This document discusses best practices for storing grain and feed ingredients. It outlines key factors that affect storage such as moisture content, temperature, insects and mold. Good storage practices include cleaning grain before storage, using aeration to reduce temperature and condensation, applying preventative measures like insecticides and fumigation as needed, and employing sanitation practices. Monitoring tools like thermocouples are recommended to track temperature and determine if corrective actions like aeration are required to maintain optimal storage conditions.

1. GRAIN AND FEED INGREDIENT
STORAGE/MOLDS AND MYCOTOXINS
Carlos A. Campabadal
International Grains Program (IGP)
Kansas State University
MANHATTAN, KANSAS

2. IMPORTANT!!!
DILEMA OF GRAIN AND
INGREDIENT STORAGE
The quality of grain and feed
ingredients NEVER improves during
storage!
2

3. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Grain Storage Practices
– Important concepts and factors for
grain storage
– Good practices and techniques for grain
storage
– Monitoring pests
3

4. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Grain Storage Practices
– Important concepts and factors for
grain storage
4

5. 5
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS FOR GRAIN
STORAGE PRACTICES
• Feed mills usually have available
storage for short times and have limited
capacity
• Inventory losses usually cannot be
accounted
• Storage time of any feed ingredient is
based on variables of temperature,
relative humidity and moisture content
• Good quality feed ingredient and proper
storage practices will contribute for
good quality feed

6. IMPORTANT STEPS FOR FEED
INGREDIENT STORAGE
• Measure quality upon arrival to feed mill
(moisture content, BCFM, etc)
• Durability based on other characteristics
(fat content)
• Pest infestation (insects, mold and
mycotoxins)
• Check for available storage period (space,
need, availability in the market) and
document
6

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF
FEED INGREDIENTS
• Moisture content:
– Amount of internal water
– It will equilibrate with the environment
based on the ambient temperature and
relative humidity
– Relative humidity higher than 65%
allows mold growth and higher insect
activity
– Feed ingredients should be at “safe
moisture contents” for proper storage
7

8. FACTORS THAT AFFECT GRAIN AND
FEED INGREDIENT STORAGE
8
INSECTS
CONDENSATION
SPOILAGE
BROKEN
GRAIN
HOT
SPOTS
MOLD
FINES
WEATHER
CHANGES
MOISTURE
MIGRATION
DIFFERENT
M/C

9. HOW CONDENSATION OR
MOISTURE MIGRATION
LOOKS?
9

10. 10
Warmer
Cooler

11. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Grain Storage Practices
– Important concepts and factors for
grain storage
– Good practices and techniques for grain
storage
11

12. GOOD PRACTICES AND
TECHNIQUES FOR STORAGE
• Cleaning of grain before storage
(preventive)
• Techniques for reduction of grain
temperature and condensation
AERATION (preventive and corrective)
• Mold inhibitors & mycotoxin binders
(preventive and corrective)
• Rotation of inventories (preventive and
corrective)

13. GOOD PRACTICES AND
TECHNIQUES FOR STORAGE
• Sanitation (preventive)
• Application of physical exclusion
(preventive)
• Application of insecticides & grain
protectants (preventive and corrective)
• Fumigation (corrective)

14. • Objective:
Remove BCFM for:
• Increase storage space
• Improve grain preservation
• Reduce mold growth and insect feed
(external feeders)
• Remove mycotoxin infested BCFM
• Improve airflow for aeration
CLEANING OF GRAIN
BEFORE STORAGE
14

15. Gravity
Cleaner
Aspirated
Cleaner
Rotary
Cleaner
Pre-
Cleaning

16. CUSHION BOXES AND FLOW
RETARDERS

17. CORING
Source: Dr. Carl Reed 17

18. CORING
Source: Dr. Carl Reed 18

19. TECHNIQUES FOR
REDUCTION OF GRAIN
TEMPERATURE AND
CONDENSATION
19

20. GRAIN TEMPERATURE REDUCTION
Thermocouples
• Grain temperature increase due to:
– Insects increase their activity
– Mold increases growth

21. • Use
AERATION
• Movement of
airflow front
through the
grain mass as
fast as
possible to
lower grain
temperature!
Airflow Front
How to reduce temperature?
21

22. Centrifugal Fans
Vents and air extractors to
help aeration
22

23. TEMPERATURE (ºC) EFFECT
>50ºC Death in minutes
>35ºC Reduced growth
25-32ºC Optimal growth
19-25ºC Almost optimal
5-15.5ºC Death in several days
-17.7ºC Death in minutes
Effect of Ambient Temperature on
Insects
(Source: Fields 1992)
23

24. EFECT OF GRAIN TEMPERATURE
WITH MOLD SPOILAGE
º
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 2 4 6 8 10
Porcentage
of
infested
grains
%
Weeks in Storage
* Original Percentage
14.3 % m.c. & 30ºC
14.3 % m.c. & 25ºC
Source: Dr. Carl Reed 24
Increase Temperature,
Increase Mold Growth

25. AERATION OBJECTIVE
• Grain cooling:
• Lower grain temperature (that
increases due to insect infestation and
mold growth)
• Reduce hot spots
• Remove condensation produce by day
and night effect
• Elimination of temperature gradients
• Moderation of moisture gradients
• Moisture removal
• Holding of wet grain before drying

26. FACTORS THAT CAN BE ELIMINATED
BY AERATION
26
INSECTS
CONDENSATION
SPOILAGE
BROKEN
GRAIN
HOT
SPOTS
MOLD
FINES
WEATHER
CHANGES
MOISTURE
MIGRATION
DIFFERENT
M/C

27. HOW TO DO AERATION
FOR COOLING GRAIN?
1- Determine if grain will be stored for
more than 2 months
2- Monitor grain temperature to know if it
needs AERATION FOR COOLING GRAIN
TEMPERATURE >26-28 C (78 – 82 F)
3- Understand and monitor the weather
conditions to run fans
4- Calculate how many hours to run fans
to cool down grain
27

28. Thermocouples
Temperature Monitoring
28

29. EXAMPLE OF INCREASE OF
TEMPERATURE IN A HOT SPOT INSIDE
A GRAIN BIN
Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Bottom Top
26/06/13 87 84 80 78 76 74 71 69 68 67 67 64 61 60 61 68
30/06/13 89 89 90 90 88 83 79 76 73 69 68 68 67 63 61 69
07/07/13 86 88 90 93 99 89 87 79 75 71 69 68 65 62 60 81
14/07/13 82 84 86 90 93 97 102 101 96 86 76 71 70 70 81 81
25/07/13 72 73 74 77 78 81 83 84 82 84 88 90 87 84 81 82
04/08/13 79 79 78 79 82 84 88 88 86 87 90 102 79 79 79 79
11/08/13 81 79 79 79 80 83 86 93 91 88 93 103 84 83 82 82
Temperature for each 16 sensors (º Fahrenheit)
Temperature Data
29
26 C = 79 F

30. TEMPERATURE (ºC) EFFECT
>50ºC Death in minutes
>35ºC Reduced growth
25-32ºC Optimal growth
19-25ºC Almost optimal
5-15.5ºC Death in several days
-17.7ºC Death in minutes
Effect of Ambient Temperature on
Insects
(Source: Fields 1992)
30
AERATION

31. IF AERATION is not
done:
Sealed Fans!
31

32. KEY ASPECTS TO CONSIDER
WHEN DOING AERATION
• Avoid BCFM in central core of grain
bin
• Level grain surface
• Choose the right fan (Axial: low
pressure straight ducts, Centrifugal
high pressure large volume of air)
• Use the right airflow 0.1 m^3
air/tonne/min
32
32 32
32

33. Plastic ducts with holes of
0.158 cm = 1/16 in
AERATION IN FLAT STORAGE
(WAREHOUSE)
Axial Fans

34. COOLER
HEAT
34
CONDENSATION
REMOVAL

35. CONDENSATION REMOVAL
Use aeration and air extractors
When:
-Early morning to remove
condensation
- Late afternoon to remove
accumulated heat
35

36. Grain Chilling Unit AAG
GTC 3500
GRAIN CHILLING
Cools grain at any time of
the year to lower
temperatures by aeration
Uniform relative humidity
High electricity cost
Avoid the usage of
pesticides

37. With NO Chilling Chilling
Insect Traps

38. MOLD REDUCTION
• MOLDS CANNOT BE AVOID!
• Produce hot spots, spoilage and bad odors
in stored grain or feed ingredients
• To reduce their growth keep feed
ingredients at safe moisture content levels
( usually below 12-15%), avoid contact
with other ingredients or grain and
different moisture content or use mold
inhibitors
• Molds can produce mycotoxins
38

39. MOLD INHIBITORS
• Are acids that will not allow mold to grow. More
common are: propionic acids, sodium and calcium
salts
• Its effect works better if the grain is clean
(BCFM) during application
• Can be applied in solid or liquid
• Do not destroy mycotoxins
• Damage metal structures
39

40. MOLD PREVENTION IN THE WALLS
FOR HUMID CONDITIONS
APPLY LIMESTONE IN WALLS TO AVOID MOLD
GROWTH
40

41. 41
ROTATION OF INVENTORIES

42. Sanitation
42

43. SANITATION
• Unloading and loading equipment
• Transportation equipment
• Storage structures
– Internal and external
• Use of insecticide when needed
“Sanitation is the best pest
control!”
43

44. CLEANING ON THE
SURROUNDING AREAS
NEAR THE GRAIN BINS
44

45. AVOID!!!

46. CLEAN ANY OPENING
OF THE STORAGE
STRUCTURES TO
AVOID DUST
ACCUMULATION
46

47. CLEAN STORAGE STRUCTURE
AFTER UNLOADING TO AVOID
CONTAMINATION
47

48. AVOID DUST AND FEED
ACCUMULATION INSIDE THE FEED
MILL OR STORAGE LOCATION
48

49. AVOID OPEN BAGS
OR STORAGE
STRUCTURES
49

50. CLEAN SURROUNDING AREA FOR
SPILLS
FAT AND MOLASSES
TANKS
50

51. • Debris
• Waste
• Vegetation
• Have good water
drainage
HAVE ALL THE SURROUNDINGS OF
THE FEED MILL OR STORAGE
LOCATION CLEAN AND FREE OF:
51

52. APPLICATION OF PHYSICAL
EXCLUSION
52

53. WHAT IS PHYSICAL EXCLUSION?
AVOID PEST ENTRANCE!
53

54. AVOID OPEN GATES!

55. UTILIZE EXCLUSION TECHNIQUES
TO AVOID PEST ENTRANCE
55

56. UTILIZE EXCLUSION TECHNIQUES
56

57. PHYSICAL EXCLUSION IN GRAIN BINS
Put sieve or cloth with holes of 0.0075”
Put them in any entrance or
opening vent of storage structure
57

58. USE OF INSECTICIDES
External
Application
Internal
Application
58
Eradicate any
possible pest near
storage structure

59. INSECTICIDE APPLICATION
• To the grain and grain bin surroundings as
protectors to avoid pest to enter structure
(liquid and solid)
• To the structure after unloading to eradicate
any pest after sanitation
External
Application
Internal
Application

60. GRAIN PROTECTANTS
• Chlorpyrifos- methyl (Gustafson Reldan) Barley, oats,
sorghum, wheat – not effective with LGB – mgr.
withdrawing registration
• Storcide (Gustafson Chlorpyriphos-methyl 22% and
Cyfluthrin (15%). Barley, oats, wheat, rice, sorghum
(Not corn)
• Storcide II (Gustafson Chlorpyriphos-methyl 21.6%
and Deltamethrin (3.7%). Barley, oats, wheat, rice,
sorghum (Not corn)
• Actellic (corn) –
• D.E. – this is a slow kill product but caution must be
taken as it can influence flow ability of grain.
• Spinosad – Dow AgriSciences has been field testing
this proven biological pesticide as a grain protectant. It
is now approved but will not be for sale until 2009.

61. IDEAL - UNDER FLOOR
SANITATION

62. PEST CONTROL TECHNIQUES
• Sanitation (preventive)
• Physical Exclusion (preventive)
• Application of insecticides (grain
protectants (preventive &
corrective)
• Fumigation (corrective)
62

63. FUMIGATION
• Seal all grain bin entrances
and openings
• Apply fumigant based on label
instructions
• Clean all grain bin
surroundings
• Apply insecticides to grain bin
base and external part to
avoid insect re-entry
63

64. IMPORTANT INFORMATION FOR
FUMIGATION
Fumigant concentration will depend on:
• Dose
• Grain bin leaks
• Distribution of pellets and tablets in the grain mass
• Dose is calculated for all the grain bin volume and
not for the amount of grain
• The warmer and humidity the environment, the
faster the reaction
Grain Moisture
Content
30 C 25 C
11% 2 days 2.5 days
13.5% 1 day 1.5 days

65. CHEMICAL FUMIGATION –
WHAT IS AVAILABLE
• Chloropicrin (empty bin only)
• Aluminum or Magnesium Phosphine
• Methyl Bromide (not for seed
treatment) – removed in 2005 – some
exemptions for quarantine and special
uses.
• Profume – probably not for on farm use
due to the cost and additional training
needed

66. ALUMINUM PHOSPHIDE
• Temperature - Minimum 40 F (legally)
Minimum 60 F (advised)
• 1.2 x more dense than air (compare to
Chloropicrin at 5.7)
So phosphine s downward movement is
usually only 25-30 ft

67. EMPTY BIN FUMIGATION
• Chloropicrin - Tear Gas
– Gas is 5.7 times heavier than air
– Seal lower openings and apply from roof
• Safety
– Canister or SCBA is needed if chloropicrin
concentrations is above 0.1 ppm
– Don t treat is air temperature is below 60
F
• Note: This product is very hard to find

68. PHOSPHINE RECIRCULATION
68

69. MYCOTOXINS
• Levels are mandated, recommended and
guidelines by FDA for different animal
species (ochratoxin, DON, fumonisins, etc)
• 20 ppb max. level for aflatoxin in export
grain (FGIS), but on the animal diets:
– 0.5 ppb for dairy cows (milk)
– 100 ppb for beef cattle and growing pigs
– 200 ppb for finishing pigs more then 100
lb in weight
– 300 ppb for finishing beef cattle
69

70. HOW TO DETECT MYCOTOXINS?
70

71. QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
(FAST PROCESS)
• Usually use immunochromatographic
strips and ELISA method (rapid tests).
• Use enzymes to know if the level of the
mycotoxin is at a specific level.
• Method used by FGIS (Federal Grain
Inspection Service).
71

72. 72
TEST STRIPS FOR MYCOTOXINS

73. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
(MORE PRECISE TESTING)
• Uses wet chemistry and/or HPLC method for
more precision.
• This method of HPLC can be requested to
FGIS.
• HPLC: High Pressure Liquid Chromatography
73

74. MYCOTOXIN BINDERS
• Are organic products and aluminum silicates
that are mix with the feed so they bind with
the mycotoxins in the stomach of the animal
with no absorption. Are excreted by the
animal
• Are expensive and do not bind 100% all the
mycotoxins
• In U.S. are sold as an anti-compacting agent
• Use if there are problems with mycotoxins
74

75. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Grain Storage Practices
– Important concepts and factors for
grain storage
– Good practices and techniques for grain
storage
– Monitoring pests
75

76. MONITORING PESTS IN A
FEED MILL
• TYPES OF PESTS
- Insects
- Rats
- Fungus
- Bacteria

77. WHY PESTS ARE PRESENT IN
STORAGE AND FEED MILLS?
Food
Moisture
Shelter
FOOD
SHELTER WATER
77

78. FACTORS THAT REGULATE
PEST POPULATION
• Moisture content of the grain
• Temperature
• Access to the storage
structures
• Time
78

79. TYPES OF PESTS PRESENT IN
STORAGE AND FEED MILLS
Invertebrates:
Vertebrates:
Grain and Oilseed storage insects
Flies Cockroaches Mites
Birds Rodents
79

80. Grain
Weevil
Rice
Weevil
Lesser Grain
Borer
Moths
Internal
Feeders
80

81. Beetle Tenebroides mauritanicus
External
Feeders
Moths Confused
Beetle
Flour Beetle
81

82. Ahasverus advena
Fungus Feeders
Typhaea stercorea
82

83. COCKROACHES
& FLIES
• Transmit pathogens
• Produce secretions that
produce bad odors
• Presence can be due to poor
sanitation
German
American
Brown

84. RATS AND OTHER ANIMALS
RATS:
• Live inside the plant or nearby
• Come out during sun up or sun down
• They can transmit diseases (salmonella)
• Control:
- Clean grain spills
- Seal infrastructure the best way
possible
- Reduce population (traps and
poison)

85. • Rodents can get in any
structure
TRAPS FOR CONTROL Y
MONITORING RODENTS

86. RODENT TRAPS
PLACE TRAP NEXT AND ADYACENT TO A
WALL. PUT AND ID TAG FOR
INDENTIFICATION
86

87. SIGNS OF RODENT INFESTATION
• Presence:
Excrement, holes,
damage,
footprints and
odors
87

88. SEAL HOLES
IN WALLS
BAD SEAL OF DOOR
88

89. Blood Clotting Poison
• Inhibits the ability to form blood
clots
•Rodents bleed to death
• Requires several doses
• Less dangerous to other animals
• Delay effect
No Blood Clotting Poison
• Rapid effect
• One dose
• Needs a bait
89

90. BIRDS
• Produce economic losses
• Pathogen transmission and
contamination due to
excrement
USE PHYSICAL
EXCLUSION
90
• Pigeons are flying rats
• Feed on grains
• Nest on flat surfaces

91. MONITORING &
INSPECTION
• Its to know in detail every corner of
feed mill or storage structure
• Document all sanitation procedures
and have all staff aware of it in order
to locate problematic locations inside
the feed mill
• Look for the source to prevent
insects to come into the structure
91

92. 92
Monitoring in storage structure
• Temperature
• Moisture Content
• Mold
• Insects
• Rodents
Why? To know the problem we
might encounter with pest and
how to control them!

93. DEVELOP INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT
PROGRAM “I.P.M.”
Concepts:
– Keep pest levels below the
acceptable limit
– Use several tactics
– Use pesticides as last resource
– Goal is to prevent pests to get
access to water, food and shelter
93

94. 1. Inspection
– Visual
– Check SBM or grain that comes in and comes
out of feed mill
– Identify source of pests and apply sanitation
2. Monitor
– Traps and other equipment
3. Action
– Density and distribution of pests
4. Evaluate
– Implement control tactics and evaluate
impact/benefit 94
INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
“I.P.M.”

95. SOLUTION:
MONITOR CARBON
DIOXIDE
PROBLEM WITH TEMPERATURE
CABLES:
They can only detect
temperature increase in a 3 ft
radius of their location.
95

96. HOW DOES CARBON DIOXIDE CO2
MONITORING WORKS?

97. Alarm
when CO2
Levels
increase
Base-station
(Master Radio)
Tank à Base Station
Tank
Radio
ventana con sensor de CO2
Suction Fan
CO2 sensor
REAL TIME MONITORING OF CO2
The Andersons, Delphi, IN

98. COMPARISON WITH TEMPERATURE
CABLES
NO DETECTION

99. 0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (h)
CO
2
Concentration
(ppm)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature
(
o
C)
CO2
Temp L1
Temp L2
Temp L3
Average Corn Temperature
MONIRORING OF CO2 DURING CORN
STORAGE

100. The Andersons, Delphi - Tank 54 (Semi-wet 17.5% MC)
Total CO2 (kg)
Total
CO2
(kg)
53.7 kg (May 28)
178.2 kg (June 09)
283.5 kg (June 24)
Early Detection
Before Spoilage!
April 17
April 24

101. 101
CONCLUSIONS
To successfully store ingredients,
several considerations should be
made:
• Understanding the ingredient
characteristics
• Understanding the environment
• Proper application of storage
practices and techniques

102. THANK YOU!
QUESTIONS???
Carlos Campabadal
Email: campa@ksu.edu
Phone number: +1.217.721.1025
+1.785.532.3187
102