II Sem English

II Sem BA/BSc Study Material

How do I love thee? Elizebeth Barren Browning

It is certain in the poem that Elizebeth Barren Browning is the speaker of the poem.
she and Robert Browning loved and cared for each other. The speaker/poet is talking
directly to her beloved in the sonnet. She uses personal pronouns such as “I” and “you. The
poet begins the poem with question- How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. She then
uses the last thirteen lines of the poem to show how much she loves her husband.

In the beginning of the poem she describes that her love is as deep and wide and tall
as it can possibly be. It is so deep and wide and tall that she cannot even see the edges of
it. It is infinite. The repetition of the “th” sound gives the line movement, which signifies
that her love for him is ongoing. In the next lines, Barrett Browning continues to show her
husband how much she loves him. She writes while her love knows no bounds, the
speaker also loves her beloved in ordinary, everyday life. She needs him as much as she
needs other basic necessities of life.

She continues to give an innate sense of feeling to her love. Just as men naturally
strive to do what is good and right, she freely loves. In addition, she loves him purely, just
as men turn away from praise in order to maintain humility. The speaker does not want
thanks or attention for her love. Just like good and just men, she loves because it is what
she has to do. She is telling her husband here that she has as much passion for him as she
does for those things in life that she just cannot stand. She also loves him with the faith of
a child, which is a particularly lovely and true.

The poet says that love she once felt for them, that she eventually lost, has now been
transferred into the love she feels for her husband. Besides she loves him with all that she
is: her breath, her smiles, and her tears. Barrett Browning confesses that she loves her
husband with all that has made up her life. The poet ends her poem by acknowledging that
she is willing to love her husband forever if God chooses to allow her to do so. She writes,

…and, if God choose,/ I shall but love thee better after death.

Not only will she love him well into eternity, her love will continue to grow with the passing
of time, whether she is alive or dead.

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Thou art indeed just, Lord, if I contend G M Hopkins

Hopkins admits that God is just, yet pleads in such a way that highlights His
difference of treatment and special favours to sinners and the undeserving. He also
questions the suffering meted out to him. He metes out to persons like the poet who spend
their lives on His cause. While drunkards and slaves of lust enjoy prosperity and happiness
in their sober hours, the poet faces gloom, is prevented from success, and experiences a
feeling of dryness. While birds build to express their inner joy, he cannot compose a poetic
work that may last or inspire. Why should such things happen if God be just, he asks?

Why do sinners’ ways prosper? and why must

Disappointment all I endeavour end?

Already in the middle of March the hedgerows and thickets of the countryside are
thick with fresh leaves; they are once more intertwined with chervil, and they are being
shaken by the fresh wind. The birds too are busy building their nests in the trees and
hedges. But so far as the poet is concerned, he finds himself unable to build or to achieve
anything. He can only strain or exert himself with futile efforts at poetic composition,
without being able to produce even one great poem that will live for ever. He calls himself
Time’s eunuch that is one who has been rendered unproductive by the passing time.

Them; birds build – but not I build; no, but strain,

Time’s eunuch, and not breed one work that wakes.

Hopkins’s pleading in support of his cause no doubt shows his daring and rebellious
spirit. The only difficulty is that this spirit does not last long. His initial admission of God’s
justness and his humble submission to God and prayer for sending his roots rain dilute his
position as a rebel. The poet’s attachment to nature and his attachment to God generate a
tension in his mind and bring in a feeling of spiritual desolation and despair. We may also
refer to the conflict between his desire to compose poems and his inner resolve not to do so
for the sake of remaining more faithful to God, and between reason and faith.

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Laboratory Robert Browning

The poem starts in a laboratory in which the chemist and the woman are busy
making a poison. The woman wears a mask and closely watches the process of making the
poison, in that smoke-filled laboratory. She compares the laboratory with “devil’s-smithy”.
The woman thinks about her lover and his beloved talking about him and making fun of
her. They might think that she is praying to God in a church, but she is not. She is sitting in
a laboratory to make poison. This conviction make her proud and she is proud about her
determination. The mad woman helps the chemist in the process and asks questions
continuously. She orders him to mask up the paste and pound the powder. Even though she
got another important thinks to do like dancing in the kings court. But all those things are
now unimportant to her as she is in the process.

The women sits on the laboratory and she feels that all those ingredients of poison
making are really colourful and she calls them “wild crowd of invisible pleasures”. she
wants to buy all of them and stores them in her house. She consider herself as God as she
can determine some one’s destiny and she thinks about the power of those poisons to kill
people just like the silly things like earrings, casket and fan-mount.

The sixth stanza reveals her lover’s name but it’s not clear whether it’s Pauline or
Elise as she uses both names. She introspect the scene of killing Pauline and show she is
going to fix the drink and drinks it and how she is going to die. It’s not the first time as this
woman try to kill her last night. She tried to kill her with her gaze. But she failed. The mad
women wants her boy friend’s lover’s death should be something to remember forever. She
wants her face burn up and branded so that her boy friend should feel guilty about ditching
her. once the poison is made she take of mask and get ready to go to the kings dance. She
asks the chemist not to feel guilty as she would take all the responsibility.

The woman spends all her fortune to make this poison. And she does care about her life
after the revenge. She is ready to give a kiss to the old chemist as a return of his doings.
And she brush off the dusts so that none will not suspect them. She sets out to avenge for
her disgrace.

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No Men Are Foreign James Kirkup

This poem ‘No Men are Foreign’ is all about human beings. Also, it tells that every
human being that lives on this earth are brothers and are same. We all have some kind of
body and needs sun, air, water, and clothes to cover us. We all walk the land and feed
ourselves with the harvest of this earth.

The poet says that ‘no men are strange and no country is foreign’. The poet tries to
remove all the borders of countries from the earth’s surface. Only then no country will be
foreign. Also there will be no borders, then no county will be foreign and we can feel free
to move around. In this way, the entire earth is one and all the people who live on this
earth belong to one human race. Moreover, inside the uniforms of soldiers from different
countries, humans are the same. The poet says that all the soldiers are our brothers – as we
all walk the same ‘Mother Earth’. And upon death, will be buried in the same earth.

The poet also says that nature has given them plenty just like he did to us. God has
given everyone equal air, water, and sunlight which means God does not differentiate.
When there is no war, we all do farming. We live a comfortable life and eat things given by
nature. In addition, he points out that during war and winter we starve and the people of
another country also face the same things. Further, he says that they have the same hand as
ours, and they work hard like us. The poet gives all these examples to express the readers
that there is no difference between people of a different country.

The poet says God has given them similar eyes that open and shut like ours. God has
also given them strength which we can win through love. And on every land life is the most
common thing. When someone tells us to hate people of another country it is ourselves that
we betray and condemn. When we pick a weapon against anyone we defile the earth with
their blood. As in war, there is fire, death, and bloodshed. The dead bodies make the earth
impure. The war pollutes the earth and impures the air. Lastly, the poet writes the first line
in reverse saying remember, no men are foreign, and no countries are strange.

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Bankers Are Just Like Anybody Else, Except Richer. Ogden Nash

The poet intends to celebrate banks. So, he makes the readers feel curious when he
states that his poem celebrates banks. The banks will let us hear the clink-clank sound of
the coins and the rustling sound of the currency notes. Of course, Money is an attraction
that draws people towards it always and forever. Suddenly the poet changes the tone of his
voice. He comments that bankers dwell in luxurious buildings. It is because they encourage
deposits and discourage withdrawals. The stingy attitude of the bankers in lending and
particularly to the poor sets the tone of the poem. He comments that banks are cautious
conservatives and the bankers deny lending money to the needy. They dislike the people
who have no money and no property to give them as security.

But the bankers shrewdly and tactfully behave with the rich persons. On seeing their
rich customers they express their kindliness and greet them courteously and offer to lend as
much money as they want. They would serve the rich customers with utmost care and
affection. The vice-presidents of the banks nod their heads positively to such proposals.
They would even send money to the customers’ place if they want.

The poet criticises the too much commercial attitude of the bankers. They are pro-
rich and anti-poor. The banks have to act as catalysts of social change. They have to see that
the resources are evenly distributed among the various classes of society. They have to
encourage the entrepreneurs and empower the deserving poor and hardworking people.
But they are too cautious and conservative. They cannot discharge their duties to the
society. They have to fulfil the objectives of the banking industry. They play safe and fail to
realise their obligations and duties. They would only facilitate the rich to grow richer and
the poor become poorer.

The poet hints that bankers owe a duty to society. Wealth has to be distributed
evenly. But if the bankers play only by rules and stick on to their conservatism and pro-rich
stance, they can earn profits without the ‘social gains’. Such attitude is absolutely
undeserving. Thus, the poet prompts the bankers and readers to think of their duties and
responsibilities with the ultimate objectives of the banking industry.

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The Caged Bird Maya Angelou

The poem ‘Caged Bird’ is filled with powerful themes such as racial oppression,
freedom/captivity, and happiness/sorrow. These themes are all wrapped together in the
poem through Angelou’s depiction of the two birds, one free and one caged. The caged bird
is an extended metaphor for the Black community in America and worldwide.

The poem describes the comparison of lives of a free bird and a caged bird. The first
stanza unfolds a bird flying carefree along the wind currents in the sky, enjoying the
nature’s beauty and claiming the sky to be her possession. The second and third stanza
shows a caged bird whose wings are clipped and feet tied, preventing him from flying away.
The bird can seldom see from the ‘bars of rage’. He longs to be free out of his sorrowful life
in the cage. He is helpless so only opens his mouth to sing the songs of freedom. The bird is
shown to be afraid of many strange or undisclosed things but still that fear doesn’t affect his
singing and he continues to sing with a trill. His cry for freedom, to be free from the
clutches of the cage is heard far and wide.

The fourth stanza again takes us to the life of the free bird. He thinks to make a
flight with another breeze or a different air current of the soft trade winds. The blowing
causes the leaves of the trees to move or shake to produce a pleasant sighing sound which
he enjoys and can freely find his own food in the bright gardens and fearlessly claims the
entire sky to be his own. On the contrary, the fifth stanza depicts the sorrowful caged bird
with his dead or suppressed dreams. Being in utter restrictions he cries out like someone
who has had a nightmare. This appears as a frightening spectacle. Under helplessness in
captivity of the cage, the bird thus only opens his throat to sing.

The final stanza is a repetition of the third stanza that again emphasises the captive
bird devoid of freedom, but still sings the songs of freedom in quaver. His longing for
freedom is so intense that his cries are heard far and wide. In other words, the poet seeks to
draw the attention of the readers towards the downtrodden African Americans and their
experiences. The free bird stands as a metaphor for the white people and the caged bird
stands for black Americans who would continue to fight against the discrimination by their
skin and struggle for the freedom which is their birth right.

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Stammer Satchidanandan

The poem begins by telling the readers that stammer and “handicap” are different. But
most of the people have a tendency to assume that stammer is a disability. For the poet, it is
a kind of speech.There is no hidden meaning in these lines. The poet says that stammering
is not a defect or imperfection but a way by which we express our ideas to others.

In the next stanza, the poet says that a stammer is the silence that falls between the
word and its meaning i.e. the silence which comes in when we think about the meaning of
the word before speaking it is also a stammer. Similarly, lameness is also the silence that
falls between the word and the deed. It means that refraining from doing something which
we intend to do is also stammer.

In stanza 3 the poet raises a rhetorical question. He wonders whether the stammer
precedes language or succeed it i.e. did stammer originate before the language come into
existence or after that. Next, he asks whether stammer is only a dialect or a language
itself and such questions make even linguists stammer. Hence, it is quite confusing for the
linguists as well to know about the origin and the nature of stammer.

Further the poet tells about the importance of stammering. According to him each
time we stammer we are offering a sacrifice to the God of Meanings. The poet says that
stammering is quite important because it is by stammering that we add new words and
meanings to the language. Hence, language is made up of imperfections like humans.
Hence stammering is not an imperfection but the language or the mother tongue. He gives
examples of how people use the words today to justify his argument.

In the final stanza, the poet questions the perfection of God. According to him, God too
must have stammered when He created Man and that is why all the words of man carry
different meanings i.e. every word means different to different people and each person
interprets and uses the words on their own ways. Even his utterance of the prayers is full of
stammering like poetry. Here the poet conveys three important messages. First God
stammers and is hence imperfect. This is why humans are imperfect.

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A Devoted Son Anitha Desai
Anita Desai's "A Devoted Son" is a story of complicated familial bonds which
highlights the change of dynamics in the relationship between the father, Varma and his
son, Dr. Rakesh. It is all about the duty and devotion that the son, Rakesh has for his
parents. However, a crisis develops as his father, whimsical due to age, starts
misinterpreting his son's treatment.

The story revolves around Dr Rakesh. He's from a poor Indian village. Varma, his
father, was a vegetable vendor. Rakesh is the first member of his family to attend college.
Rakesh completed his medical exams with the highest marks in the country, which is a
cause for celebration. Varma informs everyone who would listen about Rakesh's grades and
how he can now go to medical school in America.

Rakesh spends a significant amount of time in America to complete his degree. The
awards he receives are returned to his family for them to admire and preserve. This allows
him to stay in touch with his family. He adores America, but he adores his family more, and
he has always intended to come home. He'll return as soon as he's gained enough
experience and money. He intended to work in his hometown.

When his mother dies, his father, Varma, is heartbroken. Rakesh no longer has as
much time to devote to Varma now that he has his own family. He does not want to lose his
father any time soon, so he applies his medical expertise. He forbids Varma from eating
sweets to help him with his stomach. Varma tries to get sweets from his grandson, which
frustrates Rakesh. Rakesh wants his son to have a positive relationship with Varma, just like
Rakesh does. Varma tells Rakesh and his wife that he dislikes them, but he still keeps an eye
out for Varma.

A Devoted Son’ is a realistic story set in a middle-class Indian family in an Indian
village. The story shows how parents cherish their ambition towards their children and how
a son should fulfil his duty towards the parents. This story also shows that children and old
are similar in personality. It also tells us that children must fulfil the dreams of parents as
they sacrifice their life for their children. Parents work hard to fulfil their children’s needs.
Last and not least this story shows the relationship between children and parents.

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The story of an Hour Kate Chopin

Louise Mallard has heart trouble, so she must be informed carefully about her
husband’s death. Her sister, Josephine, tells her the news. Louise’s husband’s friend,
Richards, learned about a railroad disaster when he was in the newspaper office and saw
Louise’s husband, Brently, on the list of those killed. Louise begins sobbing when Josephine
tells her of Brently’s death and goes upstairs to be alone in her room.

Louise sits down and looks out an open window. She sees trees, smells approaching
rain, and hears a peddler yelling out what he’s selling. She hears someone singing as well
as the sounds of sparrows, and there are fluffy white clouds in the sky. She is young, with
lines around her eyes. Still crying, she gazes into the distance. She feels apprehensive and
tries to suppress the building emotions within her, but can’t. She begins repeating the word
Free! to herself over and over again. Her heart beats quickly, and she feels very warm.

Louise knows she’ll cry again when she sees Brently’s corpse. His hands were tender,
and he always looked at her lovingly. But then she imagines the years ahead, which belong
only to her now, and spreads her arms out joyfully with anticipation. She will be free, on
her own without anyone to oppress her. She thinks that all women and men oppress one
another even if they do it out of kindness. Louise knows that she often felt love for Brently
but tells herself that none of that matters anymore. She feels ecstatic with her newfound
sense of independence.

Josephine comes to her door, begging Louise to come out, warning her that she’ll get
sick if she doesn’t. Louise tells her to go away. She fantasies about all the days and years
ahead and hopes that she lives a long life. Then she opens the door, and she and Josephine
start walking down the stairs, where Richards is waiting.

The front door unexpectedly opens, and Mr. Brently comes in. He hadn’t been in the
train accident or even aware that one had happened. Josephine screams, and Richards tries
unsuccessfully to block Louise from seeing him. Doctors arrive and pronounce that Louise
died of a heart attack brought on by happiness.

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THE ADVERB

An adverb is a word which modifies or adds something to the meaning of a verb, an
adjective or another adverb.

1. Rama works hard.

2. She is a very beautiful girl.

3. Rama reads quite well.

In the first sentence, the word hard modifies the verb work. It shows how or in what
manner Rama works. Hence, the word hard is an adverb.

In the second sentence, the word very modifies the adjective beautiful. It shows how
much (or in what degree) the girl is beautiful.

In the third sentence, the word quite modifies the adverb well. It shows how well
Rama reads. Hence, hard, very, and quite are adverbs.

Adverbs placed at the beginning of the sentences often modify the whole sentence
rather than any particular word.

1. Probably he was misled (it is probable that he was certainly misled by others).

2. Fortunately no one was hurt in the accident.

3. Certainly you are wrong; if you say so.

4. Evidently the figures are correct.

5. Luckily they won the match.

Kinds of Adverbs

There are three kinds of adverbs: Simple, Interrogative and Relative adverbs. Most
of the adverbs belong to the simple adjectives, and few belong to second and third
type.

Simple Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Time (which answer the question when)

Lately, daily, already, formerly, ago, now, never, soon, early, since: these show when

1. I have not seen him before.

2. I shall go there tomorrow.

3. She must get up early.

4. I hurt my head yesterday.

5. He goes to town daily.

6. I have told him already.

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2. Adverbs of Place (which answer the question where)

Here, there, up, everywhere, out, within, away, in, nowhere, inside, ahead: which
show where.

1. Come here.

2. Come in.

3. Have you searched for it everywhere?

4. Have you got anything inside?

5. I found the baby nowhere.

6. I can’t go there.

3. Adverbs of Number or Frequency (which answers the question in what order or
how often).

Always, often, once, secondly, regularly, seldom, again, frequently, doubly: these
show order of action or how often it occurs).

1. I often go there.

2. I have met him once.

3. We seldom write our experiences.

4. The post man came again.

5. We always try to give our best.

6. He frequently gives wrong answer.

4. Adverbs of Manners or quality (which show how or in what manner)

Clearly, bravely, skillfully, terribly, seriously, thus, beautifully, well, dreadfully,
pleasantly, soundly, sadly, hard, agreeably, slowly, valiantly.

1. He reads eloquently.

2. She dances well.

3. The decoration is beautifully done.

4. She runs slowly.

5. She cries sadly.

6. Macbeth fought valiantly.

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5 Adverbs of Quantity or Degree (which shows how much, in what degree or to
what extent)

Too, almost, any, fully, very, enough, altogether, so, no better, pretty, quite, rather,
partly, entirely, widely.

1. It is a too difficult a problem.

2. I am so happy to see you.

3. She is a pretty nice girl.

4. She is altogether different.

5. He is partly right.

6. She is fully prepared for the examination.

6 Adverbs of Reason (which show reason or cause)

Consequently, hence, therefore.

1. He is hence unable to attend the college.

2. I therefore left the country for the better.

3. Hence I decided to give up smoking.

4. Therefore they boycotted the winter session of the parliament.

5. Consequently he refused to write the exam.

6. Consequently he attacked the doctor.

7 Adverbs of Affirmation or Negation

Surely, certainly, not, indeed, probably.

1. Surely you are forgiven.

2. I am not going there.

3. It is a very good ball indeed.

4. He will probably go.

5. He is certainly right.

6. You are surely trusted.

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THE ADJECTIVES

An Adjectives is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun (a person,
place or an activity) in terms of quality, quantity, number or kind.

1. Nirupama is a good teacher.

2. There are fifteen mangoes in the basket.

3. I want some coffee.

4. I can stay in that hotel.

In the first sentence good shows the quality of the teacher. In the second sentence
fifteen denotes the number of mangoes in the basket. In the third sentence some
refers to the quantity of the coffee required. In the last sentence that points out
in which hotel he is going to stay.

The Adjectives can be used in two different ways viz. Attributively and Predicatively.

If the adjectives are used along with the noun as an epithet or attribute, it is said
to be used attributively.

1. The intelligent boy is given a prize.

2. The dummy player is dropped from the team.

3. The clever lawyer has own the case.

If the adjective is used along with the verb and forms part of the predicate , it is
said to be used predicatively.

1. The boy is intelligent.

2. The player is dummy.

3. The lawyer is clever.

The Kinds of Adjectives

1 Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjectives)

The adjectives which show the quality, kind or condition of the nouns they qualify
are called Adjectives of Quality or Descriptive Adjectives. The Adjectives Quality or
Descriptive Adjectives always answer the question of what kind ?

1. Brian Lara is a great player.

2. The black boy has the blue eyes.

3. The unhappy young man has a sad look.

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There are some adjectives formed of the proper nouns, hence they are, often,
called proper adjectives.

1. The Indian constitution is the largest one in the world.

2. The Australian players visited the slum in Mumbai.

3. The American President paid a visit to Jaipur.

2 The Adjectives of Quantity

The Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant. They always
answer the question how much ?

1. I ate some curds rice.

2. I drank some tea.

3. He has little patience.

4. I lost all my wealth.

5. The whole sum has been spent on jewelry.

6. He has no sense.

3 The Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives)

The Numeral Adjectives show how many persons, things or activities meant or in
what order a person, thing or an activity stands.

1. There are fifteen students in the class.

2. There are a few games in the tournament.

3. There are a few pictures in the book.

4. All have to die one day or the other.

5. There are some beautiful girls in Maharani’s college.

6. We have been taught many things.

7. He is the first student pass UGC-JRF exam while studying MA.

8. The second chapter is very interesting.

9. Rama is the last student to attend the prayer.

In Numeral Adjectives there are three kinds

1. Definite Numeral Adjectives

2. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives

3. Distributive Numeral Adjectives

1. Definite Numeral Adjectives

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The definite numeral adjectives can be divided into two kinds viz Cardinals and
Ordinals.

The cardinals such as one, two, three, four etc. denote how many or exact number
of things and ordinals such as first, second, third, fourth etc. denote order of things
in a series.

1. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives

On the other hand indefinite adjectives do not denote or refer to an exact
number of persons, things or activities.

All, many, no, few, some, certain, several etc.

2. Distributive Numeral Adjectives

Each, either, neither, every etc.

1. Each boy must do his work.

2. Either of the student is guilty.

3. Neither of the signature is forged.

4. Every word of it is true .

3. The Demonstrative Adjective

The Demonstrative Adjective points out which person, thing or activity is
referred to.

1. This boy is taller than that boy.

2. These things are very costly.

3. Those bastards must be hanged till death.

4. Let’s rest under yonder tree.

5. That is a big tree.

6. Do not buy such things.

7. Engage yourself with such activities.

This and these indicate something near to the speaker

That and those refer to something distant to the speaker.

4. Interrogative Adjectives

When, which, what, whose are used with nouns to ask question they are called the
interrogative adjectives.

1. What sort of acting is this?

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2. What kind of man is he?

3. Which hotel should we go?

4. Which path shall we tread?

5. Whose book is this?

6. Whose bike is that?

5. The Emphasizing Adjective

The words like own and very are used to emphasize something, hence they are
called the Emphasizing Adjective.

1. I have killed him with my own hands.

2. Mind your own business.

3. He is his own master.

4. The very negligence made him pay a heavy price.

5. The very attitude of his is not acceptable.

6. That is the very book I needed.

6. The Exclamatory Adjective

Many a time the word what is used as an Exclamatory Adjective.

1. What a genius!

2. What a beauty!

3. What an idea!

4. What a match!

5. What a creature a woman is!

Conjunctions

A conjunction is word or group of words which joins two words or two
sentences.

1. Rama came to the party but did not eat anything.

2. Unless he works hard, he will not pass the examination.

3. Rama and Lakshmana are brothers.

4. Sita or her brother has to attend the function.

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In the first two sentences but and unless join two sentences. In the latter two
sentences and and or join two words. Hence they are called conjunctions.

Besides joining two words or sentences, conjunctions make them more
compact looking.

1. Rama is a good boy and Chandra is a good boy.

2. Rama and Chandra are good boys.

3. He is very poor, but he is honest.

4. He is very poor but honest.

Conjunctions must be distinguished from Relative pronoun, Relative adverb,
and preposition, which also connect words and sentences.

1. This is the car that Nirmala purchased ( here Relative pronoun that joins
two sentences and also refers to the car).

2. This is the place where she drowned( here Relative adverb where modifies
the verb drowned and also joins two sentences).

3. The river flows under the bridge( here preposition under joins two parts of
a sentence and also indicates how object the bridge is related to rest of the
sentence).

4. Biyanka and Chandrika are bosom friends(conjunction).

5. Work hard or do not attend the classes( conjunction).

In the fourth and fifth sentences and and or join two words and do nothing
more than that. Hence they are conjunctions.

Some conjunctions such as: either...or, neither...nor, both...and, though...yet,
whether...or, not only... but also et.al are always used together or in pairs.
These conjunctions are called Correlatives or Correlative Conjunctions.

1. Either do it or leave it.

2. He is not only a painter but also a writer.

3. I do not care whether you write or not.

4. It is neither useful nor profitable.

5. Though she is suffering from fever, yet she has come to the exam.

6. We both love and respect them.

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Some phrases are used as conjunctions. Hence they are known as phrase
conjunctions. E.g : in order that, even if, as if, so that, as though, in as much
as, as well as, as soon as, as far as, on condition that.

1. He is dresses as if he were a film star.

2. As soon as I finish this project, I shall take up another.

3. I would not go even if he invites me.

4. Dr. Shankara as well as Pror. Ramachandra, presented a paper in the
international conference.

5. We started early so that we reach our destination before sunset.

6. He was given bail on condition that he would not influence the witnesses.

7. He looks as if he is going to collapse.

Kinds of Conjunctions

1. Co-ordinating Conjunctions

2. Sub-ordinating Conjunctions

Co-ordinating Conjunctions

When a conjunction joins two classes or statements of equal rank, it is called
a co-ordinating conjunction.

1. Teachers teach and students learn.

2. God made the country and man made the town.

3. Sita sits on the chair but Gita sits on the floor.

The chief Co-ordinating Conjunctions are: and, but, yet, or, for, also, nor,
neither...nor, either...or.

Kinds of Co-ordinating Conjunctions

1. Cumulative or Copulative conjunctions

2. Adversative conjunctions.

3. Disjunctive or Alternative conjunctions

4. Illative conjunctions.

1. Cumulative or Copulative conjunctions

When a conjunction adds one statement to another, it is called a Cumulative
or Copulative conjunction.

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1. Rama and Ravi are selected for the team.

2. You can do it or leave it.

3. She is not only beautiful but also intelligent.

2. Adversative conjunctions

When a conjunction expresses opposition or contrast between statements, it
called an Adersative conjunction.

1. He is slow but he is very confident.

2. He was insulted, still he kept quiet.

3. He is poor, yet he is honest.

3. Disjunctive or Alternative conjunctions

When a conjunction expresses a choice between two alternatives, it is called
an Alternative or a Disjunctive conjunction.

1. She must weep, or she will die.

2. Neither a borrower, nor a lender be.

3. Unless he works hard, he will not succeed.

4 Illative conjunctions

When a conjunction expresses inference, it is called an Illative conjunction.

1. He has been practicing hard, so he will win a medal.

2. They must have gone out, so the door is locked.

3. They must have ignored the warning, for the bomb blast took place.

Subordinating Conjunctions

When a conjunction introduces a dependent or sub-ordinate clause, it is
called a Sub-ordinate conjunction. This dependent clause depends on the
other clause for its complete meaning.

1. I practice yoga because it helps me.

2. I don’t know when he comes.

3. She can’t guess where it came from.

The chief Subordinating conjunctions are: after, because, otherwise, if, that,
than, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where, while et.al.

Subordinating conjunctions can classified as below.

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I Time

1. No country will prosper till it is corruption free.

2. I would return before you leave.

3. Many things have happened since I met you last.

II Cause or Reason

1. He did not come college because he had fever.

2. As she was not there, I spoke to her mother.

3. Since you wish it, it shall be done.

III Purpose

1. Unless he works hard, he will not pass the exam.

2. We eat so that we may live.

3. He held her hand lest she would fall.

IV Result or Consequence

1. He was so weak that he could hardly stand.

2. I did not work hard therefore I failed in the exam.

3. I did not attend the college because I had some personal problem.

V Condition

1. You can not go till you return the money.

2. Grievances can not be addressed unless they are known.

3. Hari will be punished if he goes.

VI Concession

1. I will trust him, although he is cunning.

2. I shall not go, though he invites me.

VII Comparison

1. He is stronger than Rama(is).

2. She is taller than Sita(is).

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