Brill Torts Outline

Brill Torts Outline
Torts Outline– Brill Fall 2001 Overview: *What is a tort? A civil wrong other than a breach of
contract for which the law provides a remedy. *Purposes of Tort law: Deter wrongful Encourage
socially responsible behavior Restore injured parties to their original condition Peaceful means
Intentional Torts I. Intent a. Definition–(1) voluntary acts for the purpose of causing [the essential
element of the tort] OR (2) voluntary acts with knowledge to a substantial certainty that [the
essential element of the tort] will result. i. For battery, the defendant must have acted with the intent
to cause a harmful or offensive touching to plaintiff or some logical extension of ... Show more
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Ex: Defendant intended to commit an assault against one boy on his roof by throwing a stick at him,
but hit a second boy, who presence on the roof he wasn't even aware of, the defendant was guilty of
battery to the second youngster. II. Battery a. Definition: (1) intentionally (2) causing (3) directly or
indirectly (4)(a) harmful or (b) offensive contact (5) with plaintiff's person or logical extension of
plaintiff's person (6) without consent or (7) other privilege 1) Intentionally: defendant either acted
for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact to plaintiff (or some extension of plaintiff's
person) or at least knew to a substantial certainty that such contact would occur. Motive is irrelevant.
2) Causing: setting in motion a force that leads to the contact; "but for" the defendant's conduct, the
contact would not have occurred (removing support such as a chair is causation b/c they caused
plaintiff to contact the ground) 3) Directly or Indirectly: defendant does not have to directly contact
the person (i.e. hit someone in the face); instead, can cause the contact by setting object in motion
such as rock, ball, a bullet, etc. 4) (a) Harmful Contact: contact that causes any physical impairment
of the condition of another's body or physical pain or illness or personal injury. One needs to intend
to cause the contact not intend to cause the actual
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Use Of Wireless Local Area Networks
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) are quickly evolving in computer communication networks
(Yue & Matsumoto, 2002). They are being developed to deliver users in restricted geographical
areas the ability to use a high bandwidth. WLANs are used in wireless offices, businesses, college
campuses, and other areas (Yue & Matsumoto, 2002). The use of wireless network interfaces allows
mobile devices to connect to the internet using the Ethernet. Numerous contention–based protocols
that could be modified for use in wireless local area networks exist (Yue & Matsumoto, 2002). The
current standard protocol being observed by IEEE802.11, a standard for WLANs, consist of
protocols based on the carrier sense multiple access, better known as CSMA (Yue ... Show more
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Wireless networks should be protected to safeguard sensitive information. Several practices can be
implemented to protect wireless networks. Executing a wireless security policy is a crucial factor for
protecting data. The security policy should address elements such as responsibilities for users of the
network, scope and goals of the policy, guidelines about internet access, approved hardware and
software, penalties for not obeying security policies, and any other specifics related to the policy
(Weaver, Weaver, & Farwood, 2013).
Proper training is another way to protect wireless security. All users should be trained and made
fully aware of the security policy. Security audits can be used to protect wireless networks because
they provide a good way to identify vulnerabilities and correct them. During the audit, a variation of
tools and methods are used in an effort to break into the network (Weaver, Weaver, & Farwood,
2013). Strong authentication and encryption are other ways to protect wireless networks. The most
common authentication method is (EAP) Extensible Authentication Protocol (Kurt & Ozdemir,
2013). This method supports several methods of authentication and runs over data link

Wireless Sensor Network: Link Quality Based Hierarchical...
Link Quality Based Hierarchical Routing Algorithm for 6LoWPAN
INTRODUCTION
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is one of the fastest growing areas in networking world today. In
order to convert WSN from personal area network (PAN) into low power personal area network
(LoWPAN), IEEE standard 802.15.4 was introduced. However, future WSNs would consist of
thousands of nodes and these networks may be connected to others via the internet. Hence, IPv6
over LoWPAN (6LoWPAN) is defined by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as a technique to
integrate internet capability into WSN. 6LoWPAN provides a WSN node with IP communication
capabilities by putting an adaptation layer above the IEEE 802.15.4 link layer for the packet
fragmentation and reassembly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are total of 27 channels defined in the PHY layer. These channels are allocated into different
frequency bands with varying data rates as showed in Table 1. At MAC layer, it specifies when the
devices may access the channel for communication. The basic tasks provided by the MAC layer are
beacon generation and synchronization, supporting PAN association and disassociation, managing
channel access via Carriers Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
mechanism, and etc.
The application of 6LoWPAN ranges from home to military application to medical field. It is also
used in smart metering and for industrial automation, energy efficiency, better security systems and
vehicular automation. One interesting example application of 6LoWPAN is in facility management,
which is the management of large facilities using a combination of building automation, asset
management and other embedded systems. The devices in the 6LoWPAN network need to have a
appropriate routing mechanism in order to be able to route keeping in mind the constraints in the
devices such as memory and power. The protocols should try to minimize the energy usage and
improve the lifetime of the entire network. When the concept of link quality is combined with the
routing protocols the lifetime of the network is always greatly enhanced. There are many protocols
of which hierarchical routing protocol introduces hierarchical routing in 6LoWPAN. Thus, we

Wireless Networking And Its Impact On The World
In 2016, the majority of networking is done wirelessly. Advancements in technology over the past
ten to fifteen years has allowed us to network wirelessly anywhere in the world. There are remote
areas in the world that do not allow wireless networking due to resources being unavailable, at least
for now. The world of networking is continuously growing. I would predict that with initiatives such
as Facebook's WiFi Drone, WiFi will be available everywhere in the world no matter your location.
The term "WiFi" is a trademark of the WiFi alliance, a trade association who promotes LAN
technologies and certifies products. The term "WiFi" was adopted in 1999 as a branding term. It is
an acronym for wireless fidelity. Any device that has a stamp of WiFi certification must meet the
IEEE 802.11 standards meaning that the devices capabilities are compatible with other certified
devices. In 1985, the FCC released what is known as the ISM Band for unlicensed use. ISM or
Industrial Scientific and Medical Band, is a radio band reserved for all sorts of devices around the
world that serve a purpose in the title's description. The ISM reserved frequencies that are
commonly used today such as 902 – 928 MHz or 2.4 – 2.5 GHz for wireless use. Other devices that
operate on this frequency such as microwaves, can interfere with the traffic going across the same
frequency. 902 – 928 MHz is only unlicensed by what the ITU or International Telecommunications
Union refers to as "Region Two". Region

How The Mac Is A Medium Access Control Protocol
Introduction : This paper discusses about the S–MAC , which is a Medium Access Control Protocol
used in wireless sensor networks . The protocol proposed in the paper is mainly inspired by PAMAS
. The important goals of this protocol is to conserve energy and configure by itself or known as
scalability . It is entirely different from traditional mac protocols like ieee 802.11. The protocol uses
three primary techniques to support energy conserving and self–configuration . they periodically
sleep to minimize energy consumption , then formation of virtual clusters by neighbor nodes for
auto synchronization on sleep times and radios are also set to sleep during transmissions of other
node . Then S–mac uses message passing and in–channel ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
2) periodic listen and sleep : in this the listen time is reduced by letting go the node into periodic
sleep .
a) basis scheme : in this node goes to sleep for a specified time and then wakes up to listen if any
node wants to communicate with it . A timer is set during sleep and the radio of the node is also
turned off . A periodic synchronization is between neighbor nodes for their correct clock timings .
Two techniques are used to synchronization one is timestamps exchanged are relative other than
being absolute. Another technique is listen is period is longer than clock error or drift . To reduce
control overhead neighbor nodes should be preferred to synchronize together . to be noted that all
neighboring nodes cant synchronize together . then all nodes broadcast their schedule to all its
immediate neighbors this for ensuring that all neighbor can talk with different schedule times . If
multiple nodes want to talk to a node , this can be done by contention mechanism using request to
send and clear to send packets . here first come first serve basis , node which send first will grab the
medium . here the formation of nodes are done in flat topology .
b) choosing and maintaining schedules : each node maintains its own schedule table where its
neighbor nodes schedule are stored. First node listens for a particular time , if it is not hearing from
another node it randomnly goes to sleep with broadcasting a SYNC message .

Research Paper
Wireless Fidelity
In the last few years the world has undergone a tremendous and unprecedented technological change
with the attack of the Information Technology revolution. Earlier it was e–mail that changed the way
people communicate, and then online shopping became the order of the day, gradually online
banking caught up and the list goes on and on. The new trend, Wi–Fi, or Wireless Fidelity, allows
you to connect to the Internet from your couch at home, a bed in a hotel room or at school, all
without wires. As author Harold Davis nicely puts, "Wi–Fi is a wireless technology just like a
mobile phone and Wi–Fi enabled computers send and receive data indoors and out; anywhere within
the range of a base ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
IEEE 802.11b defines the physical layer and media access control (MAC) sublayer for
communications across a shared, wireless local area network (WLAN). As Theodore Rappaport
states, "At the physical layer, IEEE 802.11b operates at the radio frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)
with a maximum bit rate of 11 Mbps. It uses the direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
transmission technique. At the MAC sublayer of the Data Link layer, 802.11b uses the carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access control (MAC) protocol" (35).
A wireless station with a frame to transmit first listens on the wireless medium to determine if
another station is currently transmitting (this is the carrier sense portion of CSMA/CA). If the
medium is being used, the wireless station calculates a random backoff delay. Only after the random
backoff delay elapses can the wireless station again listen for a transmitting station. By instituting a
random backoff delay, multiple stations that are waiting to transmit do not end up trying to transmit
at the same time (this is the collision avoidance portion of CSMA/CA).
Collisions can occur and, unlike with Ethernet, they might not be detected by the transmitting nodes.
Therefore, 802.11b uses a Request to Send (RTS)/Clear to Send (CTS) protocol with an
Acknowledgment (ACK) signal to ensure that a frame is successfully transmitted and received.
The 802.11b

Networks Essay
Wireless Local Area Networks
A wireless local area network (LAN) is a flexible data communications system implemented as an
extension to, or as an alternative for, a wired LAN. It uses radio frequency (RF) technology, to
transmit and receive data over the air, minimizing the need for wired connections. A wireless LAN
system can combine data connectivity with user mobility.
The data to be transmitted is modulated onto the radio waves, called carriers, and then are removed
from the carriers at the other end by what is called a transceiver. End users in a wireless local area
network access the network through adapters such as PC cards in laptop notebook computers. And
PCI cards ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the receiver is not on the right frequency, a spread–spectrum signal looks like background noise.
The two types of spread–spectrum radio are frequency hopping and direct sequence. (Behrouz,
2004)
Frequency–hopping spread–spectrum (FHSS) is a method that uses a narrow band carrier that
changes frequencies in a distinct pattern. The signal hops to a variety of frequencies, with the exact
sequence of changes, known as the hopping sequence. At any moment, the broadcast signal uses
only one frequency, or even several frequencies is not enough to effectively affect the
communication between devices. The FHSS is used between 2.4 GHz and 2.5 GHz and operates at a
data rate of about 1.6 Mbs per channel. Direct sequence spread–spectrum (DSSS) generates a bit
pattern for each bit to be transmitted. This bit pattern is called a chip or chipping code (Kurose,
2003).
Another technology that can be used in wireless networks is infrared light (IR). Infrared systems use
very high frequencies, which are those just under visible light, to transfer data. IR cannot pass
through dense objects. Therefore it must be used in line–of–sight or with diffused technology (Dean
2000). Line of sight, or directed, technologies have a very limited range, many times less than five
feet, and are very unrealistic for people who work in environments clustered with things which
would prevent line–of–sight between

Wireless Network Method Using Smart Grid Communications
WIRELESS NETWORK METHOD USING IN SMART GRID COMMUNICATIONS
Ehsan Dolatshahi
Independent Study
April 22, 2015
Introduction
The old generation of electrical power grid has taken care of our needs in the past. However, as our
world progress technologically, so do the expectations from different infrastructures around us.
Smart grid is an initiative to completely restructure the electrical power grid to meet the current and
future requirements of its clients. Upgrading our electrical power grid could bring novel security
vulnerabilities into the system. Thus, security is one of the key parts in smart grid technology. Smart
grid technology also puts more reliability demands on WAN (wide area network) infrastructures. [1]
A smart grid is an intelligent electricity network that integrates the actions of all users connected to
it and makes use of innovative information, control, and communication technologies to save
energy, cut cost, and raise reliability and transparency. The smart grid is an upgrade to the current
electrical power structure. Meaning, on top of the functionality of our existing power system, it has
upgraded with some novel specifications. These new features adds more vulnerability to the system.
[2]
Smart grid is mainly composed of six basic systems: power generation system, distribution system,
transmission network, data management and processing system, smart metering system, and
customer information system. The network architecture of smart grid

How Technology Can Replace The Existing Wireless Technologies
IT 377 GRADUATE RESEARCH PAPER ON "ZIGBEE TECHNOLOGY" BY: KAVYA GUPTA
1.ABSTRACT
The networking industry is experiencing new technologies every now and then. From the migration
of wired to wireless networks, there are drastic changes in the way, networking was earlier
perceived. Connecting devices in a multiple different ways is possible using new IEEE standards
and protocols. The research paper aims at discussing some potential features of a wireless
technology, "ZigBee", which in a way is similar to the Bluetooth. What is actually ZigBee?, Why do
we need it ? and its acceptance in the market, are some of the questions which would be answered in
the coming sections of this research ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It uses the mesh topology for transmitting data. This way it offers a secure way for communicating
wirelessly with a number of other such devices.
The research project is aimed at studying ways in which this new technology is helpful for day–to–
day communication needs. It focusses on the potential benefits that can be reaped by following this
standard for wireless connectivity. The cons related to it need to be understood thoroughly so that it
can be improved in its coming versions so that we may progress more in the wireless
communication domain. Since it is based upon Layer 1 and part of layer 2 OSI Model, it may prove
further useful to connect a number of devices.
3. TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION
The ZigBee technology, has different subdivisions and names and works on the several layers of the
OSI model, each having a different name and a distinguished function. This paper focuses on the
first two layer of the OSI which is responsible for point–to–point connectivity. The ZigBee
technology has an embedded set of features, which can be applied to a wide variety of consumer,
commercial and industrial applications. ZigBee builds upon the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, and
provides low cost solutions to short distance communications meant mainly for Personal Area
Networks. It is in some ways similar to the Bluetooth Technology. This IEEE standard provides
characteristics for Low Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR–WPAN). The

Business Data Communication and Networks test bank Essays
Which of the following is a data link layer function?
A) packetizing B) error and flow control
C) medium access control
The data link layer is responsible for _______ delivery.
C) hop–to–hop The data packet at the data link layer is usually called a _______.
A) frame The protocol for obtaining the physical address of a node when the IP address is known is
called _______.
C)
ARP
A signal can lose energy due to the resistance of the medium. This is called _______.
D) attenuation _______ can cause errors during data transmission.
A)
White noise
B)
Impulse noise
C)
Echo
Which of the following best describes a single–bit error?
B)
A single bit is inverted per data unit.
If the ASCII character G is sent and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
C)
Timing

Data flow between two devices can occur in a _______ way.
A) simplex B) half–duplex C) full–duplex In a ______ connection, two and only two devices are
connected by a dedicated link.
B) point–to–point In a ________ connection, three or more devices share a link.
A) multipoint ______ refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
C)
Topology
Devices may be arranged in a _____ topology.
A) mesh B) ring C) bus A _______ is a data communication system within a building, plant, or
campus, or between nearby buildings.
B)
LAN
A ______ is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world.
C)
WAN
________ is a collection of many separate networks.
B)
An internet
There are ______________ Internet service providers.
A) local B) regional C) national and international
A ________ is a set of rules that governs data communication.
B) protocol ________ is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an Internet standard.
B)
RFC
The Internet model consists of _______ layers.
B)
Five
The process–to–process delivery of the entire message is the responsibility of the _______ layer.
B)
Transport
The _______ layer is the layer closest to the transmission medium.
A) Physical
Mail services are available to network users through the _______ layer.

D)
Application
As the data packet moves from the upper to the lower layers, headers are _______.
A)
Added
The _______ layer lies between the network

How Networks Work And Different Types Of Them
Here I will explain a few keywords that will be frequently used in the PowerPoint Today we will
learn about networks. We will learn about how networks work and about the different types of them.
You will also learn about all of the Physical devices in a network which make it work. The First
Type of network we will talk about it LAN this stands Local Area Network. LAN networks can
range in size from two computers, but the size is limitless from there the only restriction is
hardware. One example of a LAN is your home network you have different device that connect to
each other to get a service, which is the internet. LANs use the IEEE standards to make sure there is
inter–compatibility between different hardware from different manufacturers on LANs. LANs also
use a range of protocols to help provide different functions, for example LANs use the TCP/IP
protocol suite to communicate with WANs such as the internet. LANs may also use the token ring
protocol to control network access also they may use Fibre Distributed Data Interface to provide a
backbone for LANs spread over large distances. Normally LANs in a corporate network can be a
mixture of wireless and wired connections they use different technologies to avoid network
collisions. The best way to think of network collisions is like a tunnel with cars going through and if
two cars want to go down the same lane at the same time they will collide this would prevent the car
from getting to its destination, this is the same

IEEE 802.11Wireless LAN: Essay
IEEE 802.11Wireless LAN Being one of the most extended wireless technologies in wireless
communication networks, IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN offers simplicity, flexibility and cost
effectiveness as its main characteristics. This wireless technology provides communication between
peoples everywhere and computing environment at any place where peoples needed wireless
communication to communicate. At the same time, number of users for multimedia applications
increased. Nowadays, peoples want more of the high–speed video, audio, voice and web services
anywhere and anytime. Unfortunately, these multimedia applications require Quality of Service
support such as guaranteed bandwidth, delay, jitter, and error rate. This might be challenging as ...
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For example, parameterized or prioritized Quality of Service. Basically, Quality of Service is the
ability of network element, for example, an application, a host or router, to provide some levels of
assurance for consistent network data delivery. Parameterized Quality of Service is a strict
requirement of Quality of Service that shows in terms of quantitative values, such as data rate, delay
bound, and jitter bound. This quantitative value is expected to be met within the medium access
control data service in the transferring of data frames in a Traffic Specification. Prioritized Quality
of Service is expressed in the terms of relative delivery priority, which is used to be within the
medium access control data service in the transfer of data frames between peer stations. The values
of Quality of Service parameters such as data rate, delay bound, and jitter bound, may be differ in
the transfer of data frames, without the need to reserve the required resources by negotiating the
Traffic Specification. Quality of Service limitations of Distributed Coordination Function
Distributed Coordination Function is a distributed medium access scheme based on carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol. A station must sense the medium
before initiating a packet transmission. This scheme only supports best–effort services but not any
Quality of Service guarantees. Basically, time–based application

Introduction Of An Internet Of Things
Abstract– 6LowPAN was introduced by the IETF as a standard protocol to interconnect tiny and
constrained devices across IPv6 clouds. 6LowPAN supports a QoS feature based on two priority
bits. So far, little interest has been granted and this QoS feature and there are no implementations of
such feature in real networks. In this paper, we evaluate the effectiveness of these priority bits in
various scenarios. We show that under very heavy or very low network load, these bits have a
limited effect on the delay. We will also study the effect of using of 802.15.4 frame in different cases
on QoS, Keys words: Internet of Things, Sensor Networks, Flow Label, Traffic Class, 6LowPAN,
CSMA/CA, GTS. 1. Introduction An Internet of Things (IoT) system connects the physical world
into Internet via radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, sensors, and mobile devices. IoT is an
intelligent collaboration of tiny sensors and devices giving new challenges to the end to end
communication of things. 6lowpan (IPv6 over Low–Power Wireless Personal Area Networks) is a
promising IoT IETF standard for connecting sensors across IPv6 clouds. Some sensing applications
are time sensitive and may require bounded delay in sending the sensed data. In particular, military,
mission critical and safety domains generally require rapid and/or real time data transfer. Therefore,
some QoS feature would be required to give sensor network administrators the ability to control the
overall network performance.

Chemical Hazards
Index Back Next xxii Index Back Next National Disaster Management Guidelines Chemical
Disasters (Industrial) i Index Back Next ii Index Back Next National Disaster Management
Guidelines Chemical Disasters (Industrial) National Disaster Management Authority Government of
India iii Index Back Next iv Index Back Next Member National Disaster Management
Authority Government of India ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am thankful to the Core Group
Members for their untiring efforts in helping the NDMA in the formulation of the National
Guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management. I would like to place on record the significant
contribution made by the Ministry of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
and Standards Statutory Inspection, Safety Audit and Testing of Emergency Plans Technical and
Technological Information Preparedness Education, Training and Capacity Development Awareness
Generation Institutions, Networking and Communication Medical Preparedness and Response R&D
Response, Relief and Rehabilitation Management of Transport Accidents Implementation of
Existing Regulations and Procedures Lack of Emphasis on CDM Functions at Various Levels
Deficiencies in On–Site and Off–Site Emergency Plans Liability and Compensation Finance Role of
Civil Society and the Private Sector 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 4
4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.2 4.2.1 Guidelines for Chemical Disaster Management Management of
Chemical Disasters Regulatory Framework Codes of Practises, Procedures and Standards Statutory
Inspection, Safety Auditing and Testing of Emergency Plans Technical and Technological
Information Preparedness Education and Training 22 22 22 24 25 26 26 27 vi Index Back Next
CONTENTS 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 4.3 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5 4.6 Creation of
Appropriate Infrastructure Capacity Development Awareness Generation Institutional Framework
Networking and Information Medical Preparedness R&D Response, Relief and Rehabilitation
Important Elements of Response Emergency Medical Response Relief and Rehabilitation
Guidelines for CDM at State and District Levels Preparation of On–Site and Off–Site

S07 the Latest Development in Networks and Communication
S07.1 The Latest Development in Networks and Communications.
NAME : NURHAYATI BINTI OMAR
CLASS : 4 GAMMA
IC : 960213–14–5552
GROUP MEMBER:
NURFADHILAH BT AZMAN
NURUL AMALIYA BT MOHD NOR AZAM
Contents
2.0 Mobile Computing
2.1 Definition
2.2 Spefication,Service And Frequencies Of Mobile Computing
3.0 Internet Technology And Services
3.1 VoIP 3.2 Blog
4.0 Types Of Networks 5.1 PAN 5.2 VPN 5.3 WLAN 5.4 WIMAX
5.0 Conclusion
Reference
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS 1. Introduction
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to access
network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere. Ubiquitous computing and nomadic computing
are synonymous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group.
Bluetooth technology relies on two things, a radio frequency technology and the protocol software
enabling it to transmit data to other devices. Bluetooth–capable devices can transmit data to other
devices not within the line of sight of the user. It also enables different devices to communicate
using certain rules such as the amount of data that will be sent, the type of communication between
the devices and the radio frequency or frequencies this communication will take place. These
protocols ensure that Bluetooth devices experience the least amount of interference from other

Bluetooth capable objects while communicating with each other. smartphones are the ideal
productivity solution for both voice and data for your mobile workforce. They'll be able to stay in
touch with the people and information that matter most. Access email, instant message, access the
Internet, run business applications and more.Communicate your way: Call, email, instant message,
or text message, all with one device.
3.0 Internet Technology and Services
3.1 VOIP
(Voice Over IP) A telephone service that uses the Internet as a global telephone network. Many
companies, including Vonage, 8×8 and AT&T (CallVantage), typically offer calling within the
country for a fixed fee and a low per–minute charge

Network : A Network Based Within The Environments Of A...
Networks A network is two or more devices e.g. computers, mobile phones being connected
together so that they can exchange data with each other. There are many connections available
between the devices that would create the network; the most common in computers is using wires,
such as a CAT–5 cable which specialises in carrying signals in a network. The types of networks
are: PAN (Personal Area Network) – This is a network based within the surroundings of a single
person, so it is a very short–range connection; the range is normally around 10 metres. An example
of a PAN would be Bluetooth, it is a wireless network that can be used for connecting a
keyboard/mouse to a PC or most commonly to transfer data e.g. music to another device ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most popular and largest WAN is the Internet. The most common connection for a WAN to use
would be either optical fibre cables, other methods are satellite or microwave links. MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network) – This network is bigger than a LAN and a WAN; therefore it works
best for an entire city. MANs are created when multiple LANs connect together and they are used
for high connection speed for that city. The best connection method to provide that fast speed would
be the fibre optic cables, but again other ways include the satellite links. WAN Technologies Frame
Relay–This is a type of WAN structure that can direct all of the data that has been sent onto the
traffic line. It enables all of the devices in the wide–area network to communicate with each other
without any direct communication, this is through the packet switching mechanism when the
packets are in frames. MPLS–This is Multi–protocol labelled switching. When a packet of data is
sent onto the line in a MPLS network, they are given labels to allow the network to identify each
packet. These labels contain the destination and the bandwidth it will take. ATM–This is
Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is based around transmitting data in packets of a certain size. Since
the data is divided into small packets, it does not take up much bandwidth. Topologies Logical
Topology – A logical topology of a network defines how devices on a network are structured and
how they are connected. It shows the way that data and

Common Knowledge : How Companies Thrive by Sharing What...
title: author: publisher: isbn10 | asin: print isbn13: ebook isbn13: language: subject publication date:
lcc: ddc: subject:
Common Knowledge : How Companies Thrive By Sharing What They Know Dixon, Nancy M.
Harvard Business School Press 0875849040 9780875849041 9780585258171 English
Organizational learning, Business enterprises–Communication systems, Intellectual cooperation,
Information networks––Economic aspects, Success in business. 2000 HD58.82.D585 2000eb
658.4/5 Organizational learning, Business enterprises–Communication systems, Intellectual
cooperation, Information networks––Economic aspects, Success in business.
Page iii
Common Knowledge
How Companies Thrive by Sharing What They Know
Nancy M. Dixon
Harvard Business ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is not news to organizations that they need to find ways to keep from continually reinventing the
wheel. Although aware of the problem, organizations only recently have begun to construct
processes that may change the too familiar predicament depicted in the cartoon. Perhaps
organizations are now addressing the issue of knowledge sharing due to their growing awareness of
the importance of knowledge to organizational success or perhaps because technology has made the
sharing of knowledge more feasible. Whatever the impetus, organizations have started to do more
than
Page 2
talk about sharing knowledgethey have begun to put into place the tools and processes that can
actually bring it about. Knowledge databases, best practice seminars, technology fairs, cross–
functional teams, "Does anyone know . . . ?" e–mails, and groupware, to name but a few
knowledge–sharing processes, have the avowed purpose of getting knowledge that exists in one part
of the organization put to use in another part of the organization. Three Myths Pervading the idea of
knowledge sharing are three myths. Perhaps myth is the wrong termmaybe they are just assumptions
that seem reasonable at first glance, but when acted on send organizations to a dead end. Many of
the organizations I studied started with one or more of these assumptions and then had to make

corrections to get back on track. The three myths are (1) build it and they will come, (2) technology
can

Data And Data Analysis Paper
The world is converging toward a critical point in history where the question has to be asked, will
there be enough resources to go around? Populations around the globe are growing and moving out
of poverty towards the consumption based lifestyles of western countries. This means more is
needed, more oil, more water, and more food. These resources are finite, limited, and often wasted.
Through the use of technology and data, these resources can be better utilized. Data and data
analysis will allow these systems to be optimized to produce more and waste less. The goal of this
project is to use data and apply it to the field of plant growth and agriculture. The Internet of Things
(IoT) is a data driven technology that seeks to integrate and connect everyday devices and sensors.
This data infrastructure can be used for a variety of applications such as home automation, industrial
manufacturing, healthcare, and smart agriculture. Although each application is derived from a
significantly different field, the underlying communication protocols are very similar and must
adhere to similar constraints. The constraints of low power devices, lossy links, noisy environments,
and embedded microcontrollers with limited memory and processing power. These protocols are the
basis of the IoT protocol stack. They create the framework that determines how data is transferred
within an IoT network [3][4]. The focus of active IoT research is shifting towards data, how data is
sent, how

P1 : Explain How Networks Communicate
P1 – Explain how networks communicate
A Network
A network enables all PCs and devices to exchange data with each other which means they can all
communicate with each other with information and data.
There are different network types for example:
LAN (Local area network)
Local area network (LAN) is a wireless network that is mostly used in a work place or small
building. To be able to make this work, you will need an access point connected to a switch to create
the wireless network. There are different types of hardware components that are used to set a
wireless network up such as network adaptors, Ethernet cables and a hub.
A wireless network could be useful in many places like a home or business/workplace to be able to
share a variety of files such as printers and scanners.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN (Wide area network) is a computer network that covers a far wider area than a LAN (Local
Area Network). WANs are used for continents, cities, countries, and the whole world.
A WAN is formed by linking LANs together. For example, lots of different major LANs in a city
can connect to make a WAN. This can be very useful for people that are not able to connect to an
internet service and are in need of the internet.
Network Topologies – This is basically the structures of a LAN and a WAN.
Star:
In a star network, all cables or nodes are connected to one central core which is the hub. This tends
to be the most reliable topology.
A good thing about a star

Categories for The MAC Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks
The MAC Protocols for wireless sensor networks are divided into two categories:
1. Contention–based: The Contention based protocols are used to avoid the hidden terminal
problem. But the problems with these are idle listening, collision avoidance, and overhearing. IEEE
802.11, S–MAC are examples of this category
2. Reservation–based: TDMA protocols are based on reservation and scheduling. They have less
energy–consumption compared to Contention based Protocols. Bluetooth is an example of TDMA
based protocol
A. IEEE 802.11 Distributed Coordination Function
IEEE 802.11(DCF) is widely used contention–based protocol in wireless sensor networks. The DCF
is a random channel–access scheme where every station begins its transmission based on ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Besides there is possibility of re–transmission of collided packets
The above three reasons are major sources for energy–wastage in conventional protocols They are
avoided in Sensor MAC using two techniques: Periodic Sleeping and Adaptive Listening
Periodic Sleeping:–
Node must first listen to their neighboring nodes before starting their own listen and sleep schedules
.There are two options for the Sensor Node
1. If the sensor node listens the schedule of any of the neighboring node ,then it becomes follower
2. If the sensor node doesn't listen to any schedule from the neighboring nodes then it frames its own
schedule and becomes Synchronizer. It broadcasts its own schedule
If the nodes don't aware of each other, Periodic Neighboring node discovery solves the problem
Advantages
Due to Periodic Sleeping there is Reduction in Energy Consumption
Disadvantages
Due to periodic sleeping increase in latency occurs
Adaptive Listening:–
Adaptive Listening reduces the delay caused by Periodic Sleeping. In this technique, if the node
overhears its neighbor's transmission, it wakes up at the end of transmission for a short period of
time. if

Loss Of Control Accidents And Possible Synergies With New...
Precursors to Loss of Control Accidents and possible synergies with new NextGen airspace To
establish the basis of this research, aircraft loss of control can be considered to encompass flight
abnormal situations outside of the normal operating flight envelopes, characterized by non–linear
effects and by the inability to maintain heading, altitude and attitude (Belcastro, Newman, Crider,
Groff, Foster, Klyde and Huston, 2014) Loss of Control In Flight (LOC–I) has consistently been a
predominant cause of aviation accidents. Loss of Control Accidents are highly complex and
typically involve the combination of multiple contributing factors (Belcastro and Jacobson, 2010).
Over the last eight years, loss of control accidents have resulted in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Researches have continuously been working on ways to reduce loss of control in flight accidents for
general aviation operations, focusing on the implementation of flight envelope protection systems in
the aircraft to simplify piloting, reduce pilot workload, and allow low–end general aviation aircraft
to operate under deteriorated meteorological conditions (Falkena, Borst, Chu and Mulder, 2011).
Researches have continuously been working on ways to reduce loss of control in flight accidents for
general aviation operations, focusing on the implementation of flight envelope protection systems in
the aircraft to simplify piloting, reduce pilot workload, and allow low–end general aviation aircraft
to operate under deteriorated meteorological conditions (Falkena et al., 2011). Problem Statement
During the past five years, the identification of precursors leading to loss of control accidents in
general aviation has been in secondary plane. However, small airplanes are more sensitive to center
of gravity variations as opposed to the more stable commercial aircrafts and therefore, more
susceptible to loss of control in flight (Falkena et al., 2011). In the upcoming new airspace under the
NextGen navigation system, new synergies are being identified for air carriers operations; however,
different factors may be more recurrent in general aviation loss of control events. This study will
help understand the more recurrent causal

Quiz Questions On Computer Networks
CHARLES STURT UNIVERSITY ASSIGNMENT–2 NAME: PILLELLA CHAITANYA
STUDENT ID: 11568590 SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS INDEX QUESTION
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10–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––PAGE 14 Question 1
Generally in connection based structure when two or more workstations transmit information in the
same time, data gets blended up to noise and this state is known as collision. Right when the effect
is seen in the workstations hold up certain amount of time and attempt to send once again. In this
circumstance it can 't be picked when a workstation will get a chance to transmit. This kind of
condition is known as nondeterministic protocol

Changing The Physical Layer
The physical layer specifics the function details for initiating, keeping up and turning off the
physical link when moving the bits of data over the physical media such as copper, fibre or wireless.
So it will takes your data bits of ones and zeros covert them to what is needed to transfer over that
type of media so for example change bits into electrical signals for copper cables then will covert it
back to ones and zeros once it reaches its destination to send up OSI model layers.
When changing the bits so they can be sent over different types of media this is known as signalling.
Signalling will change the bits to what it needs to be for transmission then is read by the connections
at the other end.
Protocols of the physical layer ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If there is a difference a CRC frame error is generated to state there is a corruption either on the
sending device side or the destinations device packet transmission.
For detecting and troubleshooting these issues use the different types of show commands such as
show interface and show spanning–tree.
The data link layer is responsible for controlling access to the media and formatting the data for
transmission for going across the physical network link. So it encapsulates the packets from the
network layer to suitable frames for the network media to use for transferring data frames from one
place to another error free. The addressing used at this layer is physical addressing also known as
mac addressing which is how devices are addressed at this layer instead of IP addressing. The data
link layer also does error detection at this layer as well.
The data link layer has two sub layers which are logical link control and Mac. The logical link
control sub layer gives flexibility in services to the layers above so it will let the data link layer
known what to do with a packet when gets a frame. This works by it will check the header to
establish that the packet inside the frame it received is destined for the network layer. The MAC sub
layer keeps a table with the mac addresses of the devices because each device must have a unique
Mac to be identified on the network.
At the data link layer you also

Local Area Network ( Wan )
LAN stands for local area network and is normally a group of computers that share a common
communications line typically, connected devices share the resources of a single processor or server
within a small area such as an office. A LAN may serve as few as two or three users such as in a
home network or as many as thousands of users such as a FDDI network.
WAN
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a communication network made up of computers that are far away
from each other. The most common example of a Wan is the Internet although a WAN doesn't need
to be global to qualify as a wide area network.
MAN
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer resources
in a geographic area or region larger ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The tree allows you to have many servers on the network and you can branch out the network in
many ways. This is useful for colleges, universities and schools so that each of the branches can
identify the relevant systems in their own network.
Advantages
A Tree Topology is supported by many network vendors and even hardware vendors.
A point to point connection is possible with Tree Networks.
All the computers have access to the larger and their immediate networks.
Best topology for branched out networks.
Disadvantages
The Tree Topology network is reliant on the trunk which is the main backbone of the network. If
that has to fail then the entire network would fail.
In a Network Topology the length of the network depends on the type of cable that is being used.
Star Star Topology is the most common type of network topology that is used in homes and offices.
In the Star Topology there is a central connection point called the hub which is a computer hub or
sometimes just a switch.
Advantages
A Star Network Topology is very easy to manage because of its simplicity in functionality.
The problems can be easily located logically in a Star Topology and therefore is easy to troubleshoot

also.
The Star Topology is very simple in format so it is very easy to expand on the Star Topology.
Disadvantages
The Star Topology has to fully rely on the hub and the whole working of the network depends on the
hub.
If there are many nodes and the

Network Features Of A Network
A Network
A network enables all PCs and devices to exchange data with each other which means they can all
communicate with each other with information and data. There are different network types for
example: LAN (Local area network)
Local area network (LAN) is a wireless network where it is used in a small building or a work
office. You will need an access point connected to a switch to create the wireless network.
There are different types of hardware components that are used to set a wireless network up such as
network adaptors, Ethernet cables and a hub.
A wireless network could be useful in many places like a home or business/workplace to be able to
share a variety of files such as printers and scanners. WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN (Wide area network) is a computer network that covers a far wider area than a LAN (Local
Area Network). WANs continents cover cities, countries, and the whole world.
A WAN is formed by linking LANs together. For example, lots of different major LANs in a city
can connect to make a WAN. Network Topologies – This is basically the structures of a LAN and a
WAN. ShapeStar:
ShapeShape
Shape
ShapeShape
Text Box
ShapeShape
ShapeShape
In a star network, all cables or nodes are connected to one central core which is the hub. This tends
to be the most reliable topology.
A good thing about a star network is that it has good security because no workstation can interact
with another without going through the

The Hybrid Fiber Wireless Networks
II. Related work
The hybrid Fiber–Wireless networks are the combination of both optical back–end and wireless
front–end. The commercial deployment of FiWi access networks faces a number of challenges
including network deployment [5–7], network routing [8–12], frame aggregation [13],[14] and
bandwidth allocation. The main focus of this paper is on the bandwidth allocation process where
network resources are shared between the users on the same network. This process manages the
distribution of available bandwidth in terms of Bytes, timeslots, channels, sub channels and
subcarriers to the users. Bandwidth allocation algorithms could be static/fixed or dynamic
bandwidth allocation algorithms (DBA). The static algorithms distribute bandwidth equally between
users in the same network. These algorithms suffer from inefficient utilization of bandwidth thus
degrading the network performance. Therefore, researches on DBA algorithms have gained many
researchers attention in FiWi networks.
Several dynamic bandwidth allocation techniques have been proposed in the research community
adopted on different FiWi networks' architectures, which combine different technologies of optical
and wireless networks.
The integration of both EPON and WiMAX technologies has been emerged a possible architecture
to properly deploy FiWi networks. Several DBA algorithms have been examined considering the
MAC integration of both EPON and WiMAX. In [15], a QoS–based DBA algorithm combined with
the

Advantages And Limitations Of Ipv4
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Communication is the foremost requirement in order to express
one's relations to the mankind and for expression of one's attitude .Whenever two persons meet they
require some medium to interchange their ideas/opinions but most of the times due to large distance
between communicating parties some tools are required to communicate with each other. At the end
of 19th century, renowned scientist Alexander Graham Bell laid the foundation in the field of
development of communication using different ideas regardless of the large distances. The first wire
based telephony equipment was invented by him. It was the solution for voice communication
despite the huge distances between communicating parties. Thereafter radio based communication
system Era started. It was mere an extension of wire based networks. In the early times it was just
developed for few special purposes like military and defense usage .As the time passed these
systems emerged to allow common public to communicate with each other, rather than using wire
based network. Thereafter the era of faster and reliable communication and higher capabilities of
voice communication began to develop and evolved into new telecommunication system. In the new
generation networks the desire to have seamless ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It has been framed keeping the limitations of IPv4 in mind. One of the important features of IPv6 is
the 128 bit address space, which will probably not be exhausted in the foreseeable future. IPv4 was
having the drawback of no provision for mobility and security. Both these features needed to be
added in somewhat patch–work way as the need for mobility and security evolved. Thus, IPv6 has
been designed keeping both the provision for security and mobility right from the

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