. As a result; between the two polar molecules there will be van der waal's forces and permanent dipole–dipole
interactions.
For example hydrogen chloride, the chlorine within the HCl molecule is more electronegative than the hydrogen, and as a result the electron are
attracted closer to the chlorine than the hydrogen atom. Between these hydrogen chloride molecules exist dipole–dipole interactions and as a result the
dipoles can interact with each other and increase the boiling point.
Hydrogen bonds:
Is a strong dipole–dipole attraction between an electron deficient Hydrogen atom on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on a highly
electronegative atom of another molecule (such as Fluorine, Oxygen, and

Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, and Polymers
Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, and Polymers An attraction between atoms that allows chemical substances to form is commonly referred to as a
chemical bond. Two of the most common types of chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds. Both ionic and covalent bonds can be mixed
together in order to form mixtures and compounds. While the two types of chemical bonds have several similarities, they are also vastly different. Ionic
and covalent bonds are formed when two or more elements bond together. There are 117 elements known to date. An element is defined as a substance
that is made up of a single atom. While 94 of these elements are naturally occurring, 22 of these elements are artificial. A complete list of elements can
be found on the periodic table of the elements, arranged by atomic number and by chemical property. When substances are formed through ionic or
covalent bonding, they can be combined with other substances to form mixtures or compounds. A compound is a pure substance that is made up of
two or more substances. A compound is a homogenous mixture that requires all elements comprising the mixture to be present in fixed proportions.
When elements are combined to make a compound, they do not retain their individual properties. Furthermore, in order to separate a compound into its
individual elemental components, a large amount of energy must be used. Compounds form naturally and have elemental stability; stability depends on
the number of electrons that

Lab 04
Student Name: Melissa Tatum
Student ID: 4593119
Date: 7 Dec 2014
Course and Section Number: SCIN131 A004 Fall 14
Lesson 4 Lab: Chromatography and Ionic versus Covalent Bonds
PART 1
Begin by viewing the following Thinkwell video
15.1.3 CIA Demonstration: Chromatography
After you watch the above video, answer the questions below in sufficient detail:
(a) (3 pts.) This video discusses 3 different types of chromatography. List each one mentioned, and describe their differences in as much detail as
possible (your points earned will be proportional to the level of detail in your discussion). Which one was used in this lab demonstration?
Answer: Gas chromatography (GC) – utilized by scientists in order to be able to separate the volatile ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The stationary phase will absorb or slow down different components of the tested solution to different degrees creating layers as the components of the
solution are separated. Chromatography was invented by the Russian botanist, Mikhail Tsvet. Chemists use this process to identify unknown
substances by separating them into the different molecules that make them up.
(c) Suppose I melted a grape (purple) popsicle and ran a chromatogram of the resulting substrate.
[i] (1 pts.) In the simplist case, what would I expect to see? Include as much detail as possible.
Answer: Once the chromatogram has been completed and is ready to be measured and calculated, on the plate that was used to perform the

chromatogram you should see where the red and blue have completely separated. The red food coloring dye should be lower on the plate than the blue
food coloring dye.
<– example of results
[ii] (4 pts.) Suppose that the dot/area representing the longest wavelength of color in this situation was located 21 mm from the baseline, and the dot
/area representing the shortest wavelength of color was located 36 mm from the baseline (see Figure 9.4 on page 288 for help). If the solvent
traveled 57 mm from the baseline, what was the Rf for each of these two components of the sample? [SHOW ALL WORK TO RECEIVE CREDIT]
Answer: Rf = distance sample moved from

Carbon Nanotubes : What Are They?
Carbon Nanotubes, What Are They?
The growth of carbon nanotubes is an intricate process that has many challenges. It is important to understand what carbon nanotubes are, there history,
what their potential applications are and how they will be able to accomplish these task. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are one of a multitude of tiny
materials that will help to define the future.
Carbon nanotubes have an unparalleled history. The first publication about these was written in 1952 by Raduskevich and Lukyanovich (Ren 8). These
two Russian scientists provided the scientific community with the first distinct image of carbon nanotubes. Radushkevich and Lukyanovich 's
publication had unobscured images showing multi–walled carbon nanotubes with a 50 nm ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These tubes that they found have likely been around since the time of Thomas Edison and were created as he was experimenting with carbon
filaments for light bulb, which would eventually be his defining discovery, or even earlier on during the metal forging process. The reason CNTs
would go unnoticed is do to their microscopic size (Ren . Their diameter can range between 1 and 50nm and with lengths that can out measure their
diameter by 1000 times (Nanocyl). A nanometer is 10–9 meters or .000000001m. Even with the best optical microscopes, which magnify light rays
reflected from objects, it wouldn't have been possible to discern the fact that these cylindrical structures were hollow, if they could even see them.
Carbon nanotubes get all of their impressive properties from their physical structure. They are hexagons of covalently bonded carbon atoms. Acovalent
bond is a bond between two non–metals atoms. Two of these atoms are bonded to four others and form another hexagon and these other hexagons
exist on all the sides of the first and off of each other. This would look like a sheet of hexagons that could then be "wrapped" into tubes. These tubes
can be single walled (SWCNTs), and multi–walled (MWCNTs) depending on the number of layers they have. The carbon atoms in these nanotubes
have S2P2 chemical bonds (Zhang 7). This means that the atoms have one

The Intermolecular Objective Forces: Two Main Factors
Intermolecular attractive forces are forces of attraction that act between different molecules. These forces are substantially weaker than the
intramolecular forces acting inside of molecules, however, they are still a vital force that holds molecules together in the solid and liquid phase.
In order to fully grasp the importance of intermolecular attractive forces (henceforth referred to as IMAF) we must first understand two central
concepts that make IMAF possible: electronegativity and molecular polarity. In his book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Linus Pauling defines
electronegativity as "the power of an atom inside a molecule to attract electrons to itself" (88), meaning that in covalent bonds the electrons may not be
shared completely ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hydrogen bonds are attractive interactions between a partially negative hydrogen atom in a molecule and another highly electronegative atom such as
nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine in another molecule . (Arunan, et al. 2). A common, and perhaps the most important, example of hydrogen bonding comes
in the form of H2O. Similar to how a normal dipole–dipole interaction would take place, the partially negative pole of hydrogen in one molecule
would attract the partially positive pole of oxygen in another molecule. However, unlike in regular dipole–dipole interactions, a temporary covalent
bond is formed between the hydrogen and the oxygen. This temporary covalent bond is what makes the hydrogen bond into the strongest of
intermolecular forces and is also what gives water (H2O) its incredibly high boiling point compared to other compounds of similar constructs. However,
what might be the most important consequence of hydrogen bonds comes in the form of surface tension in water. In a body of water the molecules will
exhibit their forces of attraction equally around themselves with their neighbouring molecules. At the surface of the body of water the outermost H2O
molecules have no neighbouring molecules above them, thus meaning that they exhibit a stronger force with their nearest neighbouring molecules at
the surface (see

Ionic Bonding Lab Report
Ionic–It was just like any other day when Maggy and Nesa spotted a sulfur atom that hadn't been bonded with. The sulfur was a perfect home for
Maggy and Nesa because it would satisfy the octet rule, the ultimate goal of every atom(with a few exceptions). They remembered learning about the
lewis dot diagram in biology class which showed how the process was possible. From that class they also learned that magnesium usually has an ionic
bond with a non metal as well[3,4,7,9]. So, when it came time to interact with he sulfur atom, the interior electrons kicked out Maggy and Nesa. With
the twins gone, the two atoms bonded due to their charges being opposite[10]. This ionic bonding gave properties to both of the atoms that they would
have never ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Together the molecule they form is a combination of their properties as the mix around with the other electrons. Occasionally the party attracts new
atoms with the London dispersion force but it isn't attractive enough to keep them at the party[15].
Non–polar Covalent–Hyde and Rodger together form their business contract. They each share themselves equally as well as their treasured protons
and neutrons that they belong to. Their single bond means that. These two are very glad they didn't include any other electrons in their bond.
Especially if they formed a dipole. They both pity dipoles because they have to deal with ions that are attracted to only one side of their
molecule(ion–dipole attraction). I mean how shallow can you be for only being attracted to one side of an atom.
Polar Covalent–George formed a dipole with his deal with the hydrogen atoms. These atoms electrons are participating in hydrogen bonding with
George. This is a special bond is very valuable to George. The also have high boiling point because of George's strength to keep the hydrogen electrons
with him. These electrons have gotten used to being a part of an uneven sharing of electrons. George sometimes abuses their dipole by making others
into dipoles with weak magnetic forces. The result is a weak dipole induced dipole attraction. George constantly bother the other hydrogen atoms by
suggesting they attract another

Hydrophobic Interactions: Misfolded Proteins
Hydrophobic interactions, the weakest of the 4 bonds, occurs between nonpolar amino acids. These amino acids are not capable of hydrogen bonding
or forming charge to charge interactions. The hydrophobic parts are kept on the inside of the watery environment of the cell pulling the protein into a
tightly folded shape. Hydrogen bonds interaction is with polar or charged amino acids. This is one amino acid sharing hydrogen with another amino
acid at its oxygen atom. This bond typically occurs between an oxygen or nitrogen atom with a hydrogen atom between them. Although hydrogen bonds
are stronger than hydrophobic interactions, it is not as strong as the bond that holds the polypeptide chain. Ionic bonds occur between charged amino
acids. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The role of prions in BSE is to trigger proteins in the brain to fold abnormally. These prions are formed by abnormally foldedprotein that causes
neurodegenerative conditions, similar to that of Alzheimer's disease. Normal prion proteins(PrP) are bound to the surface of the neuron and can be
altered by infectious prions to become misfolded and take on a different conformation. These misfolded proteins tend to clump together, or aggregate,
because of their shape. The altered proteins (PrPsc) then enter a normal brain and binds to the normal protein prions. This process continues to take
place and affect the brain. Prions occur naturally in our bodies so this doesn't stimulate an immune response allowing this conformation to continue to
take place. This disease has no known cause but is generally associated with the ingestion of meat from cows who already have BSE.
Chaperone proteins in BSE are used to (possibly) refold the misfolded proteins into their correct forms. This may be true because in a normal cell,
chaperone proteins promote the correct folding of their substrate proteins by unfolding the incorrect polypeptide chain conformations and providing a
sequestered environment in which correct protein folding can occur. A chaperone protein can contribute to BSE by having a disruption of the
expression of the chaperone protein causing it to be unable to correct the misfolded

Humans use water on a daily basis, in everything from...
Humans use water on a daily basis, in everything from drinking, to cleaning, and for recreational uses in pools or waterparks. But the human body
itself is the main contester in how it is used. Water is a dissolving essential in vitamins and nutrients for food and for delivering them to cells. Our
bodies also use water to flush out toxins, regulate body temperature, and aid our metabolism. The human body is 50–75 percent water, and when that
water is lost in digestion or sweat, it needs to be replenished to continue functioning. Dehydration is a common problem the human body faces, but too
much water can also cause a great deal of complications. Water intoxication and hyponatremia, which is when electrolytes become diluted, can cause all
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Water has the highest surface tension, which is the attractive force exerted by the molecules below the surface on those at the liquid–air interface,
which is why some light objects and substances can float on it. It has the highest known specific heat and is an effective solvent. Categories for water
quality are salinity, acidity, temperature, oxygen content, and mineral content. Another confusing aspect to water is why hot water freezes faster than
cold. There are many different conclusions to this observation, most commonly known as the Mpemba effect. One reason is that warm water
evaporates rapidly, and since this is endothermic, it cools the water, making it freeze more quickly. Another theory focuses on the bonds of water,
saying that hydrogen bonds bring water molecules into close contact, so the natural repulsion between the molecules causes the covalent O–H bonds to
store energy. When the liquid warms, the hydrogen bonds and water molecules stretch. The covalent molecules shrink and give up their energy, so the
covalent bonds giving up their energy is equivalent to a cooling process. Hard and soft water have many differences, caused from outside chemical
properties affecting them. Hard water contains higher levels of dissolved minerals. Water that comes from underground aquifers comes in contact with
certain minerals, and small amounts of these minerals are dissolved into an ionic

How Lewis Structures Are Constructed
Lewis Structure shows how atoms in a covalent bond share electrons. Dots are used to show lone pairs of electrons, and lines symbolize bonds. This
essay will explain how Lewis Structures are constructed.
The first step is counting how many valence electrons there are. Determine the number of electrons that are in the outer shells of each atom. For
example, H2O has 6 valence electrons in oxygen and 1 in hydrogen. Therefore, there are 8 total since there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom. Non–valence electrons are not expressed.
Next, write the symbols for each atom and connect them with single bonds. The order of the atoms in the formula usually shows connectivity. HCN is
written H–C–N in its Lewis Structure. If there are only two types of atoms, the central atom is usually written first and has lower electronegativity.
After writing symbols and connecting elements with single bonds, complete the octets of surrounding atoms with lone pairs. The octet rule states most
atoms bond so that every atom has eight electrons in its outer shell to gain stability of the Noble gases. CF4, for example, has all single bonds and ...
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Nitric oxide is an example of this with eleven electrons in its outer shells, and nitrogen ends up with only 6 valence electrons. Another molecule that
violates the rule is one that does not need eight valence electrons. For example, in H2O, the hydrogen atoms only need two electrons around them
instead of eight. One other example of a violation is when molecules have extra electrons. SF4 is an example as sulfur has a lone pair and four
covalent bonds, which gives it 10 valence electrons. This is only possible with atoms that are in the third row of the periodic table or lower with
unfilled d–orbitals. Therefore, exceptions can only occur in molecules that have odd numbers of electrons or with atoms that have only the first energy
level or empty

What Is Covalent Bonding?
Covalent bonds define the bonds in compounds that result from the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons (The Covalent Bond). The atoms are
unstable because their outer rings of electrons aren't filled up. By sharing electrons with other atoms, these atoms can fill up their outer rings and
become stable (Carr). Having a full outer shell of electrons is called an octet. Covalent bonds are durable and are tough to make unstable again (Carr).
Molecules that attach with covalent bonds aren't very attracted to each other so they move freely around each other (Carr). That means that most
molecules that form covalent bonds make either liquids or gases, like water and carbon dioxide (Carr). Atoms connected by a double bond cannot
rotate freely... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Carr, K. (n.d.). What is Covalent bonding? – Chemistry – Quatr.us. Retrieved from http://quatr.us/chemistry/atoms/covalent.htm
2. The Covalent Bond. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch8/valenceframe.html
3. CK–12. "Metallic Bonding ( Read ) | Chemistry | CK–12 Foundation." Free Online Textbooks, Flashcards, Practice, Real World Examples,
Simulations | CK–12 Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Feb. 2016. http://www.ck12.org/chemistry/Metallic–Bonding/lesson
/Metallic–Bonding–Chemistry–Intermediate/
4. Library and Archive Catalogue. "Metallic Bonds." ChemTeacher. N.p., 2 Nov. 2010. Web. 3 Feb. 2016. http://chemteacher.chemeddl.org/services
/chemteacher/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36
5. NDT Resource Center. "Atomic Bonding Metallic Bonds." N.p., Web. 3 Feb. 2016. https://www.nde
–ed.org/EducationResources
/ CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/metallic.htm
6. W. H. Freeman and Company. "Covalent Bonds– Molecular Cell Biology – NCBI Bookshelf." National Center for Biotechnology Information. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 3 Feb. 2016.

Diamonds Research Papers
Diamonds
Diamonds are commonly known for their stunning lustre, representing innocence and constancy. Not only do diamonds have tremendous admiration
for their beauty and meaning, their unique chemical structure gains appreciation from scientists across the globe. The word diamond originates from
the greek word adamas, which means indestructible. Provided diamonds are the hardest substance on the planet, the definition has significant reason
(Helmenstine, n.d.). Having an estimated age of 3.2 billion years, the incredible strength of diamonds allows them to maintain their composition
despite significant changes in their environment (Geoscience News and Information, 2015).The extremely strong chemical structure of diamonds
contributes to its unique chemical and physical properties, which allow diamonds to be used for a variety of practical applications. Diamonds do not
originate on the earth 's surface, whereas they form in the mantle about 150 km below, due to extremely high temperatures of about 1050 degrees
celsius and pressures of about 13733 MPa (Schlumberger Excellence in Education Development, 2015). The majority of discovered diamonds have
been brought to the earth's surface in Xenolith, from the earth's mantle, as a result of volcanic eruptions. Asteroid and meteorite sites also often result
in high temperatures and pressures, which release stardust and debris, often including diamond crystals. NASA scientists have found many
nanodiamonds in meteorites within our

How Does Ionic Boding Affect Melting And Boiling Point
Report on structure and bonding and how it effects the melting and boiling point across period 3
Covalent bonding is a bond where two or more atoms share electrons. The atom is unstable on its own and is not willing to give and electron away,
therefore they share, which makes them stable. This can also be described are the molecules being held together by a strong covalent bond. An example
of this would–be Hydrogen, on its own it is unstable, so it shares its only electron with another, giving it a strong covalent bond. Hydrogen only has
one electron, but requires two for its outer shell, unable to give one away, they share. H + H = H2
Ionic boding is when an atom gives another electron to another to form an ionic bond. One atom will donate an electron to another to fill its outer shell,
that is held together by Electrostatic attraction. These bonds involve Cations, which are positive Ions that are mostly metals and Anions which are
negative Ions that are mostly non–metals. An example of this would–be Sodium and Chlorine. Sodium has one electron on its outer shell, Chlorine has
seven electrons on its outer shell. Chlorine needs eight electrons on its outer shell to make it stable. Sodium has a spare electron, so will donate it to
Chlorine. Na + Cl = NaCl ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Metals have a giant metallic lattice, this is described as electrons being close packed together, known as a sea of positive delocalised electrons. A strong
delocalised electron means that they are a good conductor of electricity and can pass kinetic energy to each other. The electrons have a strong
electrostatic attraction, meaning they have a high melting point and the more electrons the higher the melting point

Essay on Ionic and Covalent Bonds Lab
Lab Report
Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment was to explore the properties of chemical substances that can be used to identify the types of bonds in a chemical
substance using a laboratory procedure. The two types of bonds being identified were ionic and covalent. Based on a substance's properties, how can
you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent? This is the question I posed before starting the experiment. An ionic bond is a bond that results
from the attraction between oppositely charges ions; one atom "gives" another atom an electron. Combinations of metals and nonmetals typically form
ionic bonds. Acovalent bond is a bond that results from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There were no controlled variables used in this experiment.
Materials and Procedure:
Materials
five 25 mL beakers – 5 mL of oil stirring rod – 2 g cornstarch
10 mL graduated cylinder – 2 g sodium chloride spoon – 2 g sodium bicarbonate conductivity apparatus distilled water in a wash bottle
Lab Procedure
Step 1: Gather materials.
***Repeat steps 2–4 for each of the following: 5 mL of oil and 2 g each of cornstarch, sodium chloride, and sodium bicarbonate.
Step 2: Note State and Appearance.
a) Put the substance in a 25 mL beaker.
b) Observe and record data in the data table on its state of matter, appearance, and texture and whether it has a crystalline structure.
Step 3: Determine Solubility in Water.
a) Add distilled water to the beaker until the volume totals 15 mL.

b) Use the stirring rod to stir for 3 minutes.
c) Record the amount of substance that dissolved – all, some, a little, or none.
Step 4: Determine Conductivity.
a) Prepare the conductivity apparatus. The electricity should be turned off.
b) Spray a small amount of distilled water on the electrical leads of the conductivity apparatus. Insert the electrical leads of the conductivity apparatus
into the beaker.
c) Turn on the electricity. Record whether you observe conductivity.
d) Turn off electricity. Clean the electrical leads with soap and

Essay on Water
April 30 2009
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Essay on Water
Published by admin at 3:58 am under Example Essays
Introduction
Water is an essential ingredient for the existence of life as we know it. Biochemical processes occur in aqueous environments, many of which use
water. Water also plays a significant role in the process of photosynthesis ( 6 CO2 + 6H2O + 672kcal–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 ). Photosynthesis is the
most basic and significant chemical reaction on earth, providing the primary nutrients, directly or indirectly, for all living organisms and is the primary
source of atmospheric oxygen. Without water and its unique and unusual properties, life as we know it on earth would not exist. Water is the only
substance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This results in a concentration of negative charges nearer the oxygen atom and thus further from the positively charges protons that make the nuclei of
the hydrogen atoms. The bond formed is intermediate between a fully ionic bond and a purely covalent bond. There is a separation of charges but not
complete as in the formation of ions. The partial charge that is produced is symbolized by d. In Water, one side of the molecule, where the hydrogen
atoms are, will be partially positively charged. The other side with the unshared pairs of electrons will be negatively charged. As a whole the molecule
is polar. So it can be said that the water molecule has a polar covalent bond. The polarity of the water molecule makes mutual attraction between water
molecules possible.
The Hydrogen Bond
Each molecule has a d– and d+ region. The attraction occurs between the d– and d+ regions (remember unlike charges attract). This means that each
water molecule attracts four other water molecules to it. The hydrogen atom is attracted to the oxygen atom of the adjacent water molecule. Each
oxygen atom can associate with two hydrogen atoms of other nearby water molecule through its unshared pair of electrons. The force of attraction
between these polar molecules is not as strong as a covalent or ionic bond but strong enough to be significant. It is important enough to be called the
HYDROGEN BOND.
It is the

Hydration Of Norbornene
This report concerns the acid–catalyzed hydration of norbornene to produce exo–norborneol. Such hydration reactions of alkenes typically occur under
acidic conditions so that a strong enough electrophile is available in solution for the nucleophilic double bond on the alkene to successfully attack it.
This is to say, that if this reaction is done in water, with the hydrogen as the electrophile, the O–H bond is too strong for the double bond to effectively
attack the hydrogen and detach it. If instead H3O+ is available in acidic conditions, the extra proton attached to the molecule is the electrophile; this
electrophile is strong enough for the reaction to proceed. After the double bond attacks the hydrogen, a carbocation forms as the proton attaches to the
least substituted carbon of the ones participating in the double bond. This happens because this allows the more stable carbocation to form, as the
positive charge would then exist on the more substituted carbon. The functional groups attached to this carbocation donate their electron density to it,
thus stabilizing it. This overall effect is often called the Markovnikov rule. However, in this case the two carbons that are connected to each other by
the double bond are the same in terms of how substituted they are, and the hydrogen can bond to either of them and still yield the same product. The
resulting carbocation can then be attacked by a water molecule. In theory, water can either attack from the "top" or "bottom"

Atoms Or Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share pairs of electrons. Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms in order to gain more stability. Nonmetals
will readily form covalent bonds with other nonmetals. Although it is said that atoms share electrons when they form covalent bonds, they do not
usually share the electrons equally. Something called Electronegative is where how much an atom wants to bond. The smaller the atom the closer to the
protons. The smaller the atom the closer to the protons. When you share the electrons it is called Covalent or Covalent bonding. Covalent bonding
makes very strong connections between the atoms, so it's hard to break these molecules apart. As you go up on the periodic table the atoms gets
smaller and smaller. Molecules that join with covalent ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (known as cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (known as anions). Atoms
can either transfer or share their valence electrons. And is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. Electrons are transferred from one
atom to another resulting in the formation of positive and negative. Electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of
positive and negative. Energy is needed to remove electrons from atoms. The element forms the ion that makes the compound most stable that makes
the one in which most energy is released overall. In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of
positive and negative ions. Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms and is a type of chemical bond that generates
two oppositely charged ions. At a simple level, a lot of importance is attached to the electronic structures of noble gases like neon or argon, which have
eight electrons in their outer energy

Identifying Covalent, Ionic And Hydrogen Bonds
After completing the lab, we will be able to identify covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are the weakest between all the three types
of bonds we will be observing and it occurs between hydrogen and oxygen atom or nitrogen atom; hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole–dipole bond. A
dipole–dipole interaction occurs because of polar molecules. We should know that the bond between hydrogen andoxygen in a water molecule is
covalent. Another example, of covalent bond is the bond between all the atoms that compose ethane. Another objective that we will observe issolubility
, the lab mentions. An example, of an ionic bond is NaCl, this is an ionic bond because the Na+ and Cl–, the sodium atom (cation) gives a pair of
electrons to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A water molecule is able to interact with up to four other water molecules to create a tetrahedral. The second part of the lab, we will be observing
cohesion and adhesion theories. Cohesion is when water molecules stick to each other and adhesion is the occurrence of water molecules sticking
to other molecules. To observe adhesion and cohesion, we will pipette a drop of water on a piece of parafilm; we will be looking for if they water
will be stuck together or did it spread apart, we will be explaining our observations. We will then, repeat the same experiment, however instead of
parafilm we will use a glass slide; we will try to compare cohesion between the water molecules and the adhesion between the water and glass slide.
After, we are done pipetting the water and observing, we will then demonstrate what happened in the pipette part (both the parafilm and the glass slide)
of the experiment using the 12 water molecules and the non–magnetic tray. The third part of the experiment consists of testing

3. Why Do Chlorine And Sodium Have Charges After Electron...
Chemical Bonding
To complete this worksheet, select:
Module: Foundations Activity: Animations Title: Chemical Bonding
Introduction
1.Why are chemical bonds important? They form the structure and function of molecules in the body
2.a.Describe atomic structure. Whether or not the atom is positive or negative, the ions orbiting around the atom.
b.Explain the importance of the outer (valence) electrons relative to bonding.
combine to form chemical bonds
Covalent Bonds
3.First, explore covalent bonds.
a.Describe the electron activity. Formed when two atoms fill the outermost shell from sharing electrons
b.Describe an oxygen molecule as an example. Two oxygen atoms share the outermost electrons ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Describe the electron activity. Formed when electrons move from atom to atom to form ions
b.Why do chlorine and sodium have charges after electron transfer? Sodium atom lost an electron now it has a positive charge because the protons are
greater than electrons. Chloride gains the electron so there is a negative charge because electrons are greater than protons.
c.What causes the attraction between ions forming an ionic bond? By opposite charges of both ions
d.Describe the "strength" of ionic bonds. Use salt as your example. Ionic bonds are weak, that's why salt can dissolve in liquids
e.How common is ionic bonding in the body? Extremely common. Our teeth and bones are aided by ionic bonding
f.How are ions important to the body? Examine each of the following in your research.
Nerve impulses – ions generate nerve impulses pH regulation – each ion has a positive or negative charge that helps in keeping our PH normal
Bone formation – each ion composes the correct amount of bonds to form bones and teeth

Hydrogen Bonds
1.Explain why water molecules have positive and negative "poles." The oxygen electrons are attracted to like electrons creation some negative charge
on the oygen and positive on

Ionic Bond Lab
Ionic bonds form by the nature of the atoms themselves. When the atoms chemically combine together, the atoms create a compound that has different
properties. The electronegativity between the atoms in the bond determines what type it is. Atoms with higher electronegativity hold atoms more
tightly than those with a lower electronegativity. Therefore, when two elements bond, they must fill each others orbitals to create a stable energy
electron configuration. Each will have eight electrons in their outer energy. The solubility and bond type lab was to use the compounds solubility to
predict the type of bond it contains. To determine so, I added sodium chloride to water in a test tube and some of it dissolved. When the sodium
chloride was put ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Stoichiometry." Encyclopedia of Physical Science. Science Online, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details
/8?articleId=299090&q=Balanced%20chemical%20equation. Accessed 6 May 2018.
Manning, Phillip. "Ionic Bonds." Chemical Bonds, Chelsea House, 2015. Science Online, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details
/8?articleId=368723&q=How%20Do%20ionic%20compounds%20form%3F. Accessed 2 May 2018.
Moscher, Karl F. "Molecular Modeling." Encyclopedia of Chemistry. Revised Edition. Science Online, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details
/8?articleId=299674&q=Models%20of%20Molecular%20Compounds. Accessed 3 May

Atoms And Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonding starts when atoms are sharing pairs of electrons. Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms to get more stability, which they get by
forming a full electron shell. By sharing their outer most valence electrons, atoms fill up their outer electron shell and get stability. Nonmetals will form
covalent bonds with other nonmetals in order to gain stability. They also can form anywhere between one to three covalent bonds with other nonmetals
depending on how many valence electrons they have. Covalent bonds are the strongest type of chemical bond. When two or more atoms have similar
electronegativity, conditions are suitable for covalent bonding. Covalent bonds are the strongest type of chemical bond. Electronegativity increases
toward the right of the periodic table and decreases down the table. Electronegativity is not an atomic property, but is there when atoms interact with
each other. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Metals and metallic atoms have loose electrons that can be taken away easily. In a molten metal, the metallic bond is still there, but the ordered
structure has been broken. The metallic bond isn't all the broken until the metal boils. The boiling point is actually a better guide to the strength of the
metallic bond than melting point is. When melting, the bond is loose, not broken.
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges. Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and a non–metal.
Non–metals are stronger than metal and can get electrons easily from the metal. These ions attract each other and create an ionic bond. Ionic bonds are
also known as electrovalent bonds. Ionic bonds form their bond when opposite charged ions in a chemical compound have an electrostatic attraction.
Even thought Ionic bonds still hold molecules together, they are weaker than covalent

Discipline Of Cell Biology : Physics And Biology
Overview
Discipline of cell biology contains physics and chemistry
Living organisms must obey chemical and physical laws
Biochemical reactions of cells
Cells are made up of
Organic molecules such as carbon
Reactions occur in aqueous solutions
Cells are complex
Because of biochemical reactions within the cell
Polymeric molecules
Makes up the key molecules in the cell
Cells are highly regulated
Must occur in the proper place and time and structure
Molecules determine size structure and function of living cells
Elements, atoms, and molecules
Elements
Are from periodic table, they are the smallest particles of life. made of atoms and cannot be broken down
Chemical bonds hold atoms together in molecules
Review slide
What particles are found in the nucleus? Two particles one is uncharged and other is the same as the mass
Protons and neutrons, neutrons are uncharged
What determines the atomic number, particles in the nucleus determines
The atomic number is determined by the number of protons
What are the roles of the neutrons
Keeping the atom stable
What is the atomic weight of an atom, has to do with particles in nucleus
Very closely equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

What is the molecular weight of a molecule
Atomic and molecular are the same, it's the mass relative to that of a hydrogen atom. Closely equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Atomic number of carbon=6
Atomic mass carbon=Protons + neutrons = 12
6x10^23 is avogadro's

Investigating The Chemical Reactions Between Atoms And...
into the blood. Doctors would measure the amount of tracer that is found in the urine of their patient in order to diagnose them. Which is the only
subatomic particle that is directly involved in the chemical reactions between atoms? The only subatomic particle that is directly involved is an
electron. What is potential energy? Potential energy is energy that matter has due to its location or structure. Explain which has more potential energy
in each pair: boy at the top of a slide/boy at the bottom Boy at top of a slide because of his location. electron in the first energy shell/electron in the third
energy shell Electron in third energy shell because of its relative distance from the nucleus water/glucose Glucose because of its structure (glucose has
more chemical bonds) What determines the chemical behavior of an atom? The distribution of electrons in the electron shells determines the chemical
behavior of an atom. For sodium: How many valence electrons does it have? 1 valence electron How many protons does it have? 11 protons Section
3 15. Define molecule. A molecule is formed by two or more atoms held together by acovalent bond. 16. Now, refer back to your definition of a
compound and fill in the following chart: Molecule? Compound? Molecular Formula Structural Formula (y/n) (y/n) Water Yes Yes H2O H– O – H
Carbon Dioxide Yes Yes CO2 O = C = O Methane Yes Yes CH4 Oxygen Yes No O2 O = O What type of bond is seen in O2? Explain what this means.
A double covalent bond is

Valence Electrons and Gilbert Newton Lewis
Lewis Dot Structures Throughout the 20th century, Gilbert Newton Lewis, found a way on how to have a more visual way to look at valence electrons
for elements. This method of thinking helped the perspective of looking at valence electrons and how those valence electrons bond with other
chemicals or substances. That method is called the Lewis dot structure. When Gilbert Newton Lewis was learning how to draw the Lewis dot
structures, he actually found useful information on what element people were working with. In Lewis dot structures; there are important bits of
information like electron location on where the electrons are the number or types of bonds, and perhaps the shape of the atom.
In element bonding or the elements electron placement, it is very important to take note of. This concept is important because when figuring out the
location of the electrons, you can find out what needs to bond or exchange with other elements that it wants to. Also when finding out the electron
placement of the element, this can show the properties of the element. This part of the atom that is capable of doing this is the valence orbital or valence
shell. Another piece of important parts of a Lewis dot structure is the shape or geometric shape of the atom. In order to discuss and predict chemical
properties, you have to understand at least the shape or figure of the atom. When you understand this concept, you can maybe learn about the element
or the atom's mass, electronegativity,

Ba, Ti & O Atoms Has Been Considerably Changed. The Three
Ba, Ti & O atoms has been considerably changed. The three dimensional view of enlarged portion of Ba–O and Ti–O bonds for three different Sr
doping levels is given in figure 2.32. The increasing incorporation of Sr in the crystal structure of BaTiO3 increases the volume of the electron density
distribution around Ba atom. The reduction in the bond lengths of Ba–O and Ti–O has also been clearly visualized from this figure.
To analyze the nature of bonding qualitatively, 2Delectron density contour maps have been constructed for the Sr doped samples for three different
crystallographic planes, with contour interval of 0.04 e/Г…3. Figure 2.33(a) shows the 3D unit cell of BST with (100) plane shaded and (b), (c) & (d)
represent 2D electron ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The density of the contour lines along the Ti–O bonding region increases with the increasing doping levels of Sr. The overlapping of contour lines
along Ti–O bond exhibits the covalent nature of bonding which is due to the result of hybridization between the O–2p and Ti–3d orbitals. When the
smaller Sr ion is substituted at the lattice site of larger Ba, the volume of the unit cell become smaller and Ti ions can be in good touch with all the O
ions which increases the covalent nature of Ti–O bond.
The quantitative analysis of chemical bonding between the constituent atoms has been carried out by drawing the 1D electron density line profiles for
Ba–O and Ti–O bond. Figure 2.36 shows the 1D electron density line profiles for Ba–O bond for three different Sr concentrations. Figure 2.37 shows
the 1D electron density line profiles for Ti–O bond for three different Sr concentrations.
The bond lengths and mid bond electron density values for Ba–O and Ti–O bonds of Ba1–xSrxTiO3 (x=0.2, 0.4 & 0.6) are given in table 2.15. The
value of mid bond electron density along Ba–O bond decreases with respect to Sr incorporation. The values of electron density show the increase in
ionic nature of the prepared samples due to Sr doping. Along the Ti–O bond, the mid bond density values show increasing trend with the addition of Sr
content which confirms the decrement in ionic nature

The Physics Of Atomic Structure
Lesson 1
1.
Increasing current funding for atomic structure would be a fantastic idea which could lead to discoveries beyond our imagination. For instance, in the
quantum mechanical model, the fact that it is unable to tell the exact location and speed of the electron and cannot describe the electron as a particle
orbiting a fixed path around the nucleus provides evidential support that funding must be placed into this to further our knowledge. This research could
potentially result in terminating the use of probability mathematical equations and replacing them with facts. By just looking at the many revised
versions of the atomic structure, we are able to see that there is potential in knowing more which could lead to even more ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Many wait weeks or even months to receive an MRI, thus, making it very difficult to believe that funding needs to go to more research rather than
providing more MRI machines to be used.
2.
There is a difference in energy between the two lines because the electrons move from higher to lower orbitals. The line within the visible spectrum is
an electron that is moving from a 5th orbital to a 2nd and the line within the Ultraviolet area is an electron moving from a 6th orbital to a 2nd, thus
meaning that the line within the visible spectrum gives off less energy when releasing light whereas the ultraviolet spectrum gives off more energy.
3.
a)
b)After reviewing the diagram, you can conclude that the Zr4+ ion exists because in order for the Zr atom to become stable, it gets rid of 4 electrons
from the 4d and 5s orbitals.
c)The Zr4+ ion is more stable because it outer shell (valance shell) is complete following the octet rule. When this occurs, the atom is less likely to
react because it is most stable. Comparing it to the Zr atom, the Zr atom does not have a filled valence shell.
Lesson 2

4.
NH3
5.
a) HCN b) SOC3 –2
S = 6
O = 6
O = 6
O = 6
6 +18 +2 = 26
6.
a) NH3 Hybrid orbitals
b) HN3 sp3 = sigma bonds (4 bonding)
c)
Nitrogen has 5 electrons with 4 orbitals and 1 lone pair. The bond is different because Nitrogen has one lone pair and the lone pair results in a more
negative pull

All About Covalent Bonding ! Valence Electrons
All About Covalent Bonding! Valence Electrons All About Ionic Bonding!
пЃ¶Covalent bonding is when electrons are shared by atoms, which enables the atoms to gain more stability.
пЃ¶Covalent bonding is done between two nonmetal atoms.
пЃ¶Molecules that are covalently bonded have low melting points because the electrons are being shared. Plus, they are terrible conductors of
electricity, because the molecule is made up of nonmetals.
пЃ¶Covalent bonds can have three types of bonds, a single bond. A double bond, and a triple bond.
пЃ¶Gilbert N. Lewis created an illustration called the "Lewis dot structure" which portrayed covalent bonds. пЃ¶ ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
By sharing these valence electrons, it creates a full electron shell. o Demonstration: H2O, the water molecule is the perfect example of how covalent
bonding uses valence electrons to create a full electron shell. Oxygen has six electrons on the energy level 2p. For that energy level to be full, it can
have two more electrons. Therefore, two hydrogens bond with that one oxygen, to ensure its stability. Hydrogen bonds with the oxygen because in
order for hydrogen's outermost shell (1s) to be filled, it needs one electron to be shared with it. So, oxygen shares one electron with each of the two
hydrogens, and the two hydrogens hare its one electron with the one oxygen.
пЃ¶Atoms that use ionic bonding transfer valence electrons. Metals give nonmetals electrons, which make the metals positively charged, which is
called a cation. Nonmetals receive electrons from metals which make the nonmetals negatively charged which is called an

Key Question Unit 1. 1)For The Increasing Of Current Funding
Key question Unit 1
1)For the increasing of current funding for atomic–structure researches:
Within the last hundred years, the atomic model gone through dramatic changes allowing to apply the knowledge of matter understanding at atomic
level into different industries like medicine such as MRI and X–Ray. This knowledge allowed doctors to treat, diagnose and certainly save millions of
people throughout the years, which could not have been done without research being done on the structure of the atom funded continuously for these
scientists to find more application which benefit people and comprehend the world we live in on an atomic level.
Against the increase of current funding for atomic–structure researches:
The main issue in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4)In NH3 case, from experimental evidence suggests that the nitrogen atom has four identical orbitals in the shape of a tetrahedron.
5)
a)
The C, central atom, has no lone pair of valence electrons.
b)
The S, central atom, has one lone pair of valence electrons.
6)
a)
b)Since one s orbital combined with three p orbitals, the result is sp3. From these four new hybridized orbitals three will take part in a bonding. The
fourth orbital has 2e while the other 3 orbitals contains only one electron. So when a bonding occurs, the 3 single orbitals bond with hydrogen's
electrons.
c)There is one full orbital in N atom's sp3 and 3 single orbitals, while in C atom's sp3 has 4 single orbitals ready to bond. The bond with nitrogen will
differ from carbon's bond due to the extra electron in nitrogen.
7)
CaBr2 Ca=1.0, Br=2.9 2.9 – 1.0= 1.9

Na3N Na=0.9, N=3.0 3.0 – 0.9= 2.1
CH4 C=2.5, H=2.2 2.5 – 2.2= 0.3
a)
b)
CaBr2The difference in electronegativity = 1.9
в€†ED> 1.7
Ionic compound.
Na3NThe difference in electronegativity = 2.1
в€†ED> 1.7
Ionic compound.
CH4The difference in electronegativity = 0.3
в€†ED< 1.7
Molecular compound that contains polar covalent bonds.
c)Non–polar covalent bondpolar covalentionic bond
в€†ED=00>в€†ED>1.7в€†ED>1.7 в€†ED=0.3в€†ED=1.9в€†ED=2.1
CH4CaBr2Na3N So the most ionic compound is Na3N,

Covalent Bonds Lab
The purpose of this lab is to understand and distinguish ionic and covalent bonds. The purpose is also to take seven substances, sucrose, potassium
carbonate, calcium chloride, stearic acid, sodium chloride, wax and salicylic acid, and observe them by testing the melting order, in addition to each of
the substance's conductivity and solubility. Using the information gathered from testing the melting, solubility and the conductivity of each of the
substance, can help determine if the substance is ionic or covalent. To determine the melting order, a small amount of all the substance minus salicylic
acid, were placed on a tray and placed on the hot plate. Stearic acid was the first to melt, wax the second and sucrose the third. Other substances

Water Molecules Research Paper
Why is water an important molecule? Intermolecular Forces
Water is one of the most important molecules as it creates and supports life on earth. Water covers 75% of the surface of the earth and around 78% of
the mass of the human body (infoplease.com, 2000). Its abundance, unique properties, chemical and physical interaction are the reason behind its
importance. The chemical composition of water is H2O. It is a polar, covalently bonded molecule.
A covalently bonded molecule shares electrons between the atoms so each atoms outer shell is full. Covalently bonded molecules are not partially
charged, except for polar covalent bonds. Molecules with polar covalent bonds have partial charges. Within the water molecule, theoxygen atoms
unevenly share the electrons since they have more protons. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Water can also be found in all three states of matter naturally on Earth because it has a low melting and boiling point, due its covalent bonds. Cohesion
is when molecules are more attracted to each other than the surrounding molecules. Dipole–Dipole forces and hydrogen bonds are responsible for
cohesion. Adhesion the opposite of cohesion, when there is a greater electronegativity difference between other molecules than themselves. Figure 4.
Diagram of meniscus and capillary action of water due to cohesion and adhesion (study.com, 2016)
Capillary action is a process where water molecules climb up a narrow tube / material due to kinetic energy and a combination of cohesive and
adhesive forces. Refer to appendix 1 for an experiment demonstrating this. Surface tension is the result of a high concentration of bonds on the surface
of water. When water molecules have nothing to bond with above their surface, they concentrate forming a barrier. Figure 5. Intermolecular forces on
the surface and body of water (Wikimedia,

Biochemical Test Lab Report
1.A. This contains a carboxyl functional group.
B. The functional group for this one is a aldehyde group.
C. This one contains an alcohol functional group.
2. A. Corn syrup turned a red color like a tomato. So according to the lab, I believe this solution was positive for reducing sugars.
B. The sugar solution remained a blue color, so I believe it came up negative.
C. The first unknown solution remained blue as well, so I believe it also came up negative for reducing sugars.
D. The second unknown solution turned a dark blue/purple color which I believe to be negative.
E. The third unknown solution turned a green color, which I also believe to be negative.
F. The fourth unknown solution turned a bright orange/red color, which I believe is positive.
3. A. The onion juice ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lastly, the fourth unknown is the dried milk.
10. There are a few commercial uses for biochemical testing. In the medical field, biochemical testing can be used in order to help doctors or
scientists diagnose some medical issues. For example, biochemical testing can be used to find out if there are certain proteins in a patient's bodily fluids.
11. A. Ionic bonds are "formed when elements give up their outermost electrons to another element or atom, resulting in an ion", according to the
Biological Molecules and pH lab. An example of this, is when one atom becomes a negatively charged anion from taking a negative electron from
another atom, that other atom becomes a positively charged cation. These two atoms attract each other because they have now become oppositely

charged.
B. Covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share electrons. The amount of bond (single, double, and triple bonds) depends on the amount of
electrons being shared. The number of bonds is based on the amount of electrons needed in order to fill the outer shell. For example, if the outer shell
of hydrogen contains 5 electrons, than that hydrogen atom can form 5 possible

Physical Properties and Reactions of Period 3 Oxides
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERIOD 3 OXIDES
These pages explain the relationship between the physical properties of the oxides of Period 3 elements (sodium to chlorine) and their structures.
Argon is obviously omitted because it doesn't form an oxide.
A quick summary of the trends
The oxides
The oxides we'll be looking at are:
|Na2O |MgO |Al2O3 |SiO2 |P4O10 |SO3 |Cl2O7 |
| | | | |P4O6 |SO2 |Cl2O |
Those oxides in the top row are known as the highest oxides of the various elements. These are the oxides where the Period 3 elements are in their
highest oxidation states. In these oxides, all the outer electrons in the Period 3 element are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What you can safely say is that because the metallic oxides and silicon dioxide have giant structures, the melting and boiling points are all high.
Electrical conductivity
Silicon dioxide doesn't have any mobile electrons or ions – so it doesn't conduct electricity either as a solid or a liquid.
The molecular oxides
Phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine all form oxides which consist of molecules. Some of these molecules are fairly simple – others are polymeric. We are
just going to look at some of the simple ones.
Melting and boiling points of these oxides will be much lower than those of the metal oxides or silicon dioxide. The intermolecular forces holding one
molecule to its neighbors' will be van der Waals dispersion forces or dipole–dipole interactions. The strength of these will vary depending on the size
of the molecules.
None of these oxides conducts electricity either as solids or as liquids. None of them contains ions or free electrons.
The phosphorus oxides
Phosphorus has two common oxides, phosphorus (III) oxide, P4O6, and phosphorus (V) oxide, P4O10.
Phosphorus (III) oxide (tetraphosphorus hexoxide)
Phosphorus (III) oxide is a white solid, melting at 24В°C and boiling at 173В°C.
The phosphorus is using only three of its outer electrons (the 3 unpaired p electrons) to form bonds with the oxygens.
Phosphorus (V) oxide (tetraphosphorus decoxide)

Phosphorus (V) oxide is also a white solid, subliming (turning straight

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