this scored a 11% out of 15% for a Public Sector Management Essay.

1. Public Administration is a field of service, which attempts to provide for
the needs of the public. It is the most significant component of governmental machinery
of the state. Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) is regarded as the father of public
administration. His famous 1887 article “The study of Administration” laid the
foundation for a systematic study of public administration. This led him to theorize that,
“Public Administration is a detailed and systematic application of law”. He believed that
politics was about policy formulation and public administrations seek to execute these
laws.
Another theory of public administration is that of Leonard D. White (1891-1985),
which asserts that, “Public Administration consists of all these operations having for their
purpose the fulfillment of public policy as declared by authority”. In White’s theory he
makes clear that public administration is the “directions, coordination and control of
persons to achieve” a purpose. Hence public administration “seeks to institute managerial
practices attuned to effectiveness, efficiency and fulfillment of deeper human requisite of
the citizenry” according to Nicholas Henry.
To go on further without proper definitions would be ludicrous. Hence a few key
words would be presented and defined in an effort to make clear any fog that may arise.
Often, reference to the term effectiveness is made when discussing efficiency, and this
oft-times creates confusion. Therefore, to eliminate this confusion, effectiveness
according to the Public Administration Glossary of terms is the extent to which a
program is achieving or failing to achieve its stated objectives while efficiency is the
comparison of what is actually produced or performed with what can be achieved with
the same consumption of resources such as money, time and labor according to
BusinessDictionary.com.
Another pair of terms that are often used loosely is power and authority. Authority
can be defined as the responsibilities or obligations that may be delegated to a person
based on a specific duty. For example, a police officer has the ‘authority’ to arrest an
offender of the law. Power then, is defined as the possession of authority, control or
influence by which a person influences the actions of others. In simple words, a person
who holds power has the ability to force someone to behave in a certain manner.
Authority by extension is a primary source of power. This paper will seek to compare and

2. contrast using a framework that will include both descriptive and explanative analysis of
Weber’s Bureaucratic model and Riggs Prismatic model.
Max Weber (1864-1920) was born into an affluent German family and was
described as an intellectual with ranging fields of interests including Sociology, Religion,
Economics, Political Science and other areas. He studied Law, History, Philosophy and
Economics at Heidelberg University after which, he spent a year in the military. Due to
his knowledge of law, Weber was well aware of how authority and power can be
manipulated into a degree of control. After spending a year in the military Weber
believed that, “No special proof is necessary to show that military discipline is the ideal
model for modern capitalist factory, as it was ancient plantation” according to an article
entitled ‘In his Own Words’. As a result of Weber’s knowledge of law and his experience
in the military, led to his bureaucracy theory, which clearly outlined strict behaviors for
public servants.
Weber’s model can create an effective and efficient Bureaucracy to an extent.
This may not be best suited for the Caribbean because of its rigidity. On the other hand
there are other models that may create the same efficiency and effectiveness in another
way. An example of this would be Fred W. Riggs Ecological Approach. Riggs was a
political scientist and pioneer in administrative model building and theory formulation.
He is best known for his Riggesian model.
Weber was opposed to organizations being runned as a family-like entity. He
thought that this family-like structure inhibited the potential of a company or organization
because power was displaced and as a result employees were more loyal to their ‘bosses’
and not the organization. Weber hence believed that a formal structure, Bureaucracy,
would be the best way or system to reform organizational culture. His rational for his
bureaucratic model therefore was to create a non-personal organization that follows a
formal structure.
The formulation of Riggs prismatic model was primarily based upon the extent to
which social administrative systems undergo functional differentiation. His rational for
his model therefore was to create a diverse model. Riggs believed that each society
differs from another and sort to explain this within his “fused-prismatic-diffracted”
model. A Fused society was one in which an institution operationalizes all functions of

3. administration and government. This was a feature of traditional society. An example of
this would be Imperial China. The emperor of China reigned supreme. He would ‘call all
the shots’ where China was concerned without being questioned, any objections to his
rules would have resulted in death. A prismatic society is any combination, like
contingency choice in organization models. This is also known as the period of transition.
This is as the two systems the old and new exists within one society. For example a
doctor who works at the Public hospital can recommend patients to his private practice
where they would now have to pay for the same health treatment that they would have
received for free in the public institution. A diffracted society is one, which consists of
separate institutions for every function. An example of this could be seen within Trinidad
and Tobago’s government. This is, as there exist different ministers for every post. Also
it is based on meritocracy.
The first characteristic of Weber’s Bureaucracy is a hierarchy of authority. This
consists of a pyramid of control, with the lowest job level at the bottom and the highest
job level at the top. It is also where one job level is subjected to control from the next
higher job level. This is simply to ensure that no office well be left uncontrolled. Here
lower-level employees would not be apart of the decision-making process. For example a
minister is in charge of making the policies for the organization whereas the personal
secretary has the responsibility of being the accounting officer and has other
responsibilities. Weber advocated that everyone should stick to his or her job function
and this would create smooth sailing within the organization. Another example can be
when an employee has been given an assignment a certain level of work is expected.
Already the employee may feel pressured to deliver good work but strict supervision may
only make the employee feel on-edge and this can negatively affect his/her work.
Weber believes for a Bureaucracy to be runned effective and efficient it must be
impersonal. Impersonality to him meant that all issues and problems that the public
servant was experiencing outside the bureaucracy were to be left at the door before he or
she entered the organization. That meant for example if you were in some form or the
other sexually assaulted before reaching to work, his guidelines for a bureaucrat stated
that you left your emotions outside and work through the day unbothered doing what is
expected of you. After completing your work-day when you are leaving you carried your

4. sexual assault with you home. Impersonality he considered one of the key features of a
successful bureaucracy.
Another characteristic of his bureaucracy is that the organization is continuous.
That is, there is a set of given rules and regulations for employees to obey. For example
there is a specific time employees must be at work according to the rules as outline by the
organization. Also if a manager has authority over four employees and one is unable to
make it to work for one reason or the other he/she must call her directly and make her
aware of their situation as opposed to the manager finding out from someone else. Rules
create standardization and Weber suggests that this would create equality since everyone
must follow the rules if he or she wants to be employed.
The separation of officials from owner was another characteristic of Weber’s
bureaucracy. Weber claimed that public servants should not treat the organization as
theirs but realized that they have an obligation to the organization and not the other way
around. Hence the administrator must not personalize anything within the organization.
Employees as outlined by Weber must not take home or hide any of the organizational
equipment. For example a public servant must not write his or her name on the stapler
that was considered a loan from the organization. Also a receptionist should not use the
organization’s phone to make personal calls. Weber suggested that the organization must
be strictly work-related.
A specified role of competence is another of Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics.
This according to Weber led to the division of labor that in turn resulted in the smooth
running of the organization. He assessed that with specified roles of competence it was
about finding a qualified and placing that person within the organization in a position
relating to their qualification. An example would be hiring a new employee who has
knowledge and experience in the field of marketing and placing that employee in a sub
area relating to the field. This would ensure maximum efficiency with the employee and
by extension the organization. If this new employee is placed within the accounting
department for instance, things can go horribly wrong for the organization.
The intermediate society between two extremes that is the fused and diffracted is
called a prismatic society. According to Riggs, the prismatic society has three
fundamental characteristics. The first of which is Heterogeneity. Heterogeneity refers to

5. the simultaneous existence of different kinds of systems, practices and viewpoint. This
presents a paradoxical or contradictory picture, for example in the field of education;
society pays great emphasis on the western type of education while upholding traditional
values. Since political and administrative offices enjoy enormous influence, although
equal opportunity exist for all only a few experience this. For example a person may be
highly qualified and may have had experience but the job may be given to the
interviewer’s family who also may have applied for the job.
Society is then defined by the co-existence of tradition and modernization. As a
result a tension of which is right or which is best will overshadow the society, it also
separates the people and can cause an unstable environment. This tension then penetrates
its way into the organizations. The ruling class will seek the interest of those who hold
high positions i.e. the ‘haves’ while the interest of the ‘have not’ will be left ignored.
Therefore a lack of integration and presence of division, according to Riggs this can lead
to an outbreak of revolution within society.
Formalism is another characteristic of a prismatic society. Formalism is ‘the
extent to which a discrepancy exists between the prescriptive and the descriptive,
between formal and effective power, between the impression given by the Constitution,
laws and regulations, organizational charts and statistics and the actual practices and facts
of government and society’. That is the difference between the gaps of prescribed norms
i.e., what is expected and what is practiced i.e. the reality. The greater the difference
between the gap of the formal and actual, the more formalism will occur within the
system. This simply means the written laws receive more lip service than being practiced
within the organization.
For example the law sates that any attorney who has or had a conviction is barred
from practicing law in Trinidad and Tobago and his name shall be struck off the roll of
attorneys, however Patrick Jagessar, who on may 1998 was convicted for three years for
accepting a bribery continues to practice his profession. In a Newsday report date
Sunday, October 2003, Patrick Jagessar was granted a Practice Certificate from the
Register and Marshall of the Supreme Court Evelyn Ann Peterson. This certification
allows this previously convicted attorney to continue practicing law. Formalism hence
paves the way for corruption. Riggs hence took into consideration Constitutional

6. Formalism. This referred to the gap between the Constitutional provisions and their
actual implementation. For example the Constitutions legally vests the governance in the
hands of the elected representatives of the people but in practice the real governmental
power and influence may be wielded by some individuals or groups of people outside the
Parliament. Little time is spent on law making because legislators are consumed with the
power their position bestows on them.
The third characteristic of Riggs’ Prismatic model is Overlapping. Overlapping
simply refers to the extent to which formally differentiated structures of a diffracted
society co-exist with undifferentiated structures of a fused type. That is when for example
an organization attempts to introduce a new procedure but this new procedure is an
updated version of the past procedure.
Now that both theorist rational and characteristics have been presented and
explain an attempt would be made to compare and contrast the features of each model.
The first variable that would be discussed is the organization’s culture. As Riggs
rightfully stated in his Prismatic Model an organization is affected by the environment it
is within and vice versa. Therefore organizations culture is affected by society’s culture.
All Caribbean countries share a similar colonial history. It was within this regime
freedom was taken and replaced with sweet hardships. As a people who know what it
feels like to be restricted, Caribbean people, hence coming out of that situation highly
appreciates and values their freedom. This creates tension within the organization.
Weber tries to create an impersonal work place, where friendships and personal
problems are prohibited. For example if you were in some form or the other sexual
assaulted before reaching to work, his guidelines for a bureaucratic stated that you left
your emotions outside and work through the day unbothered doing what is expected of
you after completing your work day when you are leaving you carried your sexual assault
with you home. Impersonality, he considered to be one of the key features of a successful
bureaucracy. Weber dehumanized the organizations population and therein people were
forced to be machines and play their part in the organizations function.
Riggs on the other hand, realizing that the public servants are affected by issues
within, and outside of the organization sort to create a better work condition accepting of
emotions. “To each their own”. Riggs understood that each society was characterized by

7. different experiences and these experiences therefore shaped culture. As a result he
understood that impersonality would not be the best way to receive a successful
organization but rather integration between the public servants.
Another variable that would be discussed is the functioning of the organization. In
order to function at its maximum potential public servants must do what is required
according to Weber. Weber’s bureaucratic theory outlines clear rules and regulations and
codes of conduct. These he believed, once followed bureaucrats would create
effectiveness. Weber assess that a bureaucrat is appointed in an official positions on the
basis of contract and a bureaucrat is not committed to a person but to the work. Also, the
bureaucrat exercises authority with impersonal approach. He should be legal and faithful
in the performance of duties. For example there is a specific time employees must be at
work according to the rules as outline by the organization. Also if a manager has
authority over four employees and one is unable to make it to work for one reason or the
other he/she must call her directly and make her aware of their situation as opposed to the
manager finding out from someone else.
Riggs assess that written rules and regulations and codes of conduct receive more
lip service than it is practiced. That simply means that the organization outlines clear
rules and/or codes of conduct but little is done to enforce the rules. Rules are drawn up
along the premise of what might create order for a sense of what may be characterized as
wrong and right in the organization. As a result Riggs clearly outlines that there exist a
gap between what is Ideal that is the written rules and what is Actual that is the reality of
what happens. For example the law sates that any attorney who has or had a conviction is
barred from practicing law in Trinidad and Tobago and his name shall be struck off the
roll of attorneys, however Patrick Jagessar, who on may 1998 was convicted for three
years for accepting a bribery continues to practice his profession. In a Newsday report
date Sunday, October 2003, Patrick Jagessar was granted a Practice Certificate from the
Register and Marshall of the Supreme Court Evelyn Ann Peterson. This certification
allows this previously convicted attorney to continue practicing law.
A third variable of discussion that lies between both theories is structure of the
organization. Weber assesses that a hierarchical order would be fit for a bureaucracy. His
hierarchical structure strictly supervised employees. For example can be when an

8. employee has been given an assignment a certain level of work is expected. Already the
employee may feel pressured to deliver good work but strict supervision may only make
the employee feel on-edge and this can negatively affect his/her work. Hence strictly
monitored employees may create unnecessary mistakes for the organization. Riggs on the
other hand believed in a different type of organization structure that is a flat structure.
Riggs asserted that a flat structure made employees feel a level of importance since they
were apart of decision-making. Riggs realized the more the employee felt apart of the
organization the harder the employee worked.
Impersonality may be another variable that may be contrasted between both
theories. This as Weber believes that persons within the organization should realize that
they had an obligation to the organization and that the organization didn’t have an
obligation to them. For example a public servant must not write his or her name on the
stapler that was considered a loan from the organization. Also a receptionist should not
use the organization’s phone to make personal calls. In Riggs’ theory of the Prismatic
Model he understood that rules and regulations were just a small chain holding back a
pitbull. This was in regards to the Sala Man. The organization could never be impersonal
once the sala man existed. The sala man gives priority to personal increase in power and
wealth than social welfare. His behavior and performance are influenced by parochialism
or narrow-mindedness and the rules and regulations are not made universally applicable.
For example Patrick Jagessar who in 1998 may was convicted of bribery.
The Public Sector is characterized by rules both written and non-written and these
are often still broken. Weber’s Bureaucratic theory asserted that these would be necessary
in the formulation of an effective bureaucracy and would promote equality,
standardization and neutrality but in reality this paved the way for corruption. Riggs
contradicted Weber’s bureaucratic theory with his Prismatic model. He advocated that
Weber’s theory lacked anonymity, neutrality and confidentiality of the organization staff.
“Ecology is the study of interactions of living organisms with one another and
with their non-living matter…” S. C. Santra. This solidifies Riggs’ Prismatic Model. At
the beginning of Riggs’ theory he understood that the organization is affected by its
environment and the environment is affect by the organization. Riggs realizes that a lack
of impersonality basis of running and organization is impossible. This is as in a small

9. bureaucracy everyone knows everyone and hence interaction occurs between employees
and even employers.
The problem that now presents itself with Riggs’ theory is where it was based.
Riggs’ theory is based on a study he did in Thailand, Philippines and India. As a result
this cannot apply to a Caribbean society. In other words his theory is hypothetical, it
believes that his findings may be the say for every organization. Along with Riggs is
Weber, both theorists make excellent points on the basis of organization formulation but
neither theory could be taken as is and be applied to the Caribbean. Although Riggs’
theory may be closer to that of what can be used for a Caribbean society but a
combination of his and Weber’s theory to create a hybrid structure may work for a
Caribbean society.

10. Course Code & Type of Exam: GOVT 1006 MID TERM EXAM
Name of Student: Kini-mia Mc Dowell
I.D Number: 814002396
Name of Lecturer: Mr. Anthony Khan
Course: BSc Sport Management
Title: “Public Administration is the systematic execution of Public Law”. Clinically
compare and contrast Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Model with Fredrick Riggs’s Prismatic
Model. Using Appropriate examples illustrate your answer, determine to what extent
these models can achieve an efficient and effective bureaucracy.
Date Submitted: Friday 13th November 2015.

11. Bibliography
Albrow, Martin. Bureaucracy. Palgrove Macmillan, 1970.
Arora, Ramesh. Comparative Public Administration. Associated Publishing House, 1998.
Barton, Rayburn. W. Chappel. Public Administration: the Work of Government. Scott
Foresman & Co., 1984.
Etzioni, Amitai. Modern Organizaions. Prentice Hall, INC, 1994.
Rogers State University. “In his Own Words”.
http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/users/f/felwell/www/Theorists/Weber/WeberWords.pdf
Shafritz, Jay. A. Hyde. Classics in Public Administration. Cangage Learning, 2011.