2. GENETIC CODEGENETIC CODE
Definition:Definition: System of nucleotideSystem of nucleotide
sequences of mRNA that designatessequences of mRNA that designates
particular amino acid sequences inparticular amino acid sequences in
the process of translation.the process of translation.
ïź Genetic code is the relation betweenGenetic code is the relation between
the sequence bases in DNA and thethe sequence bases in DNA and the
sequence of amino acids in proteinsequence of amino acids in protein
ïź Code words for amino acids--Code words for amino acids--CodonsCodons
5. 2.2. UNIVERSALUNIVERSAL
Few exceptionsâ AUA codes for Met inFew exceptionsâ AUA codes for Met in
mitochondriamitochondria
AUAâ Ile in cytoplasmAUAâ Ile in cytoplasm
UGAâ stop codon in CytoplasmUGAâ stop codon in Cytoplasm
UGAâ Trp in MtUGAâ Trp in Mt
Bacteriaâ GUG,UUG, AUU,CUGBacteriaâ GUG,UUG, AUU,CUG
initiating codonsinitiating codons
6. 3.3. Stop codon and Initiating codonStop codon and Initiating codon
AUGâ Start codonAUGâ Start codon
UAA,UGA and UAGâ stop/ non-senseUAA,UGA and UAGâ stop/ non-sense
codoncodon
Exceptionâ 21Exceptionâ 21stst
AA Selenocystine--AA Selenocystine--
UGAUGA
4.Genetic code is4.Genetic code is degeneratedegenerate
5. It is5. It is unambiguousunambiguous
7. 6. Code is6. Code is non-overlappingnon-overlapping andand
without punctuationwithout punctuation
7.7. Wobbling phenomenonWobbling phenomenon âreducedâreduced
stringency between the 3stringency between the 3rdrd
base ofbase of
codon and complementary base ofcodon and complementary base of
anticodonanticodon
Mitochondria have different codesMitochondria have different codes
9. Translation (An Overview)Translation (An Overview)
ïź Translation is defined as protein synthesis.Translation is defined as protein synthesis.
ïź Occurs on ribosomes--mRNAOccurs on ribosomes--mRNA PoteinâPoteinâ
ïź mRNA is translated in the 5â to 3âmRNA is translated in the 5â to 3â
direction.direction.
ïź Highly regulatedHighly regulated
ïź Very fastâ 20AA/secVery fastâ 20AA/sec
ïź Amino acids are brought to the ribosomeAmino acids are brought to the ribosome
bound to a specific tRNA molecule.bound to a specific tRNA molecule.
ïź The mRNA and tRNA are responsible forThe mRNA and tRNA are responsible for
the correct recognition of each amino acidthe correct recognition of each amino acid
in the growing polypeptidein the growing polypeptide
10.
11. RequisitesRequisites
ïź Template - mRNATemplate - mRNA
ïź tRNAs (transfer RNAs)tRNAs (transfer RNAs)
Linked to amino acidsLinked to amino acids
ïź RibosomesRibosomes
ïź Many accessory proteinsMany accessory proteins
ïź Some energy (GTP hydrolysis)Some energy (GTP hydrolysis)
12. Functions of the Types of RNAFunctions of the Types of RNA
ïź mRNA- serves as a template codemRNA- serves as a template code
ïź tRNA- serves as an adapter moleculetRNA- serves as an adapter molecule
ïź rRNA- holds molecules in the correctrRNA- holds molecules in the correct
position, protein portion alsoposition, protein portion also
catalyzecatalyze
reactionsreactions
13. Translation Is the Most ComplicatedTranslation Is the Most Complicated
Biological Process KnownBiological Process Known
In eukaryotes,In eukaryotes,
ïź >70 ribosomal proteins>70 ribosomal proteins
ïź 20 (more) proteins to activate aaâs20 (more) proteins to activate aaâs
ïź 12 (more) auxiliary enzymes12 (more) auxiliary enzymes
ïź â„â„100 proteins for processing100 proteins for processing
ïź ââ40 tRNA and rRNAs (minimum)40 tRNA and rRNAs (minimum)
ïź Other specific proteinsOther specific proteins
ïź ~300 molecules~300 molecules
16. Charging of tRNACharging of tRNA
ïŒ Linking amino acids to correct t-RNAsLinking amino acids to correct t-RNAs
ïŒ Catalyzed by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aa-Catalyzed by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aa-
tRNA)tRNA)
ïŒ Couples an amino acid to its cognate tRNACouples an amino acid to its cognate tRNA
ïŒ Fidelity of coupling â 20 different synthetasesFidelity of coupling â 20 different synthetases
ïŒ Two stepsTwo steps
ôșôș Activation of amino acidActivation of amino acid
ôșôș Transfer of amino acid to tRNATransfer of amino acid to tRNA
17.
18. InitiationInitiation
ïź Attachment of initiator tRNA (Met-tRNA)Attachment of initiator tRNA (Met-tRNA)
to start codon on mRNA and assembly ofto start codon on mRNA and assembly of
ribosomal subunitsribosomal subunits
i)i) Dissociation of ribosomesâDissociation of ribosomesâ
80s ribosomes80s ribosomes 40s+60sâ40s+60sâ
eIF-3 & eIF-1A Bind to newly dissociatedâeIF-3 & eIF-1A Bind to newly dissociatedâ
40s unit40s unit
ââ
ï¶ Allows other translation factors to bindAllows other translation factors to bind
ï¶ Delays reassociation of 40s with 60sDelays reassociation of 40s with 60s
19. ii) Formation of 43s pre-initiationii) Formation of 43s pre-initiation
complexcomplex
GTP + eIF-2GTP + eIF-2
ââ
Bind to met-t-RNABind to met-t-RNAii
(Ternary(Ternary
complex)complex)
ââ
43s pre-initiation complex formed43s pre-initiation complex formed
(40s ribosome+ eIF-2+GTP+eIF-(40s ribosome+ eIF-2+GTP+eIF-
3+eIF-1A)3+eIF-1A)
20. iii) Formation of 48s initiation complexiii) Formation of 48s initiation complex
ïź Binding of mRNA to 43s pre-initiationBinding of mRNA to 43s pre-initiation
complexcomplex
ïź eIF-4F= eIF-4E + eIF-4GâeIF-4AeIF-4F= eIF-4E + eIF-4GâeIF-4A
ïź 4F binds to 5â cap of mRNA through 4E4F binds to 5â cap of mRNA through 4E
ââ
4A &4B come and bind4A &4B come and bind
ââATPATP
mRNA binds to 43s PICmRNA binds to 43s PIC
ââ
48s initiation complex formed48s initiation complex formed
(40s ribosome+ eIF-3,1A,2+ GTP +mRNA + eIF-4F)(40s ribosome+ eIF-3,1A,2+ GTP +mRNA + eIF-4F)
21.
22.
23. ProkaryotesâProkaryotesâ Shine-DalgarnoShine-Dalgarno
sequence-sequence--a sequence of nucleotide-a sequence of nucleotide
bases on m-RNA that facilitates m-bases on m-RNA that facilitates m-
RNA binding to the pre-initiationRNA binding to the pre-initiation
complexcomplex
EukaryotesâEukaryotesâ Kozak consensusKozak consensus
sequencesequence
ïź Formation of PICFormation of PIC
ââ
Melting of secondary str at 5â endMelting of secondary str at 5â end
ââ
Complex scans m-RNA for a suitableComplex scans m-RNA for a suitable
24. iv) Formation of 80s initiation complexâiv) Formation of 80s initiation complexâ
48s IC combines with 60s ribosome48s IC combines with 60s ribosome
ââ
Hydrolysis of GTP bound to eIF-2 byHydrolysis of GTP bound to eIF-2 by
eIF-5eIF-5
ââ
Release of initiation factors andRelease of initiation factors and
recycledrecycled
ââ
Rapid reassociation of 40s and 60s toRapid reassociation of 40s and 60s to
form 80s ribosomeform 80s ribosome
metmet
25. Regulation of initiationRegulation of initiation
ïź eIF-4Fâ rate of translationeIF-4Fâ rate of translation
ïź 4Eâ recognises the cap of mRNA4Eâ recognises the cap of mRNA
ïź 4Gâ Scaffolding protein4Gâ Scaffolding protein
-- binds to helicase complex that-- binds to helicase complex that
helps in unwinding the RNAhelps in unwinding the RNA
ïź eIF-2â controls to some extenteIF-2â controls to some extent
26. ElongationElongation
ïź One AA added at a timeOne AA added at a time
CU A
Met
mRNA
5â 3â
C C U
Gly
U U U CG G G G GGA A A A A
A
AC
Cys
P
A
27. i)i) Binding of aminoacyl t-RNA to the A-siteBinding of aminoacyl t-RNA to the A-site
A site emptyA site empty
Binding of proper AA-t-RNA requires codonBinding of proper AA-t-RNA requires codon
recognitionrecognition
EF-1A (Elongation factor)+ GTP+ AminoacylEF-1A (Elongation factor)+ GTP+ Aminoacyl
t-RNAt-RNA
ââ
Ternary complexTernary complex
ââ
Enters A siteEnters A site
ââ EF-1A,GDP+PiEF-1A,GDP+Pi
Aminoacyl-tRNAAminoacyl-tRNA
28.
29. ii) Peptide bond formationii) Peptide bond formation
ïź Peptidyl transferaseâ catalysesPeptidyl transferaseâ catalyses
peptide bond formationpeptide bond formation
ïź Found on 28s rRNAFound on 28s rRNA
ïź RibozymeRibozyme
ïź No energy requiredNo energy required
30. iii) Translocationiii) Translocation
ïź Growing peptide chain moves from AGrowing peptide chain moves from A
site to P sitesite to P site
ïź Deacylated tRNA moves out from PDeacylated tRNA moves out from P
site to E site (Exit)site to E site (Exit)
31. ïź EF-2 factor bindsEF-2 factor binds
ââ
Displaces peptidyl tRNA from A site toDisplaces peptidyl tRNA from A site to
P siteP site
ââ
Energy from GTP; mRNA moves byEnergy from GTP; mRNA moves by
one codonone codon
ïź Process of peptide synthesis occursProcess of peptide synthesis occurs
until a termination codon is reacheduntil a termination codon is reached
34. ïŒ Stop codon appears on A siteStop codon appears on A site
ïŒ No tRNA availableNo tRNA available
ïŒ Releasing factorReleasing factor (RF-1)(RF-1) recognises itsrecognises its
presence in A sitepresence in A site
ïŒ RF-1+RF-3+GTPRF-1+RF-3+GTP Hydrolysis of bondâ Hydrolysis of bondâ
between peptide and tRNA occupyingbetween peptide and tRNA occupying
P site âP site â
Protein, tRNA, 60s & 40sProtein, tRNA, 60s & 40s
ribosomes, GDP releasedribosomes, GDP released
35. PolysomesPolysomes
ïź In eukaryotes the same molecule of mRNA can beIn eukaryotes the same molecule of mRNA can be
simultaneously translated several timessimultaneously translated several times
ïź Each emerging peptide is synthesized on aEach emerging peptide is synthesized on a
separate ribosomeseparate ribosome
ïź Many ribosomes on the same âstringâ of mRNAMany ribosomes on the same âstringâ of mRNA
are called polysomesare called polysomes
36. Four levels of protein structureFour levels of protein structure
37. Chaperones and protein foldingChaperones and protein folding
ïź Heat shock proteinsHeat shock proteins
Hsp70Hsp70
Chaperonin (Hsp60)Chaperonin (Hsp60)
ïź Prevent aggregationPrevent aggregation
ïź Put all the hydrophobic ends insidePut all the hydrophobic ends inside
ïź Misfolding causes diseases e.g.Misfolding causes diseases e.g.
Cystic fibrosis, Prion diseasesCystic fibrosis, Prion diseases
38. Misfolding of protein impairs functionMisfolding of protein impairs function
ïź Misfolded prion protein disrupts functions ofMisfolded prion protein disrupts functions of
other normally folded prion proteins.other normally folded prion proteins.
ïź Aberrant conformation can propagate like anAberrant conformation can propagate like an
âinfectiousâ agentâinfectiousâ agent
39. Inhibitors of TranslationInhibitors of Translation
A.A. Reversible inhibitorReversible inhibitor
a.Tetracyclinâ Binds to 30s ribosomea.Tetracyclinâ Binds to 30s ribosome
ââ
Inhibit attachment of aminoacyl tRNA toInhibit attachment of aminoacyl tRNA to
the A sitethe A site
b. Chloramphenicolâ Inhibits peptidylb. Chloramphenicolâ Inhibits peptidyl
transferasetransferase
c. Erythromycin & Clindamycinâ Preventc. Erythromycin & Clindamycinâ Prevent
translocationtranslocation
40. B. Irreversible inhibitorB. Irreversible inhibitor
Streptomycin andStreptomycin and
AminoglycosidesâBind to 30sAminoglycosidesâBind to 30s
ribosomal sub-unitribosomal sub-unit
Low conc.- Misreading of proteinLow conc.- Misreading of protein
ââ
Useless bacterial proteinsUseless bacterial proteins
Pharma. Conc.- Inhibit IC synthesisPharma. Conc.- Inhibit IC synthesis
ââ
Protein synthesis inhibitedProtein synthesis inhibited
41. C. Inhibitors in mammalsC. Inhibitors in mammals
1.1. Puromycinâ Structural analogue ofPuromycinâ Structural analogue of
tyrosinyl t-RNAtyrosinyl t-RNA
2.2. Cycloheximideâ Inhibits peptidylCycloheximideâ Inhibits peptidyl
transferasetransferase
3.3. Diphtheria toxinâInactivation ofDiphtheria toxinâInactivation of
EF-2 by attachment of ADP to EF-2EF-2 by attachment of ADP to EF-2
4.4. Ricinâ Inactivates 28s rRNARicinâ Inactivates 28s rRNA
44. Post-translational modification of Polypeptide
Protein folding
Proteolytic cleavage Intein splicing
Covalent modification
Different structures
Insulin, Zymogens
Inteins removed & Exteins spliced
a. Phosphorylation
b. Hydroxylation
c. Glycosylation
d. Carboxylation