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1. ©2019, University of Jos Fine and Applied Arts Journal, Maiden Edition, Vol.1,
No. 1, Pp. 1-17.
AFRICAN ART AND ORAL TRADITION
By
Philip Gushem (PhD)
Department of Fine Art,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
And
Nadir A. Nasidi
Department of Fine Art,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
mrlacuna26@gmail.com
Abstract:
Oral tradition has been an important source in the reconstruction of the African
art history. It is also an important vehicle through which the western version of
the famous Hamitic hypotheses, which claims that Africa and the Africans have
no history and that the African art is ‘childish’ and ‘primitive’. Therefore, this
paper centred heavily on the meaning and functions of oral tradition in the
reconstruction of the African art history with particular focus on its features. It
also makes an incursion in debunking the baseless arguments of the western
oriental approach to the African art, which they regard as ‘traditional’, a word
that does not exist in the art history of the western world. The paper relied on
written sources, but found out that the role of oral traditional in not only the
reconstruction of the African art history, but in demystifying the western
perception of the African artistic expressions.
Keywords: Africa, Art, Oral Tradition.

2. ©2019, University of Jos Fine and Applied Arts Journal, Maiden Edition, Vol.1,
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Introduction
For a time immemorial, Africans are known for their rich culture in terms
of artistic recreation of reality. Pointer to this were their famous cave paintings
which existed for hundreds of years and sculptural productions. Unlike Pablo
Picasso who believes that art is only relevant ‘when it is bought and hung on the
wall’ (Honour and Flemming, 1982), the African arts were produced for a
number of reasons, which are either social, economic, religious, or even political
(Egonwa, 2005).
Oral tradition is one of the most important sources used in the
reconstruction of the African past which may be artistic, religious, economic, or
even political. Therefore, this paper examines the meaning and role of the oral
source in the reconstruction of the African history as a response to what most
western historiographers have written about Africa and the Africans, which they
argue that ‘Africa and the Africans have no history’. However, currency is given
to the serious relationship that exists between oral tradition and the traditional
African art which can never be fully understood without the former. This include
the artistic expressions of the various African communities, which may be
sculptural, or painterly as enshrined in the visual recreation of reality as in the
case of Ife and Benin, Nok, Dagon, Gurunsi to mention, but a few.
The Meaning of Oral Tradition
Scholars have given various propositions in defining the term ‘oral
tradition’. However, oral tradition is one of the major sources of history. It deals
with the transmission of information about the past events be it social, political,
or economic mainly through the words of mouth (orally) from one generation to
another (Vansina, 1972). A tradition is said to be a collection, or series of
historical documents even if it is verbal. According to Dike and Ajayi (1965) oral
tradition refers to past human actions transmitted verbally and handed down from
generation to generation, while oral historiography is said to be the reconstruction
of human actions based on oral traditions. In other words, oral traditions are the
building blocks upon which oral historiography is based and therefore, became
central to the writing of African history (Erim, 2004).
Due to the lack of writing technology in most African societies, the need
for the institutionalization of oral tradition as a way of recording their histories,

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crafts and creativity becomes necessary. This period was tagged ‘pre-historic’, a
term coined by Robert Wilson in 1851. It was in this regard that the whole
African history is based on oral testimonies handed down from one person to
another, or from one generation to another. According to Vansina (1972):
A verbal testimony is the sum of the statements
made by any one informant concerning a single
series of events so long as all the statements relate
to the same referent. An informant is a person, or
a group of persons who gives an account of a
referent. A referent is that of which an account is
given: in the case of an eye witness account, it is
the thing observed, in the case of a rumour, it is a
piece of news that has been heard; in the case of
oral tradition, it is a testimony that has been heard,
about a series of past events, which many contain
one, or several traditions for anyone testimony of
anyone informant may be a combination of several
traditions.
Due to the absence of written documentation in most African societies,
the Europeans in an attempt to justify their colonial subjugation, which carries
with it the so-called ‘civilizing mission’ to salvage the ‘barbaric’ Africans from
the trial of the time claimed that Africans have no history (Nwauwa, 1999).
Among the proponents of this idea were; Margery Perham, Robert Knox, Joseph
Conrad, to mention, but just a few (Harris, 2003). For instance, Conrad is known
for his damaging book titled ‘Africa: The Heart of Darkness’. In it, he depicted
the Africans as ‘savages’, ‘barbaric’, ‘illiterates’ and bunch of ‘animal-like’
people with no culture, knowledge, civilization and history (Firchow, 2000).
According to Erim (2004):
The so called natives, it was vigorously canvassed
had no history that was worthy of the name. The
implied historiographical assumption here was that
there could be no history without the technique of
writing. Since the Dark continent of Africa had not
developed the technique of writing, they further

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contended, Africa could not have had a
history…The resultant colonialism gave a new
impetus to European historiography as colonialism
itself sought to defend their enterprise often on
supercilious grounds: that none European peoples
needed the patronage of European powers into
world history and civilization. This Eurocentric
virus certainly affected many scholars like Hegel
(already mentioned) Newton, Coupland, Seligman
(of the Hamitic thesis fame) Margery Perham,
Hugh Trevor — Roper and a host of others whose
notorious views are well known to need further
elaboration.
To debunk as well as repudiate the western Hamitic theory about Africa
and Africans, African historians with Kenneth Nwuka Dike as the linchpin,
began to re-write their history as an intellectual response to what most European
writers documented about the African continent and its history which is the most
stereotyped (Dike, 2003). According to him, an understanding of the historical
possibilities in all aspect of culture is very significant because, the ‘African sees
his past in the language he speaks today, in his music, his dance, his art, religion
and institutions and finds it difficult to understand why what is so clear to him
cannot be understood by others’ (Alagoa, n.d). Civilization is lucidly defined as
a perceived level of excellence and thus, Africa has something monumental to
show to the world; its historic kingdoms, empires and caliphates like Benin, Ife,
Mali, Mansa Musa, Kush, Asante and Fante, Kanem-Borno as well as the great
Sokoto Caliphate (Webster and Boahen, 1967). Not only that, Africa has
produced great and sophisticated artistic expressions; sculptural, painterly and
cultural. Most of these artistic material cultures of Africa like Igbo Ukwu, Nok
Terracotta, Ife, Benin and Tadda bronze castings as well as Ishen soft stone
sculptures were uncovered through either accidental or deliberate archaeological
discoveries (Sulaiman, 2015).
One would argue that it is difficult if not impossible for one to reconstruct
the African past without the heavy involvement of the oral tradition, which is no
doubt depicting the true nature of the African way of life; political, economic,

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social, artistic, to mention, but a few. in some African societies like that of Mali,
special class of people was shouldered with the responsibility of memorizing,
saving, narrating and handing over the history of their people verbally from one
generation to another. They are popularly known as ‘Griots’ often sponsored by
the kings and people in high positions in government. To the griots, the recording
and transmission of the past events through words of mouth is hereditary though
some intelligent apprentices capable of memorizing the tradition of the people
were given a chance to prove their worth (Nianne, 2006).
It should be noted that in the collection of oral tradition through
interviews, various informants will be taken into consideration so as to test the
reliability of the information given through triangulation and juxtaposition of
various viewpoints given by the informants. This is because oral tradition has
intrinsic contradictions and sometimes biased as one informant may decide to
hide the truth from people, or researchers when it say affects his people, or socio-
economic inclination. On the other hand, he may be telling the truth, but at the
same time, over exaggerating it especially to blow the trumpet of his people,
tribesmen, or what he believes in. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the
historian as E.H. Carr (1962) once argued to study, select and interpret the
sources so as to produce a ‘factual’ history. This must be put in place as a means
of interrogation of sources to avoid mistakes of omission and falsification on the
side of the informant(s). Vansina (1972) argues that:
This (problem of omission) may come about
because he (informant) is unconsciously
influenced by various factors in his social
environment, and is thus, led to omit certain facts
either by mistake, or deliberate falsification…the
manner in which a testimony is given has, a
definite influence on the testimony itself. A
testimony, in fact, is the tradition as interpreted
through the personality of the informant, and is
coloured by his personality.
In establishing a valid typology of oral tradition as a historical source,
scholars, or rather, historians classified oral testimony into two; intentional and
unintentional and both are based on their inherent features, which are; the

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intentions, or lack of intentions behind a testimony, the significance attached to
it, its form and the literary category to which it belongs, the method of
transmission used, as well as the manner in which the testimony is delivered.
It is obvious that oral tradition as a source of history despite its importance
has its strengths and weaknesses. The following are the significance of the oral
source:
1. It helps in recording African history through the use of memory
especially during the pre-historic time.
2. It provides chronological lists of the names of kings and rulers.
3. It helps in the reconstruction of the African past.
4. It proves that Africa and Africans have history as opposed to the Euro-
Centric viewpoint.
5. It serves as a means through which other sources of history can be
check-mated and interrogated.
6. It serves as a clue known as haunches through which some
archaeological sites were identified as in the case of Nsukka and
Umundu.
On the contrary, the following are the demerits of oral tradition:
1. It lacks chronology of events.
2. It suffers from omission, or exaggeration which made it somehow
biased.
3. It suffers from forgetfulness due to the limitation of the human
memory.
4. Sometimes, it got lost when its custodians died.
5. It is limited by language barrier.
Even though oral tradition is one of the most important sources of history,
some European scholars relegate it to the back bench, which they claimed to be
unrealistic, biased and unscientific way of establishing a historical fact. Despite
the fact that their manner of criticism had differed, their theme remains the same.
How can one evaluate Robert Lowie’s or Hegel’s assertion, for example, that ‘I
cannot attach to oral tradition any historical value whatsoever under any
conditions whatsoever’ (Tamuno, 1974). To them (the Europeans) they only deal
with people who knew who they were and what they wanted (which to them

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Africans were not). According to them, observed and observable reality is the
only concrete foundation for history than the transcience of myths and epics.
Once a people (sic) has achieved firm, individuality such forms (oral tradition)
cease to be its historical essence.
Despite the fact that oral tradition has its weaknesses, it still remains the
most important source of history especially when it comes to the reconstruction
of the African historical past. It happens to be the only weapon Africans used to
show to the outside world especially the west that Africa and Africans truly have
a history.
The Meaning of Art /Traditional African Art
Despite the fact that there is no specific, clear-cut definition of art,
scholars have attempted severally to find suitable meanings for the word.
However, their historical experiences and general world view led to the
emergence of divergent views as regards the meaning of art though most of such
definitions are somehow related.
However, as far as this paper is concerned, Ayn Rand’s definition of ‘art’
is so encompassing as it has not left any stone unturned. According to her, art is
‘a selective re-creation of reality according to an artist’s metaphysical value-
judgments’ (Rand, 2010). However, art has a very wide scope netting into its
enclave various aspects of human creation like painting, sculpture, architecture,
theatre and performing arts, music, photography, and pottery (Larry, 2003). It
may be visual, or applied as the case may be.
While commenting on the role, and essence of art, Areo (2009) argue that
Art is an expression of the context of a people’s philosophical, cultural and
religious worldview, and hence the artist within that society is expected to
express his understanding of his milieu. Therefore, one would argue that visual
art has permeated all the walks of life and the world will never be beautiful
without it.
Oral Tradition and Traditional African Art
African people have a well- established historical tradition which cuts
across all facets of life, which is not only restricted to politics and economy, but

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even the human artistic recreation of representational reality (Arnaut, 1991,
Bronowski, 2001). According to Ajayi and Boahen (1970), the African arts have
shared common similarities both in form and content apart from the use of
materials, techniques, among other things, etc.
As argued by most scholars, traditional African arts were the artistic
creations of the indigenous African people in line with their cultural settings
before the coming of Europeans in the 20th
century (explorers, missionaries and
the colonialists).
Some of the major African works of art are Igbo Ukwu, Nok (terracotta
works of human figure and faces made from a baked clay ), Ife bronzes (bronze
casting), Tadda, Mumuye masquerades (all in Nigeria), Indebele (Zimbabwe and
South Africa), Sinnar arts (Sudan), to mention, but just a few. It should be noted
that with the coming of the European colonial governments in the 20th
century,
they claimed that the traditional African arts are ‘childish’ and ‘premature’
(Visona et al, 2008). The major problem is that while the Africans view the
aesthetics of their artworks in their contents, the Europeans examined it mainly
from a purely optical way and thus, the wrong conclusion about the African
creative arts (Karickhoff, 1991).
The following are the major features of the African traditional:
1. The traditional African arts were produced mainly for spiritual, or
religious reasons.
2. The materials used which include; clay, wood, metal and tusks were found
within the cultures that produced them.
3. The artists who produced such works were unknown.
4. Most of such works are named after the places they were found like Nok,
Igbo Ukwu, etc.
5. Most of the works are figurative with either humans, or animals as the
subjects.
6. Figures are frontal and drawn full face.
7. There is the uniformity of the African hierarchical scaling of enlarging the
most important.
8. The works give more importance to the content rather than the form
(conceptually driven).

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It should be noted that oral tradition plays a vital role not only in the
description of how certain festivals are being performed, but goes to the extent
of giving us a detailed analysis of the nature, meaning and functions of various
African artistic expressions. Probably that was why the Europeans mistakenly
believe that the African sculptural works are ‘childish’ due to the fact that they
were not informed about the true meaning of such works which no doubt lie in
the oral tradition of the people. This is because, most traditional African arts are
made for religious purposes (Douglas, 1980).
Similarly, in the traditional African arts currency is given to the content rather
than the form. Meanwhile, it is full of symbolism, which in most cases is
connected to the spiritual divine powers as in the case of the Egyptian Isis and
Horace, or the Yoruba god of light, Sango. Therefore, for one to properly
understand why certain African artworks are produced, they must refer to the
tradition of the people.
The case of the long standing intellectual debate that engulfs the centre table
among scholars as regards the artistic ties that exist between Ife and Benin is a
classic example. All the historical information about this event revolves around
the oral tradition and probably that is why Ife claims to have taught Benin the art
of bronze casting and the denial of it by the latter, drawing its facts from the oral
source. However, some historians argue that it was on the invitation of the Oba
of Benin that the Oni of Ife sent Eweka who became the first Ogiso (ruler) of
Benin as well as the artists who taught the people of Benin the bronze casting.
The last but not least, oral tradition is the only vehicle through which the
nature, meaning and functions of traditional African arts can be unraveled. This
is because, it had been the major source of the African history due to the lack, or
absence of writing technology. Hence, traditional African art is directly entwined
with the oral tradition.
Art and Religion in Africa
Art Historians have deliberated extensively on the functions of African art
which Louis Sullivan argues that ‘form follows function’ (Ocvirk, 2002).
However, the African is seriously interwoven with the socio-economic and
political aspect of the life of the people especially the religious sphere, which no
doubt takes the largest portion of the African artistic creation (Egonwa, 2005).

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As in in the political representation of kings in Africa, religious artworks are also
enlarged based on the African hierarchical scaling to show dominance and
importance. Most of the art works of religious value representing god and
goddesses of Africa are kept in shrines where people go to worship. These
religious works were produced for some reasons as follows:
1. The people believe in the existence of a supreme being whose works are
uncovered through the interplay of various deities as intermediaries.
2. The ability to build power around the art object, or animals as ethnic
totems.
3. The creation of an idealistic imagery peculiar to the people.
The presence of religion in most African cultures had been constant in which
different gods and goddesses were represented artistically as a way of creating a
direct link with the divine. For instance the Yorubas of Nigeria have this form of
divinity in their artistic recreations in which their gods were represented like
Sango (the god of light and thunder), Ogun, to mention, but a few. According to
Blier (2012):
Artists the world over shape knowledge and
material into works of unique historical
importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral
home to the Yoruba and mythic birthplace of gods
and humans, clearly were interested in creating
works that could be read. Breaking the symbolic
code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s
ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars
working on this material for over a century. While
much remains to be learned, thanks to a better
understanding of the larger corpus of ancient Ife
arts and the history of this important southwestern
Nigerian center, key aspects of this code can now
be discerned.
For instance, Ṣàngó is considered as the most powerful and feared of the
Orisha pantheon. According to tradition, he casts a ‘thunderstorm’ to earth, which
directly creates thunder and lightning, which he uses to punish offenders.

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Worshippers in Yorubaland the cowpea is forbidden because they believe that
the wrath of the god of iron would descend on them. The Ṣàngó god necklaces
are composed in varying patterns of red and white beads; usually in groupings of
four or six which are his "sacred numbers". Rocks created by lightning strikes
are venerated by Ṣàngó worshipers; these stones, if found, are maintained at
sacred sites and used in rituals, while Ṣàngó is called on during coronation
ceremonies in Nigeria to the present day (Samuel, 2010).
Plate I
(Sango,source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shango#/media/Fil:Representa%C
3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Xang%C3%B4_MN_01.jpg)
Similarly, the representation of gods is famous amongst the Egyptians.
Typical example of this is Horace. Horus regarded in the Egyptian mythology as
one of the most significant ancient Egyptian deities. Since the prehistoric Egypt
until the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Horace was the centre of worship among Egyptians
and Roman Egypt. Egyptologists have discovered different forms of Horace
though each of his physical outlook has a purpose (Redford, 2003). These various
forms may come into existence due to the religious complexity of the Ancient
Egyptians viewed in the multiple facets of reality (Redford, 2003). In some

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instances, Horace is often depicted as a falcon, most likely a lanner falcon or
peregrine falcon, or as a man with a falcon head (Wikinson, 2003).
As most historians and Egyptologists argue, the earliest recorded form of
Horus is the tutelary deity of Nekhen in Upper Egypt, who according to the
Egyptian past is the first known national god, in relations to the divine
representation of Horus in life and Osiris in death by the pharaoh. According to
the Egyptian mythology, Horus is considered to be the son of Isis and Osiris, and
he plays a key role in the Osiris myth as Osiris's heir and the rival to Set, the
murderer of Osiris. Horus served many functions, most notably being a god of
kingship and the sky.
Art and Politics in Africa
Throughout the history of the African continent it had been blessed with
different political entities known as kingdoms, empires and caliphates. There
were centralized political institutions with the responsibility of protecting the
socio-economic and political rights of their people. Among these historic polities
were; Oyo, Kanem-Borno, Monomptapha, Songhay and Mali empires, Benin,
Shelleng and Buganda kingdoms. Others being Egyptian kingdom as well as the
sultanate of Sinnar.
However, in the aesthetic existence of all these polities lies art and
creativity as visual representation of reality according to their socio-cultural
settings. In this regard, art becomes an integral part of festivities, political rituals
like in the case of the Yoruba Bashorun and Oyemesi of the famous Oyo Empire,
beatification in form of costumes especially that belonging to the kings,
traditional title holders and courtiers. In the case of Ife as Blier (2012) posits:
What or whom do these early arts depict? Many of
the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with
individuals who lived in the era in which Ife King
Obalufon II was on the throne and/ or participated
in the civil war associated with his reign. This and
other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key
sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an idea

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consistent with this king’s modern identity as
patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia,
peace, and wellbeing. It also is possible that a
majority of the ancient Ife arts were created in
conjunction with the famous truce that Obalufon II
is said to have brokered once he returned to power
between the embattled Ife citizens as he brought
peace to this long embattled city…
Like the rest of the African art, in traditional Ife art body proportion in
sculpture is determined by one’s own position in the society. This form of
dominance is achieved when an African king or a ruler is made big even when in
reality he is small in physique. In comparison, the courtiers of a king are made
small no matter how big they are in the real sense. This artistic representation
points to the fact that primacy of social difference in visual art in the African
culture is so important. Probably this is so because in most African societies, the
rulers are regarded as divine vicegerents of the Supreme Being on earth and
therefore, are considered different from any other person except those
maintaining the lineage. Similarly, in representing the royalty, certain parts of
their bodies are enlarged like the head and the chest, which the Europeans
considered as ‘childish’ because it lacks proportion. However, it should be noted
that such enlargements were deliberate so as to idealise certain issues which the
European needs an explanation.
Plate II
(An Ife King and Queen, source: Blier, 2012)

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From the plate above one can see dominance in the head and bellies of
both the king and his queen. Probably, the head is generally considered as man’s
intellect and therefore should be represented in this way let alone the head of a
king.
Furthermore, some archetypal images were used in traditional African art
as motifs and emblems of authority like the Tshokwe royal drums of Cuba and
the Bamileke royal drums and pipes. In the Asante kingdom for instance, a golden
stool popularly referred to as ‘Sikaduwa’, which was an exclusive artistic
masterpiece was used by the Asantahene as the symbol of power and national
court of arm.
Art and Society:
The African people are known throughout the realms of history for their
interesting socio-cultural activities like ceremonial dances and festivals. All over
the African continent, there is no society devoid of this of this nomenclature,
which a pointer to the level of the peoples’ artistic recreation. Masks, costumes,
and body decorations featured prominently the African socio-cultural activities.
This is more prevalent in the West and Central African sub-region with few
instances in East Africa with particular reference to the Shona and Bakonde.
In relation to one attaining adulthood, special events of this nature are put
in place. For instance, during girls graduation in the art of womanhood, masks
are paraded which were characterized by elaborate hair-dress, high fore-head,
compressed narrow feature face with sensitive, but thin nose and chin for the
performance of the festival. There were also separate masks for their male
counterparts as they are approaching maturity.
Moreover, art pieces were created to appease the ancestors. In such
events, sacrifices were often made to attract good omen and to seek the blessing
of the dead. Warriors, conquerors, progenitors, etc. formed the circle of such
ancestors. In this regard, images of progenitor especially the mother was given a
high priority. Typical example of this is the Egyptian Isis and Horace
(presumably considered to be the first representation of Madonna and Child).

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Conclusion
This paper discussed extensively on the nature, meaning, and functions
of oral tradition and traditional African art. The paper found out that oral tradition
is one solid foundation on top of which the socio-economic and artistic past of
the African continent would be recovered and understood within a historical time
perspective. This is because, it is only the oral source that tells us in details the
meaning and functions of the African art which gives credence to its content
rather than the form. The paper also examined as well as brought out the merits
and the demerits of the oral source as well as the criticism of western writers on
the relevance, or importance of the oral tradition especially in the reconstruction
of the African past even though, it was countered by famous African historians
like Kenneth Nwuka Dike who believes that the European narration about the
African continent is sentimental, racist and biased and therefore, must be re-
written in line with the true African tradition imbued in its oral history. This was
the milestone in the reconstruction of the African history which had blossomed
and affected other fields of its history like the arts.

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