Cancer Cell Essay.pdfCancer Cell Essay

Cancer Cell Essay
Breaking away: cancer cell dissemination and survival in the periphery
Once the primary tumor gains the capacity to evade host immune system and cancer cells enter the
circulation, metastatic dissemination takes place. Before metastatic dissemination, the prematastatic
niches are primed. Cell types which earlier were recruited to destroy cancer now facilitate in tumor
progression(Fig. 2). TME supports cancer cells in leaving the primary tumor site & seeding in
secondary organs.
In the primary tumor one of the initial steps was EMT, during which tumor cells lose epithelial
markers and gain mesenchymal traits that confer stem–like properties and a migratory phenotype.
But in secondary site, cancer cells show phenotypic switching, i.e., ... Show more content on
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Hypoxia takes place in the tumor core due to deficiency of oxygen. Hypoxia mediates immune cell
recruitment (eg.; Lymphocytes in colorectal cancer) and concentrates them at the tumor periphery to
support cancer invasion at the leading edge. Hypoxia in the tumor core leads to aggressive selection
pressure for resilient stem–like tumor cells due to which these cells migrate to the periphery of the
tumor.
2.3INTRAVASATION
According to Paget's hypothesis of 'seed and soil', cancer cells (seed) gradually acquire mutations in
oncogenes or tumour suppressor genes that confer the ability to intravasate, survive in the
haematogenous or lymphatic circulation, and prosper in a distant site (soil). This soil would have
characteristics that allow the metastatic cell to adhere and proliferate. In humans, certain tumours
metastasize to specific organ sites. For example, breast cancers metastasize to lung, liver, bone and
brain; melanoma to liver, brain and skin. By contrast, some tumors like glioma do not metastasize,
instead migrate along white matter tracks, others such as ovarian tumours are restricted to the
peritoneal cavity. Some others such as head and neck cancers only spread to regional lymph nodes.
The molecular bases of these differences are poorly if at all understood, but probably have a
microenvironmental component. Recent studies mention about the power of transcriptome profiling
to identify cohorts of genes of which
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Patho-Physiology Of Asthma Essay
There are several patho–physiologies of asthma. The mechanism by which asthma occurs is caused
by inflammatory cell infiltration, inflammatory mediators, bronchoconstriction, airway edema,
airway hyper responsiveness, airway remodeling, airway inflammation, the occurrence of persistent
changes in airway structure, gene–by–environment interactions, atopy or the genetic predisposition
for the development of immunoglobin E (IgE)–mediated response to common aeroallergens, sex,
and environmental factors. Bronchoconstriction is airway narrowing and a subsequent interference
with airflow. During bronchoconstriction, bronchial smooth muscle contraction occurs quickly to
narrow the airways after being exposed to a variety of stimuli including allergens ... Show more
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As asthma becomes more persistent and inflammation progresses, other factors further limit airflow.
These include mucus hypersecretion, inflammation, edema, and the formation of mucus plugs.
Airway hyper responsiveness, which is an exaggerated bronchoconstrictor response to a wide
variety of stimuli is a major but not unique feature of asthma. The mechanisms influencing airway
hyper responsiveness are multiple and include inflammation, structural changes, and dysfunctional
neuroregulation. Inflammation appears to be a major factor in determining the degree of airway
hyper responsiveness. This bronchial hyper responsiveness occurs after bronchoprovocation by
methacholine, histamine, cold air, exercise, viral upper respiratory infection, cigarette smoke and
respiratory allergens. Bronchial provocation with allergen induces a prompt early phase
immunoglobin E (IgE)–mediated decrease in bronchial airflow followed in many patients by a late
phase IgE–mediated reaction with a decrease in bronchial airflow for 4–8 hours. The gross
pathology of asthmatic airways displays smooth muscle hypertrophy, lung hyperinflation, mucosal
edema, lamina reticularis thickening, epithelial cell sloughing, mucus gland hypersecretion,

Summary: The Adaptive Immune System
It seems that innate and adaptive immune system cooperate with each other to manifest respiratory
symptoms in COPD patients. Actually, irritant substances such as inhaled cigarette smoke induce
and activate macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, which belong to the innate immune
system as well as epithelial cells in lungs. Activation of these cells causes release of substances
called chemotactic cells, for instance, C‑chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) that leads to attracting
inflammatory cells such as monocytes. In addition, these macrophages and epithelial cells release
multiple chemokines, including fibroblast growth factor (FGF) that causes proliferation of fibroblast
and as a result, remodeling of airways. Furthermore, activated dendritic cells stimulate adaptive
immune system that consists of different kinds of cells such as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, T helper
CD4+T cells, and B–cell. Therefore, lymphoid follicles on chronic inflammation are formed due to
the response of these types of adaptive immune cells.
Briefly, epithelial cells, macrophages, and neutrophils in lungs are activated by cigarette smoke
directly or by the releasing of damage–associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) indirectly, via
oxidative stress or by inducing pattern recognition receptors (PRR) such as Toll–like receptors
(TLRs) and purinergic receptors (P2X7 and P2Y2). Due to ... Show more content on
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This process leads to the production of more sputum in COPD patients. In addition, due to secretion
of transforming growth factor‑β (TGFβ) from macrophages and epithelial cells, fibroblast
proliferation is stimulated that leads to fibrosis of small airways. It has been stated that T helper 17
may play a noticeable role in the pathogenesis of COPD. It seems that it acts on airway epithelial
cells by releasing IL‑17 and IL‑17F that result in attracting neutrophils and IL–6 (enhances the
activation of T–helper

Multiple Sclerosis Case Study
Multiple Sclerosis: How the Disease Manifest Our Life More than 400,000 of people are diagnosed
with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) in America and approximately 2.3million cases in the world (Multiple
Sclerosis International Federation, 2013). Multiple Sclerosis is one of the most common
neurological diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) (Wei, 2014). The myelin sheath that
wraps around the nerve fibers is being attacked by our body immune system, which affects the
body's actions and responses as cell–to–cell communication to and from the brain is delayed
(Mendes, 2016). The disease commonly affects people between the age of 20 to 50, and women are
more likely than men to develop the disease (Multiple Sclerosis International Federation, 2013). ...
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It is commonly occurred in women more than men between the ages of 20–50, with the ratio of
three or four to one (National Multiple Sclerosis Society). The disease affects most ethic groups, but
is more prevalent in Caucasian (National Multiple Sclerosis Society). Multiple Sclerosis affects each
patient differently, so no two individuals will experience the same signs and symptoms (National
Multiple Sclerosis Society). According to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, the first
symptoms that most MS patients experience are numbness or tingling in face, extremities, and body
as well as vision problems. Fatigue and depression are the most common because it can cause the by
the disease itself or by the challenges that patients have to face as the disease progress. Some other
problems include muscle weakness, walking difficulty, dizziness, pain, sexual problems, bladder
problems, depression, and emotional and cognitive changes (National Multiple Sclerosis

Eukaryotic Chemotaxis Lab Report
Delving into the Process of Eukaryotic Chemotaxis The mechanism in which cells move either
towards, or away from a stimulus is referred to as chemotaxis (1). Chemotaxis is initiated in
eukaryotic cells when the cells first sense an external chemotactic gradient (2). The presence of this
gradient is sensed by a class of receptors, called 7–transmembrane heterotrimeric G–protein coupled
receptors (GPCRs) (2). As the name implies, these proteins are located in the plasma membrane of
eukaryotic cells. This external gradient triggers an intracellular Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)–
trisphosphate (PIP3) gradient to form (2). PIP3 is a phospholipid that is located in the plasma
membrane of eukaryotic cells (3). This PIP3 gradient induces a signaling ... Show more content on
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Motility is present even in the absence of a stimulus, if the organism contains flagella or
pseudopodia (14). However, if the cells are exposed to a gradient of chemoattractant or
chemorepellent, their motility is biased toward or away from higher concentrations of that stimulus
(14). When Dictyostelium are exposed to various cAMP concentrations, more pseudopodia are
formed and are extended towards the areas of high cAMP concentrations (14). This process is
mirrored by neutrophils, which extend pseudopodia rhythmically towards positive chemotactic
stimuli

Asthma Inflammatory Response Paper
Asthma
David Hamlin
Fresno City College
This paper was prepared for RC 20, Taught By Diana Day
The Inflammatory Response in the Pathogenesis of Asthma
In this article Dr. Foaud explains the inflammatory response that occurs in the airways of asthma
patients and how the different types of cells and respiratory epithelial interact in the process.
Respiratory epithelium, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and leukocytes all play an critical part in
not only the inflammatory response but also in the way that they may be utilized to inhibit the
response to help treat asthma. The article also explains how chemokines recruit inflammatory cells
to the airways. The inflammatory response seen in asthma ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Factors that may be modified include, obesity, smoking, allergen exposure, infections, drug and
non–adherence to management regimens.
One study concluded that almost 75 % of asthma patients seeking emergency room treatment were
overweight or obese (Jilcy, Aronow, Chandy, 2012). Being obese or overweight can lead to a
compromise in ventilation and restrictions in tidal volume (VT). Studies have show that weight loss
eases symptoms of asthma and if possible a weight loss program should be implemented (Jilcy et al.,
2012).
Decreasing exposure to allergens in the environment, workplace and food can help lower the
number of exacerbations. It is thought that continued exposure to allergens can lead to chronic
inflammation and airway remodeling. The elimination of dander, dust mites, dust, and other
allergens has been shown to alleviate symptoms and should be made a priority especially smoking.
For homes that have pets or other sources of allergens installing filters on the HVAC registers in
home will help reduce the amount of allergens put back into the

Purpose: Short Chain Variable Fragments (Scfv) Have Better
Purpose: Short chain variable fragments (scFv) have better pharmacokinetic properties and higher
yields with lower costs compared to monoclonal antibodies. Chemokine C–C motif receptor type 2
(CCR2) is a chemokine receptor which plays an important role in some inflammatory diseases,
infections, and metastasis of cancer. By targeting specific epitope on CCR2 with scfv, can prevent
migration of tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) to the tumor mass. We propose that a scFv
against CCR2 would compete for binding with the endogenous ligand of CCR2, CCL2, and inhibit
the chemotaxis of TAMs.
Methods: A pET–expression vector was cloned with various scFv and grown in Escherichia coli
bacterial culture. The E.Z.N.A DNA/RNA isolation kit was used for ... Show more content on
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[9] This small antibody can bind to an antigen with the same specificity and affinity like full–size
parental antibody. [3] Besides, scFv can be expressed in the cytoplasm and any compartment of
eukaryotic cell by omitting or altering a specific signal sequence. Nowadays, there are several ways
to isolate and display antibody fragments, such as in yeast [6], plant [7], mammalian cells, and
insect cells [8]. ScFv can also improve tumor penetration, higher distribution in homogenous tissue.
Compared to intact antibody, scFv shows much more rapid blood clearance properties, which make
them become one of the most useful carriers of nanoparticles. [4]
Figure 1: Antibody model showing subunit composition and domain distribution along the
polypeptide chains. Single–chain fragment variable (scFv) antibody generated by recombinant
antibody technology appears in the shaded area. [2].
Chemokine C–C motif receptor type 2(CCR2)
Chemokine receptors are mainly expressed in leukocytes, while endothelial cells, smooth muscle
cells, nerve cells can also express chemokine receptors. So far, people have found over 40 types of
chemokines and more than 20 types of chemokine receptors. Chemokine C–C motif ligand 2
(CCL2) is also called monocyte chemotactic protein–1(MCP–1), this ligand has already been found
in many types of solid cancer. [10] The receptor of CCL2 is CCR2, which can be expressed in many
different tissues, such as brain, heart, blood,

Applications Of Msc Essay
Major applications of MSCs are: 1. MSCs are a promising tool for cell therapy. They partly
contribute to the repair of injured tissues, but they cannot effectively participate in tissue repairing
because of their scarce number (e.g. 1 per 106 cells in bone marrow or 1 per 104 cells in umbilical
cord) (6). Therefore, in vitro cultivation and expansion and increasing their number for therapeutic
purposes is necessary. However, their characteristics and phenotypes may be affected after
cultivation and proliferation, depending on factors such as age and donor conditions, cell separation
techniques, culture media and supplements (8). Because of self renewality and the ability to
differentiate into different lineages they are an extremely ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
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Accordingly, many studies have shown that these cells can be used in the treatment of
transplantation–related diseases, including GVHD and autoimmune diseases such as Crohn's
disease, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis (42, 43). 3. MSCs are also characterized by
migration potential to the injured tissues. As described, they secrete various anti–inflammatory and
growth factors which lead to the growth of normal cells surrounding the damaged tissue. On the
other hand, it causes inflammation in these tissues, leading to wound healing. Many studies have
suggested that they can migrate to the site of inflammation and tumor microenvironment. Although
the underlying mechanism of this migration is yet to be precisely described, studies have shown that
the migration of these cells depends on the interaction between a number of chemokines and their
receptors, including SDF–1/ CXCR, SCF/C–Kit, HGF/c–Met, VEGF/VEGF–R and PDGF /PDGF–
R. These chemokines and their receptors play an important role in the migration of hematopoietic
stem cells and leukocytes that respond to injuries and inflammation. Therefore they are thought to
play an identical role in MSCs (44). Furthermore, tumor micro–environment, as a non–healing
wound, continuously produces inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and other
chemoattractant molecules. These alternative

Hepatic Irradiation
5.3.2 Markers of radiation–induced hepatic injury
Of the liver enzymes that showed elevations in their serum concentrations following irradiation in
the current study, only the early increase in the AST level was significant (Fig. 9). ALT is also a
marker of hepatic damage, and it is found exclusively in the cytoplasm of cells. In contrast, AST is
present in the cytoplasm, which comprises 20% of its total activity, and in the mitochondria, which
comprises 80% of its total activity (Rej 1989). While the recruited granulocytes and the gamma
irradiation could damage some periportal hepatocytes, irradiation treatment may have a more
damaging effect on the numerous large mitochondria that reside within the hepatocytes, which
would lead to a greater ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2003). However, endothelial cells may play a minor role in the transmigration of the inflammatory
cells because irradiating these cells in vitro did not upregulate chemokine gene expression (Gaugler
et al. 1998). This may also support the notion that the mesenchymal cells of the sinusoidal wall, that
is, the hepatic stellate cells, differ from the Thy–1+ mesenchymal cells in the portal vessels and in
the portal area (Dudas et al.

Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Is The Disease Of The Lung Caused By A...
2.1 TB burden and epidemiology
Tuberculosis (TB) is the disease of the lung caused by a slow–growing intracellular pathogen called
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) (1). In 2014, there were 9.6 million cases of active TB disease
worldwide, and 1.2 million TB–related deaths according to World Health Organization (WHO) (2).
The burden of the disease can be appreciated with the knowledge that one third of the world
population is latently infected with M.tb, and 5–10% of exposed individuals develop active disease
and are able to spread the infection to more people every year (3,1). To reduce this burden, effective
strategies are required in both preventative and therapeutic areas of research.
2.2 Primary infection and host defense in TB
2.2.1 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We have shown that the recruitment of antigen–presenting cells (APCs) is delayed for up to day 7
post–infection which can be attributed to the lack of pro–inflammatory cytokines, in particular,
TNF–α which is critical for the control of mycobacterial infection (5). Delayed influx of APCs to the
airway lumen impairs the ability of the host immune system to control the bacterial infection in a
timely manner. Once there is a high influx of APCs at the site of pathogen entry, antigens or
mycobacteria are transported from the lung to the draining lymph node (DLN). The migration of
APCs to DLN is mediated by the upregulation of expression of chemokine receptor CCR7 that
allows APCs to respond to CCL19 and CCL21 chemokine gradients which are constitutively
expressed in the LN (3,5,8). Normally migration of DCs occurs within few hours after infection; for
example in case of influenza, the required time is 20 hours, whereas in the case of TB infection it
takes between 8–10 days, implying that this delayed migration is the limiting step towards the
initiation of adaptive immune responses.
2.2.2 Initiation of adaptive immunity
Cellular immunity plays a critical role in the control of M.tb infection. It has been shown that
CD4+T–helper 1 (Th1) cells play a central role in protection against TB disease, primarily through
the production of macrophage–activating cytokines such as IFN–γ and TNF–α (9–11). In the process
of primary infection,

Evaluation Of Chemokine Receptor Cxcr3 Receptor Gene...
Yahya Bello
To test whether chemokine receptor CXCR3 mediates gene transcription
Introduction
SAA (Serum Amyloid A) function is similar to a C– reactive protein (an annular pentameric protein
that is mostly found in blood plasma and its levels rise in response to inflammation. It considered as
an acute–phase protein of hepatic origin, which increases following interleukin–6 secretion by
macrophages and T cells) but acts as an acute phase protein, which can be used as an indicative,
predictive or as a therapy follow–up marker for many diseases such as Atherosclerosis, Rheumatoid
arthritis, Crohn's disease, and diabetes. As the level of the serum increases, the SAA is triggered by
physical insults to the host which includes infection, trauma, inflammatory reactions, and cancer (R.
Kisilevsky a, 1991). A broad response range is reflected by an SAA gene duplication, which results
into a cluster encoding of several SAA variants and by multiple biological functions of SAA. SAA
prompted chemokines in degrading enzymes through a Toll– like receptors and it functions as an
activator and chemoattractant through a G–protein–coupled receptor. A persistent stimulus in an
infectious or inflammatory area, this will cause the liver to produce more SAA, which will become
an antimicrobial agent by functioning as a direct opsonin of bacteria (Urieli–Shoval, Linke, &
Matzner, 2000). The regulation of innate and adaptive immunity through the helps of SAA benefit
the invention of a better drugs

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Are Caused By A Wide Range...
Darleene Rodriguez
Bio 416
08 May 2017
Immunotherapeutic Strategies
Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by a wide range of viruses. The most common viruses are:
HIV–1, HSV–1/2, and HPV. Often the contraction of these viruses goes undiagnosed until the
patient has acquired severe symptoms, by this time they have also transferred the disease to another
individual. For this reason, the importance of developing and understanding immunotherapeutic
strategies has become essential for immunologists (5). There are many factors that contribute to viral
infection, therefore, targeting these virus specific factors is a key to preventing viral spread to
neighboring cells. Factors like viral attachment, entry, un–coating, synthesis, assembly, and ... Show
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Cytokine therapy has been a crucial advance in the treatment of HIV because this disease is highly
affiliated with cytokine production. Cytokines are inserted in tumor cells as immune stimulatory
genes (5). Following insertion, the patient is injected with a cytokine based vaccine which is used as
a therapeutic measure for cancer prevention in patients that have HPV. Activation of cytokines (IL–
2, IL–12, GM–CSF) have been theorized to inhibit the growth on tumors. HIV is linked to a decline
of the host's immune system response and decrease of CD4 T cells, therefore cytokine therapy
enables the production of these cells by treating patients with IL–2 (5). HPV has been associated
with cancer and there is no cure for HPV, however, there are preventative and therapeutic
medications (2,6). In the case of HPV vaccination, natural killer cells are activated which induce an
immune response. Immune modulators have suppressive and stimulatory effects on macrophages.
Stimulation allows for the secretion of cytokines which allows the immune system to produce
antibodies due to the high antigen presentation in dendritic cells.
Although these viruses often remain undetected, HSV typically causes a more visible and painful
reaction in the infected tissues. Shedding of the HSV virus is prominent when the symptoms occur
(1). HSV–2 in responsible for genital herpes and may be one of the most

Detailed Overview of HIV Essay
Since the onset of the HIV/AIDS epidemic 15 years ago, the virus has infected more than 47 million
people in the world. With more than 2.2 million deaths in 1998, HIV/AIDS has now become the
fourth leading cause of mortality and its impact is going to increase. Over 95% of all cases and 95%
of AIDS deaths occur in the developing world, mostly among young adults and increasingly in
women.
HIV can be prevented in many ways, but they are not always followed. People die when they don't
play it safe. That's why we have to spread the word on prevention. There are three main ways that
HIV can be spread:
1. sexual intercourse
2. intravenous drugs
3. blood transfusions (which are very rare now because all blood is tested)
HIV is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
foreign cells, almost every cell has been built with certain identification tags, MHC markers. Those
cells carrying antigens, a ?non–self? tag, are identified by the immune system. This helps insure that
the immune system does not accidentally try to harm the body.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are white blood cells that patrol the body for "non–self" tags. The number of these
particular cells in the average body is approximately 1 trillion. T cells and B cells make up the two
major categories of lymphocytes.
B–cells
Originating from bone marrow, B–cells are responsible for the creation of antibodies (see diagram
below). Each B–cell creates an antibody, which is specific to an antigen. It is the antibodies that act
upon the "non–self" entity by:
* marking the entity for destruction * directly destroying the foreign organism * blocking viruses
from entering a cell * making cells vulnerable to white blood cell attacks
T–cells

T–cells are produced in the thymus. Here they mature and learn how to identify foreign entities that
may enter the body. T–lymphocytes can form into one of two major types of T cells: helper T cells
and cytotoxic T–cells.
Activation of Helper T–Cells:
An activated Helper T–cell will do several things to contribute in the immune system reaction. They
alert B cells to produce antibodies and stimulate macrophages as well as other lymphocytes.
Activation of Helper T–Cells:
Cytotoxic T–cells,

Osteosarcoma Case Studies
Osteosarcoma, deriving form primitive bone–forming mesenchymal cells, is the most common
primary bone malignancy[1]. The incidence rates of osteosarcoma has a bimodal age distribution. It
typically occurs during adolescence and has the second peak in older adulthood[2]. There is
variability in location between age groups, but usually the osteosarcoma occurs most frequently in
long bones. The etiology of osteosarcoma is currently being studied but still not well understood[3].
Several studies showed that age, gender and height are risk factors for osteosarcoma[4]. The overall
survival (OS) of osteosarcoma has been improved significantly because of effective chemotherapy
combination[5]. Studies showed that complete surgical resection with addition of chemotherapy has
increased the 5–year OS to approximately 70%[5], but improvements in osteosarcoma survival
during the last decade have been limited[6]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
SDF–1, also knows as CXCL12, is a homeostatic chemokines, whose major function is in regulating
hematopoietic cell trafficking and secondary lymphoid tissue architecture. CXCR4 is normally
expressed on many cell types including lymphocytes, hematopoietic stem cells, endothelial and
epithelial cells [8]. Besides, CXCR4 is also the chemokine receptor most commonly expressed in
tumor cells such as osteosarcoma cells. Several studies had demonstrated CXCR4 is involved in
tumor cell proliferation, migration and

Human Immunodeficiency Virus : Development Of The C B...
Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Development of the C–C Chemokine Receptor 5 (CCR5)
Antagonists as an Effective Treatment.
Mathew Lane, B5550246, Mathew599@aol.com
Department of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University,
Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK.
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) targets Leukocytes cells which express the CD4
receptor, they use Chemokine receptors (CCR5 most common one used) as a co–receptor to bind
and fuse with the host cell. Preventing the entry of HIV into CD4 cells has lead to the development
of a new type of antiretroviral drugs (ARV's) called entry inhibitors. Maraviroc is a CCR5 receptor
antagonists; this prevents the HIV Gp120 protein from binding and infecting the host ... Show more
Cytokines are small proteins that act as signalling molecules effecting the behaviour and function of
other cells. They are important in the immune systems response to infections and trauma.
Proteolysis is the breakdown of protein chains into small polypeptides and amino acids; this is
usually catalysed by enzymes such as protease.
Chemotaxis involves the movement of cells in response to a chemical stimulus. This movement can
be either towards or away from the source of the stimuli.
Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines and are signalling molecules involved in chemotaxis. They
are particular important in directing immune cells towards an area of infection.
Since its outbreak the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which goes on to develop in to
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has been reported in over 119 countries with 78
million people being infected resulting in over 39 million deaths. As of 2013 an estimated 0.8% of
the world's population aged 15–49 are living with HIV, this varies dramatically for individual
countries with it rising to 71% in sub–Saharan Africa [ ]. This has lead to a dramatic decrease in life
expectancy as shown in figure 1[ ]; this intern reduces the working population causing economical
impacts. Recent recovery in life expectancy is due as a result in our increased understanding of how
HIV replicates, allowing for the development of drugs that interrupts its

Schleroderma Research Paper
Although the specific cause of Scleroderma is unknown, there are a few main factors known to
identify with Scleroderma. Scleroderma affects not only the surface of the skin but the joints, bones
and in severe cases other internal organs such as heart, liver, kidneys, and gastrointestinal system.
The main causes are over production of collagen and damage to blood pathways which lead to a
change in connective tissue. The overproduction of collagen is due to the hyperactivity of the
autoimmune system which signals the body to produce more collagen than needed which leads to
thickening of the skin, therefore restricting normal function.
More specifically, the body recognizes the antigen proteins on the connective tissues as damaged
tissue or foreign bodies. As a result, the autoimmune system goes into its defense mode which is a
hyperactive state. In this state, it produces an excess of antibodies and growth factors. Growth
factors are a hormone or substance that is required to stimulate growth or synthesis in cells. The
specific chemicals that are produced are cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, cytokines and
chemokines which are produced in the blood are the chemical growth factors that assist with scar
tissue repair by defending the body. It does this by stimulating the ... Show more content on
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Its capability to generate its own gene response brings about persistant activation of collagen gene
expression. TGFβ are present in the autocrine signaling system of fibroblasts, a type of cell which
systhesizes collagen in order to build the frame work unit of tissues. The autocrine signaling system
is the process in which the cell binds its own produced hormones and chemicals to activate a
response or change within the cell. It is believed that if TGFβ in fibroblasts the increased collagen
gene experession may drive the over production of collagen giving rise to

Rheumatoid Arthritis In The Human Body
Movement is a part of everyday life. For most organisms, movement is a vital part of survival. The
inability to move stumps daily activity. Arthritis is a common disease that develops in a variety of
different forms. The word "arthritis" itself means "joint inflammation". A joint is the section of the
body where two bones meet, providing a cushion between them and facilitating movement. Arthritis
not only comes in different forms but, occur in humans of all ages, genders and races. Because
conventional treatment options focus mostly on pain management, an increasing number of the 43
million people with arthritis are seeking alternative methods of disease management to improve
their quality of life. Symptoms of the disease can be mild, moderate ... Show more content on
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2015). Preventing the influx of such cells in the joint space is the key concept for treatment. Natural
medicine is popularizing among the general population. Patients and healthcare providers both need
dependable information to make appropriate treatment choices. "Several studies have shown that
cannabinoids down regulate cytokine and chemokine production" (Nagarkatti P, Pandey R, Rieder
SA, Hegde VL, Nagarkatti M, 2009). The anti–inflammatory properties that are found in
cannabinoids may serve as an effective treatment to patients diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis.
"THC decreases the production of immune cell–recruiting pro–inflammatory chemokines by
keratinocytes independent of CB1/2 receptors" (Gaffal E, Cron M, Glodde , Tuting T

Pneumonic Illness Essay
Pneumonic illness has critical outcomes for the maturing populace. Understanding the maturing
procedure in the lungs is important to give ideal care to our maturing populace. As individuals
ordinarily age, narrowing of the intervertebral plate spaces causes kyphosis or arch of the spine. The
kyphosis edge starts to build more quickly in ladies than men, from a mean of 43° in ladies matured
55–60 years, to a mean of 52° in ladies 76–80 years old. Utilizing radiolabeled particles that can go
past the upper aviation route and go into the littler aviation routes in sound nonsmoking subjects,
Svartengren assessed freedom of the named particles in various age bunches extending from age 19–
81 years. Age has not been a factually critical indicator ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Notwithstanding these cytokine changes with maturing, later information shows a part for
microRNAs in inflamm–maturing and cell senescence. Together, this information bolsters the
connection between inflamm–maturing and immunosenescence, recommending that a disturbance in
a critical position of expert and mitigating go between brings about a standard proinflammatory
condition with cutting edge age that consequently hoses a suitable natural and versatile insusceptible
reaction. These investigations will be talked about top to bottom later with regards to pneumonic
irritation with maturing; in any case, consider that this irregularity of safe middle people, deferred
resistant initiation, and extended course of aggravation may bring about expanded grimness and
mortality in maturing people following contamination, natural exposures, or foundational damage.
Some vital changes in the intrinsic immunologic reaction happen with maturing. With regards to
maturing, there are clashing information regarding the effect of age on murine and human
articulation of TLRs or downstream flagging arbiters. Lessening in p38 flagging is upheld by
considers in human monocytes from matured subjects, where hosed p38 flagging was related with
reduced phosphorylation of p38. While the information is unique on how maturing impacts TLR
articulation, the information does

Basophil Activation Test Paper
Basophil Activation Test (BAT) Basophils comprise <1 % of the circulating white blood cells, and
they constitute a substrate for an important in vitro assay. Basophils express the high affinity IgE
receptor and secrete cytokines and inflammatory mediators upon stimulation. Early studies of the
role of basophils in allergic disease focused on the release of mediators, such as histamine and
leukotrienes. The development of a flow cytometry based functional basophil assay became possible
in 1991, when Knol et al. demonstrated that a surface marker, CD63, is up–regulated on basophils at
the same time as basophil degranulation (Knol et al.,1991). Principle of BAT Basophils exhibit
secretory granules containing histamine and they secrete cytokines, ... Show more content on
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However, IgE surface levels exhibit considerable variation between individuals. The search for new
identification markers has resulted in many potential candidate markers: CCR3, CRTH2, CD203c,
and CD123 (Hausmann et al.,2011). CCR3, or eotaxin CC chemokine receptor–3, is expressed on
basophils, mast cells, and Th2 lymphocytes. This marker is the basis of the commercial Flow2–
CAST assay, in contrast to Flow–CAST, which identifies basophils based on IgE (Eberlein et
al.,2011). CRTH2 is also expressed on basophils, eosinophils, and Th2 lymphocytes. Basophils can
be further identified within this subset on the basis of side–scatter (to differentiate from eosinophils)
and the secondary marker, CD3 (to differentiate from T cells (Monneret,2008).CD123, a subunit of
the IL–3 receptor, is highly expressed on basophils and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in the peripheral
blood. In comparing approaches to identify basophils based on the markers CD123, CCR3 or IgE,
CD123 was found to have similar expression levels to CCR3 and superior to that of IgE. However,
the variability of CD123 expression was significantly larger than that of CCR3, which led the
authors to conclude that CCR3 is a superior basophil identification marker (Hausmann et

Neonatal Epilepsy
Epilepsy is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders that affect around 1% of the global
population worldwide. Although the optimal use of the 24 approved anti–epileptic drugs in The
United States has successfully treat some of the symptoms–related epilepsy, but not the underlying
epileptogenesis processes, particularly in neonatal epilepsy. Newborn are more subjected to early–
onset of epilepsy because of the common complications of labor in human, such as hypoxia–
ischemia and pre–eclampsia. Such complications may cause major damage in the neonates' brain,
including inflammation, neuronal degeneration and other types of damage–related brain injuries. In
recent years, great number of evidence point to inflammation as a potential pathway ... Show more
It is a well–known biomarker of brain injury associated with Alzheimer's disease, concussion and
epilepsy. Based on literature review, an overproduction of soluble S100B from the astrocytes binds
to the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) leading to various responses including
increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, release of pro–inflammatory markers, and
activation of stress response kinases resulting in neuronal cell death. The ongoing neuronal injury
and inflammation further promotes cellular apoptosis and impairs neurogenesis in epileptic brain.
Identification of this mechanistic relationship between acquired epilepsy and inflammation will
provide an important therapeutic target pathway for prevention of

Functions Of Immune Defense For The Elimination Of Pathogens
Yahya Bello
Chemokine receptor CXCR3 mediates gene transcription
Introduction
The invasion of microorganisms constantly threatened many organisms and it has evolved systems
of immune defense for the elimination of pathogens in the body (Shizuo Akira1, 2006). Innate and
adaptive immunity are two branches that are comprised in the immune system (Shizuo Akira1,
2006). The innate immune system is the first line of the defense against pathogens and it is mediated
by phagocytes, which includes macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). Adaptive immunity involved
in the elimination of pathogens in the late phase of infection as well as the generation of
immunological memory (Shizuo Akira1, 2006). This type of immunity is characterized by
specificity and develops by clonal selection from a vast range of lymphocytes bearing antigen–
specific receptors that are produced through a mechanism that is generally known as gene
rearrangement. The innate immune response is not entirely specific, but it was rather able to
discriminate between self and a variety of pathogens (Shizuo Akira1, 2006). The innate immune
system identifies microorganisms through a limited number of germline–encoded pattern–
recognition receptors (PRRs). This is large varieties of rearranged receptors utilized by the adaptive
system. PRRs identify microbial components known as pathogen– associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs) and they are important for the survival of the microorganism and are therefore difficult for
the

The Epidemic Of Ebola Virus
Background and introduction: The highly dangerous virus– Ebola, causes high fever and death of
90% patients within days. Ebola virus and marburvirus are consider to be the most deadly human
pathogens that cause severe fever syndrome in both humans and non human parasites. The virus is
further divided into 5 species with different pathogenicities. 1. Zaire virus – most lethal, causing
deaths of almost 90% people 2. SEBOV– Sudan Ebola virus, case–fatality rate about 50%. 3.
CIEBOV– Côte d 'Ivoire Ebola virus, Linked to single non–fatal disease 4. BEBOV– Bundibugyo
Ebola virus, newly discovered, 25% fatality rate 5. REBOV– Reston Ebola virus, caused a huge
outbreak in non–human primates These viruses replicate massively in macrophage and dendritic
cells, and then spread to all the other organs. When experimented on mice, it was observed that the
virus is associated with impairment of innate immune responses which include important secretions
of specific inflammatory mediators and also suppress adaptive immune responses. However, the
experimentally infected animal models fail to show some symptoms as seen in human infections.
The non–human models are one of the best models which mimic fatal infections, but they cannot
reproduce small percent of patients. Only four studies of human infections were reported as of now.
In the first study, there was a slight range in the serum level where as in second a huge difference
was observed. This was later suggested that the fatal

Hiv And Aids : A Member Of The Lentivirus Family
HIV–1 and AIDS Overall
HIV is a member of the lentivirus family. There are two types of HIV: HIV–1 and HIV–2. Although
both types infect cells in similar ways and appear to cause clinically indistinguishable AIDS, studies
showed that HIV–1 is the predominant virus type. Infections of HIV–2 are: 1) rarely found outside
of West Africa (de Silva et al., 2008), and 2) seldom progressed to AIDS or lead to HAND
(Rowland–Jones and Whittle, 2007). On the other hand, more than 34 million individuals were
infected by HIV–1 by the end of 2009 (UNAIDS, 2010). Currently, four strains of HIV–1 have been
identified: the major group M, the outlier group O and two new groups N and P. At least 9
genetically distinct subtypes, designated as clades A, B, C, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
This binding induces a conformational change in gp120, which exposes its binding site to its cellular
co–receptors. CCR5 and CXCR4, two receptors first identified as CC– and CXC– chemokine
receptors, respectively, are the most reported co–receptors for HIV infection. Other chemokine
receptors, including CCR2, CCR3, and CX3CR1 have also been reported to be utilized by HIV as
co–receptors (He et al., 1997; Garin et al., 2003; Puissant et al., 2003). The Interaction between
gp120 and these co–receptors triggers further conformational change and the insertion of HIV–1
gp41 into the host cell membrane, which initiates the fusion of the membranes and eventually leads
to entry of the virus genome and proteins. Once the host cell is infected, the viral reverse
transcriptase makes viral DNA using its RNA genome template. The newly synthesized viral DNA
binds to the viral protein integrase and some host proteins to form the pre–integration complex,
which then translocate to the nucleus, integrate to the host genome, and form the provirus. Infected
cells can either be latent, or actively transcribe and produce virus and viral proteins such as Tat,
gp120, Nef and Vpr.
The first case of HIV infection in the United States can be dated back to the 1970s, and AIDS was
reported in New York and California in the 1980s. By 1983, approximately 3000 AIDS patients had
been reported and 1000 patients had died (Berkson, 1990). Over 33 million

Essay On Biomeltration
Currently, there are no effective treatments that actively promote tissue repair and regeneration post
moderate–to–severe TBIs. While there have been efforts to mitigate the secondary damage post–
TBI, these measures have been proven clinically unsuccessful. At present, there is no cure for
neither the initial damage nor the secondary loss of tissue post the biomechanical insult. In this
study, we sought to devise a mechanism that would provide neuroprotective factors and facilitate
tissue repair post moderate–to–severe TBIs. We developed a sulfated CS–GAG matrix, a biomaterial
native to the brain's ECM, capable of regulating NSC behavior.29 As part of this study, we acutely
delivered these sulfated CS–GAG matrices into the rat cortex after ... Show more content on
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There was a local upregulation of BDNF in the GAG treated animals; BDNF is known to promote
angiogenesis.30 In addition, SDF–1α also promotes angiogenesis by elucidating homing
mechanisms that facilitate hematopoietic progenitor cell migration to the injury site post–TBI.31
Previous studies indicate that blocking the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis results in abolished hematopoietic
progenitor cell homing and decreased angiogenesis.31 Our CS–GAG treated animals demonstrated
an upregulation of both the CXCL12 ligand and its corresponding CXCR4 receptor. The CS–GAG
treated animals also exhibited upregulation of locally produced FGF2 which is a growth factor that
is pro–mitogenic and pro–angiogenic. Hence, the enhanced presence of NSCs in the sulfated GAG
matrices depict the "bystander effect" explained earlier by promoting tissue repair through cellular
mitogenesis and angiogenesis. The amalgamation of NSC proliferation and growth factor retention
in the sulfated GAG constructs promote repair post–TBI. We have previously demonstrated that
CS–GAGs have high binding affinity to FGF2,26 and additionally the local upregulation of FGF2 in
the lesion site post–TBI of the treated animals suggests the potential role of CS–GAGs in the
maintenance of undifferentiated NSCs. BDNF is a neurotrophic factor that has demonstrated neural
regeneration, reconnection, and improved synaptic efficacy.23

Conglutinin Experiment
SP–D had shown the growth inhibition of E coli, Legionella pneumonia, Enterobacter aerogenes and
Klebsiella pneumonia by increasing the cell membrane permeability (Wu et al., 2003) but not in the
case of mycobacteria (Ariki, 2011). We performed experiment to find out either recombinant
conglutinin increased the cell membrane permeability of the M. bovis BCG and as a result growth
inhibited which is shown in figure 4.3. Heat–treated M. bovis BCG used as a positive control. While
heat–treated M. bovis BCG were stained with propidium iodide, they absorb PI stained due to
increased cell membrane permeability achieved with heating. It has been confirmed that M. bovis
BCG coated with conglutinin does not kill mycobacteria by increasing cell membrane permeability
as those bacteria does not shown the propidium iodide absorbance. From this experiment we
observed that the direct effect of conglutinin is bacteriostatic rather then bactericidal, as no bacterial
cell lysis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
SP–A shown the characterestics to enhances the uptake of M. tuberculosis by phagocytic cells such
as macrophages and this is due to the up regulation of macrophage–mannose receptor mechanism
(Gaynor et al., 1995). In the previous studies SP–D showed the different effects on phagocytosis of
pathogens. SP–D showed the reduction in the uptake of M. tuberculosis by macrophages due to its
assosiation with bacteria (Ferguson et al., 1999). SP–D CRD region binds to the cell wall
components of M. tuberculosis such as mannosyl units (mannose caps) of lipoglycan and
lipoarabinomannan (LAM) (Ferguson et al., 1999). It has also been shown that SP–D increases the
uptake of Streptococcus pneumonia, Mycobacterium avium and E. coli (Kuroki et al., 2007; Brinker
et al.,

Chemokine CCL19 Character Analysis
Our paper demonstrates the chemokine CCL19 play a role in behavior and expression of the
neurotransmitters. We conducted OF and RAWM to test the locomotor activity and learning and
memory. Peripheral administration CCL19 decreased the locomotor activity in the OF, but not affect
the balance and motor coordination. Animals showed no signs of illness or weight loss in either
group of treatment. The reduced locomotor activity was also seen in the EOM, which exposed the
ability of peripheral administration CCL19 to inhibit the anxiety–related behaviors to uncertain bias.
Because, the result of anxiety–related behaviors which showed that the open arm time is more than
the close arm time, might be resulted by the decreased locomotor activity. The

Genetic Engineering Technology
Modern genetic engineering technologies are advancing, and genetically modifying a genome is
becoming a reality. The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and
CRISPR–associated system (CAS9) genome editing system is the most advanced in use. CRISPR
can edit a genome more accurately and with higher precision than any other system. The intended
use of the CRISPR/CAS9 system is to insert a gene, delete a gene, or silence a gene, leading to
powerful applications (Christensen and Choy 2017a). For example, scientists plan to use this
technology to change the genome and resulting phenotype in the efforts to eliminate potentially
lethal diseases. One such disease is Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CRISPR was first exploited in 2007, by a food ingredient company. Their focus was on applications
of the system to fermented milk bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus) in the production of yogurt
and cheese. By utilizing the CRISPR system, the company was able to vaccinate the bacteria used in
their product against unwanted bacteriophages (Stachler and Marchfelder 2016a). Since then, the
greater applications of the system have been realized.
CRISPR is an adaptive natural immune system used by bacteria to protect against bacteriophages
that replicate within the bacterium. It starts when a bacteriophage lands on the membrane of a
bacterium cell, where it injects its DNA into the cell. Shortly after the DNA is injected, the infected
bacterium detects the presence of bacteriophage DNA, leading to a production of a complex. The
complex consists of the CAS9 nuclease and a twenty–base sequence short guide RNA known as
sgRNA. The complex wraps around the bacteriophage DNA, and travels along until it reaches a
targeted sequence indicated by the RNA. The sgRNA searches for complementary bases, only
attaching at that region of the genome, ensuring the proper location. Upon reaching the location, the
CAS9 enzyme will proceed to make a double stranded cleave through the DNA, disabling the
bacteriophage and protecting the bacteria (Richter et al. 2012a).
Bioengineers have generated a custom sgRNA within a CAS9 nuclease to search for a specific gene
location within the

Macrophages And Osteoclasts
Macrophages and osteoclasts are cells that form from a common myeloid lineage. Because of this
common lineage, both cell types share similar properties that can lead to tumorigenesis and
metastasis of cancer cells. Macrophages are large white blood cells found in the innate immune
system that utilize phagocytosis to engulf pathogens in order to eliminate them, while osteoclasts are
large cells found in the bone that break down and absorb bone tissue. Macrophages have properties
that allow them to produce and secrete many chemokines and pro–inflammatory cytokines. These
molecules can lead to increased angiogenesis in a microenvironment; additionally, the growth
factors secreted by macrophages have the ability to promote tumor growth by promoting

Genetic Determinants Of Hiv Infection
Genetic determinants of HIV infection:
HIV has two major types: HIV–1 and HIV–2. HIV–1 has four groups M, N, O and P. These groups
are further classified into subtypes. Group M is a major infecting group worldwide contributing to
90% of HIV–1 infections. Group M is classified into nine subtypes (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J and K).
Subtype B is predominantly found in America and Western Europe. The susceptibility to HIV–1
infection, transmission of disease, and response to retroviral therapy depend on the genetic
determinants of the host cell. These genetic determinants vary in populations and among patients.
These genetic variants regulate chemokine co–receptors and ligands that involve in the entry of the
virus, major histocompatibility complex, killer cells Ig like receptor and cytokines, and TRIM5α
motif and apolipoprotein B mRNA–editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide–like 3G (Kaur and
Mehra, 2009). In genome–wide association studies performed in European population, it was shown
that Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I variation (Eg. HLA–B*5701) is the major contributor
to viral set point and CD4+ T cell decline (Fellay et al., 2010). Cohort study of genetic
polymorphism in chemokine receptors in Indian population has shown that protective CCR5 Δ32
variant is rare and CCR5HHE carrying *59402A has the high likelihood of infections (Kaur and
Mehra, 2009). HIV Sequence Database contains annotated HIV sequences

What Is Lentiviruses Similar To HIV?
Lentiviruses similar to HIV have been found in a variety of primate species, and some of these are
associated with a disease process called simian AIDS. Unlike other retroviruses, the primate
lentiviruses are not transmitted through the germ line, and no endogenous copies of the virus exist in
the genome of susceptible species.[23]
Molecular epidemiologic data suggest that HIV type 1 (HIV–1), the most common subtype of HIV
that infects humans, has been derived from the simian immunodeficiency virus, called SIVcpz, of
the Pan troglodytes troglodytes subspecies of chimpanzee. The lentivirus strain SIVcpz is highly
homologous with HIV–1, and another form of simian immunodeficiency virus found in sooty
mangabeys (SIVsm) has similarities as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The structural components encoded by env include the envelope glycoproteins: outer envelope
glycoprotein gp120 and transmembrane glycoprotein gp41 derived from glycoprotein precursor
gp160. Components encoded by the gag gene include core nucleocapsid proteins p55 (a precursor
protein), p40, p24 (capsid, or "core" antigen), p17 (matrix), and p7 (nucleocapsid); the important
proteins encoded by pol are the enzyme proteins p66 and p51 (reverse transcriptase), p11 (protease),
and p32 (integrase). [22,32,33]
Although most of the major HIV viral proteins, which include p24 (core antigen) and gp41
(envelope antigen), are highly immunogenic, the antibody responses vary according to the virus load
and the immune competence of the host. The antigenicity of these various components provides a
means for detection of antibody, the basis for most HIV testing.[35] Accessory genes carried by HIV
include tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu (for HIV–1) or vpx (for HIV–2). The rev gene encodes for a
regulatory protein which switches the processing of viral RNA transcripts to a pattern that
predominates with established infection, leading to production of viral structural and enzymatic
proteins. The long terminal repeat (LTR) serves as a promoter of transcription.[22,30,32,33]
The tat (trans–activator of transcription) gene plays multiple roles in HIV pathogenesis.
It produces a

Allergic Response Essay
The response phase begins with antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages,
found in the airway. These cells will capture, process and present allergens to helper T cells (Th
cells.) Th cells become activated and release cytokines. The allergen promotes eosinophil
recruitment as well. [4] Stimulated Th cells can differentiate into Th1 and Th2 cells from
undifferentiated precursors, known as Th0 cells. Th1 cells produce a specific set of cytokines that
are involved in cellular immunity, they are also responsible for delayed hypersensitivity reactions
and macrophage activation. Th2 cells also produce a specific set of cytokines, however they are
involved in humoral immunity. Regulatory T cells play a role in Th2 cells responses to allergens. [4]
The allergen will bind to the IgE antibodies on mast cells. The multivalent IgE's are cross–linked,
this activates the mast cells, causing mast cell degranulation, releasing basophilic granules, which
contain pharmacologically active agents. These mediators are released into tissues, resulting in an
allergic response. [2] The late allergic response is a result of proinflammatory ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
[4] The duration of asthma attacks varies from minutes to hours, or even days. Severely restricted
airflow can become potentially dangerous. Symptoms of individuals suffering from asthma may not
include all the symptoms and at different times individuals may experience different symptoms. [9]
From one asthma attack to the next, symptoms may vary from being mild during one attack to
severe during another. [1] Some individuals may experience no symptoms for a period of time,
which is interrupted by asthma attacks (periodic worsening of symptoms.) Other patients may
experience asthma symptoms on a daily

Essay on Congenital Neonatal Infections in Vertical HIV
Congenital Human Immunodeficiency Virus, also called Vertical HIV, is a serious epidemic arising
from passage of the virus to an infant from a maternal infection. The disease can have severe
symptoms for the infected newborn and is almost always fatal to the child. The fetus has a 25%
chance of infection while in utero and a 20% – 50% ( depending of the country) chance of infection
during the birthing process although a cesarean birth significantly lowers the probability of neonatal
infection. The severity of the mothers HIV infection determines the chances of a fetal infection
meaning the more advance the disease in the mother the high the possibility of transmission through
placental cord blood. Infection can also occur from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The juxtapositional co–receptor attachment to the host membrane encourages the GP41 protein to
initiate fusion by collapsing into a hairpin loop structure bringing the two membranes in close
proximity. The virus then injects the contents of the virion including machinery enzymes and the
RNA genome into the host cell where a dsDNA molecule is made and integrated into the host. The
reverse transcription process has a high mutation rate because the viral reverse transcriptase enzyme
is unable to detect or repair any mistakes as it forms the dsDNA. After the new dsDNA molecule is
made it is transported to the nucleus of the host and integrated into the host genome. The HIV
genome will either remain in a lysogenic state within the host or if actively stimulated new HIV
viruses will be constructed and released to infect neighboring cells. The ability of the virus to choose
its co–receptor is called viral tropism and determines its virulence and disease progression rate. If
the virus binds with the co–receptor CCR5 it is called macrophage–tropic (M–tropic) and
characterizes most HIV infections. The M–tropic variant is regarded as less virulent because it is
nonsyncytial. Some mutations of the CCR5 gene lead to a partial immunity to the virus and can slow
the disease and in some cases prevent infection of the M–tropic HIV varient. Also patients with high
levels of CCR5 soluble chemokines are more resistant to the virus. The CXCR4 chemokine co–
receptor is

Mir15a Case Study
(3) Therapeutic effect of miR15a/16 inhibitor in vivo: We will infect influenza virus with 5.0 x 10
3.375 TCID50 and then deliver the miR–15a/16 inhibitor once from 6 to 72 h later. To maximize the
therapeutic effects, we will deliver the miR–15a/16 inhibitors 3 times for every 24h. Lung
inflammation will be evaluated using lung histology, BAL cellularity. Alveolar macrophage
activation or regulation will be evaluated using FACS analysis, cytokines, chemokines production,
and viral titer.
BAL cellularity: To collect the BAL fluid, the thoracic cavity is opened by midline incision. The
trachea is exposed and cannulated with a 20 gauge catheter, which is secured with a 2–0 silk suture.
And then get the BAL fluids with 1ml cold PBS. To collect ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Briefly, Mice lung tissue will be isolated and cut into small pieces with razor blade and process in
digestion buffer (1 mg/ml collagenase D, 0.1 mg/ml DNase; Roche, Indianapolis, IN) for 30 min. at
37℃. The samples will be passed through 100 μm and 40 μm strainer serially. After counting cells,
alveolar macrophage specific and activation antibodies will be conjugated. CD11c+CD64+ cells will
be gated and the activation markers (CD11b, CD40, CD80, CD86, MHC ll) will be analyzed.
Alveolar macrophage gene expression will be evaluated after isolating the cells by BD FACS Aria
(BD Bioscience, San Jose,

The Inflammation Response Process
The inflammation response process:
NB: The response is non–specific, attacking any & all foreign invaders.
Upon injury, pathogens such as bacteria & viruses have a means to enter the body.
The injured cells immediately release distress signals, damaged 'Mast cells' in the connective tissue
release 'histamine', this influx of histamine in the site of injury immediately changes the behavior of
the blood vessels within the region.
Arterials open, while venules narrow resulting in increased blood flow (This new pattern of bllod
flow explains the redness & heat associated with infection.
Further more, the capillaries within the injured tissue begin to dilate & become leaky,
NB: this is crucial to an effective inflammatory response.
Platelets & their

NASH Case Study
Hepatocyte lipotoxicity and liver inflammation
Beside hepatocyte injury and death, inflammation is another histological hallmark of NASH. The
inflammation during NASH is described as sterile inflammation as the inflammatory response
occurs in the absence of pathogens or external antigens.44 This sterile inflammation may be a
consequence of lipid–induced hepatocyte stress, damage, and cell death. Indeed, cell death can
trigger an inflammatory response by innate immune cells.6 On the other hand, a sustained
inflammatory response may contribute to hepatocellular injury and death, creating a feed–forward
loop between tissue injury and inflammation. Inflammation in NASH is most strikingly associated
with activation of the innate immune system, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DAMPs are recognized by so–called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which were initially
studied as receptors for bacterial products (pathogen–associated molecular patterns). PRRs comprise
a variety of receptors expressed both on the cell surface and intracellularly. In NAFLD, the family of
TLRs is the best characterized PRRs. Cell surface TLR4 is expressed by Kupffer cells, hepatocytes,
liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells, and can be activated by multiple ligands
including polysaccharide (LPS), HMGB1, heat shock proteins and free fatty acids. In vitro,
treatment of macrophages with free fatty acids activates TLR4 signaling and macrophage
proinflammatory polarization.46 In isolated hepatocytes, free fatty acids stimulate secretion of
HMGB1, which in turn activates hepatocyte TLR4 signaling in an autocrine manner, leading to
hepatocyte NF–κB activation and cytokine expression.47 In vivo, specific TLR4 deletion in
hepatocytes prevented obesity–induced insulin resistance and systemic inflammation during high–
fat diet feeding.48 In another study, while whole–body deletion of TLR4 attenuated the development
of NASH in an MCD diet mouse model.49 Taken together, these studies suggest that inhibition of
TLR4 activation appears to be a promising therapeutic strategy for NASH.
TLR2, another cell surface PRR, can be

Liver Cell Inflammation
4.Liver cell damage and inflammation:
Inflammation is a kind of protective immune response of body towards the hazardous stimulants like
pathogens, irritants or even dead cells. The components of this protective immune response include
blood vessels, mast cells , tumor necrosis factor (TNF–α), tryptase, chemokines, reactive oxygen
species (ROS), histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandin and leukotrines, interleukin–1. The
inflammatory process is associated with stoppage of harmful stimuli, clearance of damaged tissues
and repairing of injury. Inflammation is strictly regulated by the body. The extent of this response
determines its positive or negative effect on body. Extremely low level of inflammation can't stop
tissue damage where as chronic inflammation frequently becomes the cause of disease itself.
Inflammation is of two types– acute and chronic inflammation. Acute inflammation is ... Show more
The duration of this type of inflammation is very short and is usually beneficial for the host. The
second type of inflammation i.e. chronic inflammation is long lasting and may predispose various
chronic illnesses to the host cell, including cancer (110). During inflammation, mast cells and
leukocytes lead to a 'respiratory burst' when these are recruited to the site of damage because of
increased uptake of oxygen. This results in an increased release and accumulation of ROS at the site
of damaged area (108–109). The soluble mediators produced by inflammatory cells, such as
metabolites of arachidonic acid, cytokines and chemokines, further recruit inflammatory cells to the
injury site to produce more

Homeostatic Chemokine Research Paper
Homeostatic chemokines are constitutively expressed and regulate tissue–specific leukocyte
migration [117]. The homeostatic chemokine CCL27 also called CTACK (cutaneous T cell–
attracting chemokine) is specifically expressed by human epidermal keratinocytes in the skin [118,
119]. CCL27 is expressed in large amounts in basal cells of the epidermis [119]. During the process
of epidermal cell differentiation from the basal layer to the skin surface, the expression levels of
CCL27 decrease [119]. CCL27 binds to its receptor CCR10 and recruits CLA+ skin–homing
memory T cells predominantly to the epidermis [118, 120]. During cutaneous inflammation the
proinflammatory cytokines TNF–α and IL–1β can induce an increased expression of CCL27,
accompanied ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Immunohistochemical analysis of skin tumor samples showed a significantly increased phosphor–
Erk1/2 (p–Erk1/2) expression, suggesting a role for MAPK pathway activation in skin tumors [69].
Furthermore, in case of enhanced response rate to epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor
(EGFRI) treatment such as Erlotinib®, tumor patients are observed with inflammatory skin lesions
(rash) [69, 92,

What Are B Cells?
What are B cells?
B cells are one type of lymphocytes, which are also called white blood cells. B cells participate in
humoral immune response by producing antibodies when they are exposed to foreign substance such
as antigens. B cells begin their development in the bone marrow, which provides a supply of them to
the body. Every day there are myriads of B cells made in the human body and these immature B
cells are activated when the B cell receptor binds to its cognate antigen and then released into the
bloodstream or lymphatic system. Once activated, B cells differentiate into mature B cells and there
are two ways for B cells' maturation. Some will become plasma B cells that produce huge amounts
of antibodies to fight with the antigen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally, secondary lymphoid organs include the lymph nodes, spleen and mucosal associated
lymphoid tissues (MALT). Lymph nodes, which are responsible for the acquired immune response
against antigens, are scattered throughout the body and filter out microbes. The spleen also plays a
significant role in mounting immune responses to antigens in the blood stream. It is located in the
abdominal cavity and acts as a filter for peripheral blood. The spleen consists of two basic tissues
which are red pulp and white pulp. MALT produce the immune responses against pathogens that
invade the mucosa which line the tracts such as respiratory or alimentary tracts. In the intestine,
Peyer's patches are found having similar structures as tonsils do.
It has been long recognized that secondary lymphoid organs play a role the sites for bringing antigen
together, adaptive immune system and lymphocytes such as B cells1. Chemokine receptors and
sphingosine–1–phosphate (S1P) receptors are G protein–coupled receptors and both of them play a
vital role in the migration of B lymphocytes through these organs.
Entry into Lymphoid Organs
B cell production is confined to bone marrow, where the immature B cells that are released into
blood stream are developed from pre–pro B

Tissue Regeneration And Healing : A New Standard For...
1 TISSUE REGENERATION AND HEALING
Tissue regeneration has become the new standard for healing and repair. The goal of tissue
regeneration is to repair and replace damaged or diseased tissue with healthy tissue that is fully
functional, free of scar tissue, and completely replicates the healthy, pre–injury tissue. In contrast,
the current state of tissue healing or repair often results in tissue that may be look, feel, or function
differently from healthy tissue. While healing and repair are often sufficient to remedy the root
symptoms of injury, full tissue regeneration remains to be the goal when treating damaged tissues.
Tissues are primarily composed of cells and extracellular matrix. Cells are the biological building
blocks of tissue. They maintain the function of the tissue by synthesizing proteins or metabolizing
waste. Single cells communicate with one another and respond to stimuli in their surrounding
environments. Cells secrete and maintain extracellular matrix (ECM) which is the structural
component of tissues. Cells interact with each other and the ECM through direct contact as well as
soluble signaling molecules, including cytokines, growth factors, hormones, steroids, enzymes, and
other chemicals. These signals stimulate a chain reaction or cascade which alters cell behavior, both
in the releasing cell itself, as well as other neighboring cells. Cells and structural matrix (for
example, cardiomyocyte) are organized to function together as a tissue (e.g.,

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