3. Meaning of Historical Research
So What is Historical Research?
The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe,
explain, and understand actions or events that occurred
sometime in the past.
There is no manipulation or control of variables as in
experimental research.
An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened during a
certain period of time as completely and accurately as possible.
According to Karlinger-
Historical research is the critical investigation of events,
developments and experience of the past. It is the careful
weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of information on
the past and the interpretation of weighed evidence.
4. The Purposes
of Historical Research
Learn from past failures and successes
Apply them to present-day problems
Satisfy their scholarly curiosity about past things,
person, place or such.
Make predictions
Understand present educational practices and policies
better than before
To make people aware of what has happened in the past
in order to:
5. Types of Historical Research
Legal Research
Study about historical ideas
Study about the History of Institution
or Organization
Biography Research
6. Types of Historical Research : Legal Research
Legal research is study about
Legal basis of educational institutions run by different
religions and caste,
Relation between Center al and State Government with
regards to Education.
Legal status of teacher and students.
Administration of govt, aided and self-financed
institutes
School Finance in a specific periods
Students role in institution administration etc.
7. Types of Historical Research :
Study of Historical Ideas/ Beliefs
Historical Ideas or Beliefs Research is concerned with
Study of major philosophical and scientific thoughts
from their origin through different stages of
development.
Study of changes in popular thoughts over a given period
of time.
Evolution of current concept like- system approach,
mastery learning etc
8. Types of Historical Research :
Study of History of Institutions and Organization
Study of History of Institutions and Organization is
concerned with
It is study about history of popular institution like-
Nalanda, Takshashila, Viswabharati etc.
It is also looking through various historical aspects of
popular organization like- Muslim League, RSS, UNO,
Red, All India Congress, BJP, JDU, Akalidal, Red Cross
etc.
9. Types of Historical Research :
Biography Research
Aim of Biography Research is concerned with
Determining and presenting truthfully the
important facts about the life, character and
achievement of important personalities.
10. Steps of Historical Research-
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis/es G
Deductive
4.
Process of Data
Collection
Primary Source
S
Secondary Source
5.
Criticism of the
Data
External Criticism
Internal Criticism
6. Analysis, Interpretation of the data
7. Findings and Reporting of the
11. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 3- Formulation of Hypothesis/es-
Formulation of Hypothesis/es to provide direction for
further research process (generally question or
statement type of hypothesis).
Step 2- Defining of the problem-
From abroad to specific, abstract to concrete,
theoretical to operational and précising form.
Step 1- selection of the problem-
Selection of problem on the basis of personal interest,
utility to present condition, availability of resources, time,
budget etc.
12. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 4- Collection of Data from Primary and
Secondary Sources-
A)Primary Sources-
Primary Sources are the eye witness accounts and are the
only solid bases of historical Research (Goods, Barr and
Scates, 1941)
1) Conscious Testimony-
Personal Records
Official Records
Pictorial Records
Mechanical Records
13. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 4- Collection of Data – A) Primary Sources-
2) Unconscious Testimony-
Remains
Relics
3) Oral Testimony-
Myths, Folk Talks. Family Stories, interview data.
B) Secondary Source s-
Secondary sources are the account of an event provided by a
person who didn’t directly observe the event, object or
condition
Textbooks
Encyclopedias
Newspapers
Periodicals
Reviews of research and other references
14. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 6- Analysis and Interpretation of the data
Narration of the data on the light of objectives and hypothesis of the
study to reach up to a certain conclusion.
Step 5- Criticism of Data
A)External Criticism of the Data
This criticism is designed to establish authenticity of the data
.
B) Internal Criticism of the Data
This criticism is designed to check reliability of the data.
Steps 7- Findings and Reporting of the Research.
15. Limitation of Historical Research
Problem that already occurred in pas rarely repeats
again and again in future
Past problems have limited use in present and future
in a different setting
Same wine in a new bottle.
16.
17. Meaning of Descriptive Research
Characteristics of Descriptive Research-
Focused towards the present
Gathering information and describing the current
situation
Answers the question “What is?”
It doesn’t evaluate cause and effect relationship.
Control and Manipulation never be done in Descriptive
Research
“Descriptive research may best define as the study about a
phenomena, attributes, event, relation or development in
current condition.”
18. Importance of
Descriptive Research
Most appropriate to solve ongoing problem
Utility oriented
Empirical Observation
Suitable for most of the Studies undertaken in
educational and social field.
Easy in information collection
Suitable for statistical inference.
Valid and Reliable than Historical method of study.
19. Types of Descriptive Research
Survey Research
Institutional Survey
Social Survey
Public opinion Survey
Personal Survey or Case Study
Normative Survey Research
Co-relational Study
Co-relation and Prediction Study
Comparative Study
Observational Study
Causal-Comparative
Developmental
Growth Studies
Longitudinal approach
Cross-sectional approach
Trend Studies
Fellow up Studies
20. Survey Research
Most common type of descriptive
research
Tries to ascertain opinions and
practices through interviews and
questionnaires
21. Survey Research Methodology
Survey research is the most common type of
descriptive research
Involves questioning techniques for data collection
Survey methodology consists of asking questions of a
(supposedly) representative sample of the desired
population at a single point in time. The persons of
whom the questions are asked are called survey
respondents
The most difficult part of conducting a survey is writing
the questions
22. Census
A survey which obtains responses from the entire
population is called a census
23. The Normative Survey
Establishes norms for
abilities, performances,
beliefs and attitudes on
samples of people of different
ages, genders and other
classifications
24. The Case Study
Strives for an in-
depth understanding
of a single situation
or phenomenon
A case can be a
person, program,
institution, project or
a concept
25. Correlational
To determine if a
relationship exists
between two
variables measured
on the same
individual
e.g. Age and alcohol
consumption; Years
in the profession and
safety record
26. Developmental Research
Looks at changes in
behavior or
knowledge across
years
Longitudinal designs
Cross-sectional
designs
27. Steps of Descriptive Research:
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis G
Deductive
4.
Process of Data
Collection
Development/
Selection Research
Tools
S
Sampling
Collection of Data
5. Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
6. Findings
28. Limitation of Descriptive Research
No Control on Extraneous and intervening factors
No manipulation of Independent factors
No cause and effect findings
Unreliable observational techniques- i.e.- questioner,
interview, checklist etc.
Highly depends on statistical values.
Need too expertise on overall process including- tool
development, sampling and statistical implication.
29. The strongest of the
research designs
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30. Experimental Research
Experimental research is an attempt by the
researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this,
the researcher attempts to determine or predict what
may occur.
31. Overview of Experimental Research
Traditional type of research
Purpose is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships
among variables
Experimental groups vs. control groups
Each group of participants receives a different treatment
Always involves manipulation of the independent
variable
Answers the question “What will be?”
32. Characteristics of
Experimental Research
Four essential characteristics of Experimental Research
Control
Control refers to restriction of effects of other variable (except
treatment variable) on dependent variable.
Manipulation
Deliberate operation of treatment variable in a control condition
during a treatment tenure.
Observation
Observation of change in status of dependent variable after
manipulation in a control condition
Replication
Replication refers to conduction of a numbers of sub- experiments
with in the frame work of over all experimental design.
33. Importance of
Experimental Research
To ascertain accurate effect of independent variables on
dependent variable.
To predict effectiveness of new strategies, policies,
methods, curriculum or ideas on a certain field.
Manipulation in a control condition gives more reliable
and valid prediction on relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
Systematic and small sample reduced time and puzzles
of the researcher.
Applicability oriented
Support dynamic and progressive aspect of life.
34. Types of
Experimental Research
On the basis of Approach-
Quantitative
Qualitative
On the basis of Experimental Condition
Within Laboratory
Out side Laboratory/ Field Experiment
On the basis of Extend of Control and Manipulation
Experimental
Quasi- Experimental
35. Steps of Experimental Research-
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis/es G
Deductive
4.
Construction of Experimental Plans/
Experimental Design
S
5. Observation of Experimental Results
6.
Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
of Results
7. Findings and Reporting of Research
36. Experimental Research Design
The blueprint of the Experimental Frame work is Experimental Research
Design
Types of Experimental Research Design
Single Group Design
One-Shot Design
Pre test- Post Test Design
Single Group Rotational Design
Parallel/ Equivalent Group Design
Pre Test – Post Test Equivalent Group Design
Parallel Group Rotational Design
Multi-Group/ Replicable Group Design
Pre Test – Post Test Multi Group Design
Multi Group Rotational Design
Factorial Group Design
More than two independent variable with their more than two levels
Two Way ANOVA, Three Way ANOVA, Four Way ANOVA etc
ANCOVA- Analysis of Covariance Design
MNOVA- Multi-Variate Analysis of Varience
Repeated Measures- Nesting Cum Crossing Designing
37. Experimental Research Design
Single Group Design -One-Shot Design-
Observation in single Treatment-
Effect of Independent Variables = Change in Dependent variable
after a single treatment on Same group
Example- Change in the Style of Teaching for Classroom
Achievement.
Merits-
Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the
means of time money and labor
Limitation
No real comparison, Effected with extraneous and intervening
factors, no replication
Unreliable results
38. Experimental Research Design
Single Group Design: Pre test- Post Test Design
Control and manipulation with in the same group with pre test and post
test comparison
Pre-
Test
Post
Test
• Experimental Treatment
Post-
Test
• Control Treatment
Effect of Independent variable = (Pre Test – Conrl) – (Pre Test – Exp)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- no replication, unreliable results
39. Experimental Research Design
Single Group Design: Within Group Rotational Design
Control and manipulation with in the same group for multiple times
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2) – (ET1 + ET2)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity.
Experimental
• ET1
Control
• CT1
Experimental
• ET1
Control
• CT1
40. Experimental Research Design
Equivalent/ Parallel Group design
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2) – (ET1 + ET2)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity, no replication
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
41. Experimental Research Design
Equivalent Group Rotational design
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control
Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2 + CT3) – (ET1 + ET2+ ET3)
Group A
(Control)
Group B
(Experimental)
Group A
(Experimental)
Group B
(Control)
42. Experimental Research Design
Multi Group Design
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity, no replication
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
43. Experimental Research Design
Multi - Group Rotational design
Control Group S1
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group S1
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Control Group S2
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group S3
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2 + CT3) – (ET1 + ET2+ ET3)
44. Factorial Design
Two Way ANOVA: (2×2)
Two Independent variables with their two levels/fold
Example- Audio-Visual= 1. Experimental 2. Control
SES= 1. High SES 2. Low SES
Control Group
High SES
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Control Group
Low SES
Pre-Test (ET1)
No Change
Post- Test (ET2)
Experimental Group
High SES
Pre-Test (CT1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Low SES
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Control Group Experimental Group
45. How valid is the experiment?
Validity = am I measuring what I think I am measuring
Campbell & Stanley (1963)
Internal validity – is about the design
External validity – is about generalizability
Internal & External Validity
46. An experiment is internally valid when
the results can be attributed to the manipulation/
independent variable
Internal validity is all about control
We gain control by “being random”
Random selection
Random assignment
Ideally, we use probability sampling techniques (i.e.,
random, systematic, stratified random, cluster)
We gain control by using “good measures”
Internal Validity
47. External validity is all about generalizability
Can we generalize to the population from which the
sample was taken?
Can we generalize to another sample or population that
is similar to the one we used?
How do we know if we can generalize? What do we
examine?
Characteristics of the sample (like what?)
Versus the population
Versus other samples or populations
External Validity
48. These evil menaces lead us to question if our findings
are real. Remember Type I and Type II errors. Meet
some possible causes:
History Maturation
Selection Testing
Instrumentation
Regression Mortality (attrition)
Threats to Internal Validity
49. Sample size
Dependent variable poorly measured
Lack of variability in the measure
Treatment not reliably implemented
Treatment lacked necessary intensity
Placebo treatment had an effect – wasn’t a true placebo
Other Threats to Internal Validity