Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023)

No 120 (2023)
Sciences of Europe
(Praha, Czech Republic)
ISSN 3162-2364
The journal is registered and published in Czech Republic.
Articles in all spheres of sciences are published in the journal.
Journal is published in Czech, English, Polish, Russian, Chinese, German and French, Ukrainian.
Articles are accepted each month.
Frequency: 24 issues per year.
Format - A4
All articles are reviewed
Free access to the electronic version of journal
Edition of journal does not carry responsibility for the materials published in a journal.
Sending the article to the editorial the author confirms it’s uniqueness and takes full responsibility for possible
consequences for breaking copyright laws.
Chief editor: Petr Bohacek
Managing editor: Michal Hudecek
• Jiří Pospíšil (Organic and Medicinal Chemistry) Zentiva
• Jaroslav Fähnrich (Organic Chemistry) Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
• Smirnova Oksana K., Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Department of History
(Moscow, Russia);
• Rasa Boháček – Ph.D. člen Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze
• Naumov Jaroslav S., MD, Ph.D., assistant professor of history of medicine and the social
sciences and humanities. (Kiev, Ukraine)
• Viktor Pour – Ph.D. člen Univerzita Pardubice
• Petrenko Svyatoslav, PhD in geography, lecturer in social and economic geography.
(Kharkov, Ukraine)
• Karel Schwaninger – Ph.D. člen Vysoká škola báňská – Technická univerzita Ostrava
• Kozachenko Artem Leonidovich, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Department
of History (Moscow, Russia);
• Václav Pittner -Ph.D. člen Technická univerzita v Liberci
• Dudnik Oleg Arturovich, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor, De-
partment of Physical and Mathematical management methods. (Chernivtsi, Ukraine)
• Konovalov Artem Nikolaevich, Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Chair of General Psy-
chology and Pedagogy. (Minsk, Belarus)
«Sciences of Europe» -
Editorial office: Křižíkova 384/101 Karlín, 186 00 Praha
E-mail: info@european-science.org
Web: www.european-science.org

CONTENT
CHEMICAL SCIENCES
Sardarly A., Abbasova T., Pashayeva F.
PRODUCTION OF NANOSTRUCTURED VANADIUM-
OXIDE THIN FILMS ON THE SURFACE OF METAL OXIDE
CARRIERS BY THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF
VANADYLIC ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES
(С5Н5)2V=О(ТНF)5 WITH CYCLOPENTADIENYL LIGANDS
....................................................................................3
Rostovtsev R.
THERMODYNAMIC STUDY OF THE THREE
COMPONENT ALLOY Cu-Sn-Zn ....................................7
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES
Young-Jin Ahn, Juraev Z.
REVIEW ON “LOCATION THEORY” – FROM CLASSIC TO
MODERN PERSPECTIVES ...........................................11
HISTORICAL SCIENCES
Lyubovets N.
THE GENRE OF TRAVEL NOTES ON THE PAGES OF THE
"LITERATURE AND SCIENTIFIC NEWSLETTER" IN THE
CONDITIONS OF THE NATIONAL RENAISSANCE OF
UKRAINE AT THE END OF THE 19-TH - BEGINNING OF
THE 20-TH CENTURIES...............................................22
JURIDICAL SCIENCES
Humbatov M.
HEYDAR ALIYEV AND THE PENAL SYSTEM OF THE
REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN.........................................27
PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCES
Gullarli G., Nasibova L.
CASE METHOD IN TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN MILITARY
HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS..........................32
POLITICAL SCIENCES
Ispas A.-M.
THE UNDERTAKING OF INTERNATIONAL
RESPONSIBILITY DURING ARMED CONFLICTS...........35
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Shahverdyan M., Oganesyan N.
EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF ANOMALIES IN THE
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF CHILDREN FROM 0 TO 2
YEARS ........................................................................40
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Kulish Y.
SCIENTOMETRIC TOOLKITS OF THE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY.....................................................................45
Rasulov I.
FACTORS INFLUENCING UZBEK RETURNEES’
READJUSTMENT AND REMIGRATION INTENTIONS...50
TECHNICAL SCIENCES
Jonibekov A., Sotimov G.
DRYING OF A THICK EXTRACT FROM THE AERIAL PART
OF ASTRAGALUS UNIFOLIATUS.................................59

Sciences of Europe # 120, (2023) 3
CHEMICAL SCIENCES
ПОЛУЧЕНИЕ НАНОСТРУКТРУИРОВАННЫХВАНАДИЙОКСИДНЫХ ТОНКИХ ПЛЁНОК НА
ПОВЕРХНОСТИ МЕТАЛЛОКСИДНЫХ НОСИТЕЛЯХ ПУТЁМ ТЕРМИЧЕСКОГО
РАЗЛОЖЕНИЯВАНАДИЛЬНОГО МЕТАЛЛООРГАНИЧЕСКОГО КОМПЛЕКСА
(С5Н5)2V=О(ТНF)5 С ЦИКЛОПЕНТАДИЕНИЛЬНЫМИ ЛИГАНДАМИ
Сардарлы А.М.
Научный сотрудник, Институт Катализа и Неорганической Химии им. М. Нагиева, МНО Азербай-
джана, Баку
Аббасова Т.А.
Кандидат хим. наук, доцент, Институт Катализа и Неорганической Химии им. М. Нагиева, МНО
Азербайджана, Баку
Пашаева Ф.К.
Кандидат хим. наук, доцент, Институт Катализа и Неорганической Химии им. М. Нагиева, МНО
Азербайджана, Баку
PRODUCTION OF NANOSTRUCTURED VANADIUM-OXIDE THIN FILMS ON THE SURFACE OF
METAL OXIDE CARRIERS BY THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF VANADYLIC
ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES (С5Н5)2V=О(ТНF)5 WITH CYCLOPENTADIENYL LIGANDS
Sardarly A.,
Researcher, M. Nagiyev Institute of Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry, MSE of Azerbaijan, Baku
Abbasova T.,
PhD, Sciences, Associate Professor, M. Nagiyev Institute of Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry, MSE of
Azerbaijan, Baku
Pashayeva F.
Senior Researcher, M. Nagiyev Institute of Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry, MSE of Azerbaijan, Baku
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8129133
АННОТАЦИЯ
Путём термического разложения пентакистетрагидрофуранатного сольватированного ванадильного
комплекса, с (С5Н5)2V=О(ТНF)5, полученного гидролизом бисциклопента-диенила ванадий (III) хлорида
(С5Н5)2VCl (II) в условиях слабой основности. Получены ванадий оксидные наноструктруированные тон-
кие плёнки на поверхности металлоксидного носителя. Обнаружено, что при концентрации 0.1 моль/100мл
растворитель (ТНF) с объёмом 50 мл сферической Al2O3c размером 5-7мк носителя получена 45нм с тол-
щиной ванадийоксидных тонких плёнок.
ABSTRACT
By thermal decomposition pentakis of tetrahydrofuranate solvated vanadyl complex with
(С5Н5)2V=О(ТНF)5producedby hydrolysis of biscyclopentadienyl of vanadium (III) chloride (С5Н5)2VCl (II)under
weak basicityvanadium oxide nanostructured thin films on the surface of metal oxide carrier were produced. It
was detected that vanadium oxide thin films with thickness of 45 nm were produced at concentration
0.1mol/100mlsolvent (ТНF) with capacity of 50ml of sphericAl2O3 with 5-7 µm carrier.
Ключевые слова: оксид ванадия, каталитическая система, поверхность катализатора, окислительное
дегидрирование, изобутан, изобутилен.
Keywords: vanadium oxide, catalyst system, catalyst surface, oxidative dehydrogenation, isobutane, isobu-
tylene.
Relevance of the problem
The requirement of chemical industry for С2-С4 –
olefins continuously grows, and the existing capacities
can be insufficient [1].
At the same time among С2–С4 olefins the most
flexible is С4 – isobutylene [2], which at present it is
used as a monomer for producing polyisobutylene, bu-
tyl rubberraw materials for the and production of me-
thyl acrylate and other important chemical products [3].
Presently in industryisobutylene is produced by
dehydrogenation of isobutane over chromia-alumina
catalyst [4]. At the beginning of 2005 total production
of isobutylene on technology [5] made more than 3 mil-
lion tonnes. It should be noted that oxidizing dehydro-
genation of isobutaneattracts practitioners as a potential
alternative way of producing isobutylene. Unlike tradi-
tional dehydration of isobutene in the presence of an
oxidizer equilibriumshifts towards isobutylene and it is
an exothermic process.
Experimental part
All reactions and the yield of by-products were
performed in nitrogen atmosphere.
Preparation conditions of organometalliccom-
pound of vanadium (III).
For this purposein nitrogen atmosphere 0.5 mol or
15.7 of anhydrousVCl3 in 50 ml of dehydrated tetrahy-
drofuran (THF) is dissolved, then it is cooled till100
С

4 Sciences of Europe # 120, (2023)
and NH2Na in 50ml of n-heptane which was produced
in a separate reaction between 13.2 g monocyclopenta-
diene (С5Н6) and 4.6 g sodium amide, was added by
portion. Deposited sodium cyclopentadionateС5Н5Na
after decantation of heptane the whole С5Н5Na was
added into reaction mixture. After 2-hour stirring,it was
stopped. Turbid solution was settled. The deposit is
separated. Solution wasevaporated to minimum in a
volume and cooled till-100
С. In a few minutes pale blue
polycrystalsdeposit. According to the data of elemental
analysis fresh weight of a target product was 74% of its
output. The compound corresponds to chemical for-
mula С10Н10VCl·5(C4H8O) in which all molecules of
THF are coordinated and coordination bond of vana-
dium (III) THF cations. Temperatures of the beginning
of decomposition Тн.р.=1400
С, end of decomposition
Тк.р.=1600
С. According to thermogravimetricdecompo-
sition of compounds occurs to 1300
С.
Oxidizing dehydration of isobutene of nanostruc-
tured vanadium oxide catalytic systems obtained by de-
composition of organometallic catalytic compounds of
vanadium (Ш) on metal oxide catalysts.
Formation of V2O3 and V2O5 nanostructured cata-
lytic systems over metal oxide carrier and conversion
of isobutane to isobutylene by oxidizing dehydrogena-
tion with them.
1. Decomposition temperature on γ-Al2O3carrier
is 110 – 1200
C, biscyclopentadienyl vanadyl pentakis
tetrahydrofuranate
V=O (TGF)5
is absorbed from 25 g spheric Al2O3 which varies
at the range of sizes prepared for 5-7 mm solution in
0.1mol/100ml tetrahydrofuranate THF of I complex,
then it is mixed with magnetic mixer at medium rate
until only traces of the compound remain in the solu-
tion.
In the next stage the solvent was decanted and sep-
arated from Al2O3 , the residual solvent is fully removed
from the surface of Al2O3 at 60-700
C temperature
range. In the next stage the sample is thermally pro-
cessed. Then the sample is deposited on metal oxide by
thermal decomposition of(С5Н5)2V=О·(ТНF)5vanadyl
complex. For this 0.01mol or 0.04271g of vanadyl
complex is dissolved by the way of intensive mechani-
cal mixing in nitrogen in 100 ml of hydrated tetrahy-
drofuran solvent. Then 7-9 mm of spheric Al2O3 is
added at room temperature and left for absorption.Ab-
sorption process is performed till the compound in so-
lution is fully absorbed. In the next stage solvent (THF)
is heated at the temperature range of 30-400
and is fully
removed in nitrogen medium and processed at 400-
5000
C.
Results
According to the literature data it was found out
that it is widely used in the production of thin films and
metal coatings on the basis of both organic (Rʼ
) and car-
bonyl (CO) ligand compounds of transition elements
[A]. First of all it is conditioned with the fact that ther-
mal decomposition of compounds with M-R, M-C≡0 (σ
and π) bond at the temperature range of 100-2000
C and
are converted to thermally decomposed products by
forming M0
< ½ (R-R) dimer organic products without
any residual compounds. Metal or metal oxides sepa-
rated from organic residue form metal or metal oxide
layer on carrier and then can act as a more effective cat-
alyst like systems with active center[6].
Considering the abovementioned the research
work
V=O (TGF)5
describes the creation of nanostructured catalytic
systems on Al2O3 using organometallic compound, the
research of using them as a catalyst in the conversion
of isobutane into isobutylene. For this purpose 100sm3
of 7-9 mm spheric Al2O3 is added into 250 ml of three-
neck flask and a solution containing 0.0427q (I) com-
plex and dissolved in 100ml THF is added into it and
mixed (~1.5 hour) until only traces of (I) complex re-
main in a solution. Then catalyst is separated from so-
lution by decantation way in nitrogen medium and is
given to furnace for thermal processing. In furnace it is
mixed intensively and is left for thermal processing for
1 hour at average temperature 140-1500
C. The sample
is brought till room temperature and is again left for
thermal processing to be fixed on the layer. For this pur-
pose the sample is annealed in nitrogen at 180-1900
C.
The catalytic system was used in the conversion of
isobutane to isobutylene. Figure 1 shows the SEM view
of V2O3 –vanadium (III) oxide thin film deposited on
Al2O3 carrier and its elemental composition was de-
fined.

Fig. 1. Elemental analysis and composition of SEM-substance
InSEM the thickness ofV2O3coating on Al2O3car-
rier is given. Figure 1 shows the characteric X-ray spec-
trum. It was confirmed that the studied dust particles
consist of various size particles of aluminium oxide and
vanadium oxide.
According to the results of researhes it was found
that 45 nm V2O3coating and 100sm3
7-9 mm spheric
Al2O3 which was dissolved in 0.0427g/100ml THF sol-
vent on the basis of (С5Н5)2V=О·(ТНF)5vanadyl organ-
ometallic compound, were determined.
As to the formation of a structure between V2O3
on Al2O3surface it should be first noted that when (I)
complex is thermally decomposed the formation of
coatings by chemical impact of [V=O] ͘ ̅anion radical on
Al2O3carrier was studied. Researches show that
[V=O]͘ ̅fragment with high energy forms
O Al
O
O
V O
manganese oxide coating by migrating to Al – O
bond on Al2O3.
As a result it enables to form more active
nanostructured catalytic system.In the work oxidative
and dehydrogenation properties of C2 – C4hydrocar-
bons of thin film nano-strutured vanadium oxide were
studied. As it was shown in C4 – isobutane sample that
isobutane molecule V2O5thin film catalytic system on
Al2O3carrier conforms to the catalytic surface morphol-
ogy of isobutane in the range of 400-5000
C and allows
performing the process more efficiently bydehydrogen-
ating more selectively according to the scheme.
C
H
I
II
HC
OH
O
O
O
V
C C C C
H
H H H
H H
H
H
O
O
O
O
C CH3
H
H
V
CH3
C
H
C
H
V
HO O
O O
C
H
H
H
HO
V
O O
OH
C
CH3
H
H
H H
H
C C
V
HO OH
O O
CH3
CH
CH
CH3
Scheme 1. Probable mechanism of conversion process of isobutane to isobutylene.

Fig.2 shows visual and SEM spectral image of (C5H5)2V=O·5(THF) complex deposited on Al2O3after thermal
processing.
Thus,еxperimental results on the oxidative dehy-
drogenation of isobutane in the presence of vanadium-
containing oxide and nanostructured catalysts are pre-
sented. The features of the structures of catalytic sys-
tems on the efficiency of their action on the activity and
selectivity of the dehydrogenation process are studied.
Oxidative dehydrogenation of isobutane, an industrial
promising process for the preparation of isobutylene,
was studied in the presence of vanadium oxide catalysts
deposited on the surface of γ-Al2O3
by decomposition
with organometallic complex compounds of vanadium
(III) and (V). The catalytic effect in the target and side
reactions is compared with the results of studying the
characteristics of their volume and surface by X-ray
diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, temper-
ature-programmed hydrogen reduction, and a number
of others. Physicochemical method of investigation es-
tablished that, depending on the initial vanadium metal
complex taken, either the amount of reactive mobile ox-
ygen increases or decreases, thereby promoting more
efficient course of the oxide-reduction cycle and more
stable operation of the catalyst.
References
1. Спридонова Д.В., Фокина Е.А., Крылов
О.В. //Адсорбция бензола и хлорбензола на γ-Al2O3,
V2O5/γ-Al2O3 и CuCl/γ-Al2O3// Кинетика и
катализ.2002. Т.118, №6, С.1495-1500; Spridonova
D.V., Fokina E.A., Krylov O.V. //Adsorption of
benzene and chlorobenzene on γ-Al2O3, V2O5/γ-Al2O3
and CuCl/γ-Al2O3// Kinetics and Catalysis. 2002.
T.118, No.6, S.1495-1500
2. Blasco T. Galili I., Lopoz-Nielo J.M., Trifiro
F. // Oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane and butane
on VOx/Al2O3 catalysts // J.Catal. 1997, V.169, №1,
Р.203-211.
3. Santacexaria E., Cozzolino M., Veneria I.M.,
Tesser R. //Vanadium based catalysts prepared by
grafting: preparation, properties and performances in
the ODH of butaneApp.Catal.A, 2004, V.270, №№1-2,
P.177-192.
4. Sardarly A.M., Suleymanov G.Z.,
KahramanovaSh.I., Taghiyev D.B. // Study of the pro-
cess of oxidative dehydrogenation of isobutene on va-
nadium (III) containing oxide and nanostructured vana-
dium (V) containing catalytic systems. // European Sci-
ences №8(30) October 2017. P.6-10.
5. Hong D.-Y., Chang J.-S., Vislovskiy V.P., S.-
E.Park, Park Y.-H., Yoo J.S. Dehydrogenation of
ethylbenzene with carbon dioxide over Mg-modified
alumina-supported V-Sb oxide catalysts// Chemistry
Letters (Chemical Society of Japan). 2006. V. 35. No 1.
P. 28-29.
6. Hong D.-Y., Vislovskiy V.P., Hwang Y.K.,
Chang J.-S. Oxidative dehydrogenation of ethylben-
zene with carbon dioxide over layered double hydrox-
ide-derived vanadium catalysts // The 11th
Korea-Japan
Symposium on Catalysis (Seoul, Korea, 2007)/ Book of
Abstracts. P. 34.

THERMODYNAMIC STUDY OF THE THREE COMPONENT ALLOY Cu-Sn-Zn
Rostovtsev R.
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Tula State University
Chief of Department of Physics
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8129135
ABSTRACT
Direct experimental observation of partial (for each of the three components) and integral thermodynamic
functions in the Cu-Sn-Zn system at near-room temperature range has been performed. A significant difference
between the properties of the "equilibrium" and hardened specimens has been found. This fact has been validated
by the difference in their structural conditions and phase states. Determination of thermodynamical properties is
required for developing copper-bearing alloy recycling technologies.
Keywords: Cu-Sn-Zn alloys, chemical potential, Gibbs energy, touch instant emf measurement.
1. Introduction
New developments in engineering and manufac-
turing technology require a wider choice of structural
materials and alloys containing non-ferrous, noble and
rare metals. The downsides of such a development are
ore deposits depletion and price hikes, raising energy
consumption in mining industry, and a constantly ex-
panding share of hard-to-recycle waste. In this situation
recycling metal scrap and other man-made waste in or-
der to extract valuable non-ferrous components has be-
come relevant. There are promising hydrometallurgical
and electrochemical processes for making copper-bear-
ing alloys from recycled resources. Such processes ex-
tract several components at once, while the capital in-
vestments are low [1]. One of the primary tasks in de-
veloping the theoretical foundation of the processes is
performing thermodynamic and kinetics studies to find
out the behavior of copper-bearing multicomponent al-
loys as recyclable materials. To develop a manufactur-
ing process it is important to determine the relation be-
tween the temperature, composition, microstructure,
electrolyte properties and hydrometallurgical and elec-
trochemical process parameters [2]. Phase changes oc-
cur in such materials under heat treatment; for instance,
these martensitic transformations leading to a non-equi-
librium state of the system. A thermodynamic study of
the alloys is of practical importance in order to identify
the optimal operation modes and tendency to relaxa-
tion. In general, it should be emphasized that a targeted
approach to tailored material development requires the
availability of its thermodynamic properties and their
relations vs. the substance structure. At the same time
thermodynamic properties are fundamental for research
since they express a quantitative measure of atomic in-
teractions between components in alloys and com-
pounds, determine the phase equilibrium nature and its
evolution as external conditions change. [3].
The target of research is a triple Cu 87.1%, Sn
8.8%, Zn 4.1% (at. %) system alloy. The alloy features
a β → β'' martensitic transformation [4]; it is widely
used as a multicomponent anode for electrolytic refin-
ing. The paper [5] proves the existence of a direct rela-
tion between the chemical potentials of the alloy com-
ponents and the corresponding electrode potentials both
in homogeneous and heterogeneous Сu-based metallic
systems. It has been found [5] that under selective an-
odic dissolution the activity of copper at the phase in-
terface exceeds one (aCu>1), i.e. it is higher than the
pure metal's activity. The surface layer is a metastable
system, capable of further spontaneous transformation
into a thermodynamically stable phase. We have ob-
served higher thermodynamic activity of the compo-
nents in non-equilibrium (hardened) Fe-Ni, Cu-Ni-Al,
Fe-Co-Si-B and some other specimens [3].
Till now there have been virtually no direct exper-
imental data available on the thermodynamic properties
(such as component activities) in Cu-Sn-Zn alloys at
near-room temperatures. For that reason the research
object is the determination of partial and integral ther-
modynamic functions in the Cu-Sn-Zn system vs. tem-
perature, and finding the relations between heat treat-
ment modes and thermodynamic and structural proper-
ties.
2. Phase and Structural State
The Сu-Sn-Zn alloy phase equilibrium diagram
has been studied for Cu-rich alloys [6].
At 500о
С (Fig. 1) the γ (Сu-Sn) and β (Сu-Zn)
phases are in equilibrium with the solid FCC Cu-based
(α phase) solution. The dashed line is the α / α+ γ
boundary position at 300о
С

Fig. 1. Isothermic cross-section of the Cu-Sn-Zn equilibrium diagram at 500о С
Point 1 as marked on the figure corresponds to the
composition of the Cu-Sn-Zn alloy under investigation
(Cu: 80.0 mas. %, Sn: 15.6 mas. %, Zn: 4.4 mas. %).
Below 300о
С the γ phase transforms into the ε phase
or δ phase. The temperature of the δ phase decomposi-
tion into the α + ε eutectoid is about 380о
С in the Cu-
Sn binary alloy [7]. However, this transformation is
very slow. In most cases the δ phase is stable below 350
о
С.
We have studied some Cu-Sn-Zn alloy specimens
having the same chemical composition but exposed to
different heat treatment modes. The alloy has been
manufactured at Bardin Ferrous Metals Research Insti-
tute by air melting with cryolite slag; electrolytic cop-
per, chemically pure stannous and zinc have been used.
The intersitial impurities content like carbon, sulphur,
and phosphorus has not exceeded 0.01 mas.% and 0.04
mas.% for ferrous. The impurity composition and con-
tent have been measured at the Metallurgy Dept., Tula
Arms Factory, with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
using a S1 TURBOsd
LE analyzer. We performed the
subsequent heat treatment and the phase composition,
structure and thermodynamic properties study.
To make a material at a near-equillibrium state the
initial alloys have been annealed in a vacuum quartz
tube at 300о
С with subsequent slow cooling in the fur-
nace. Another heat treatment used has been a hardening
by heating up to 700о
С and cooling with water-ice mix-
ture and subsequent extra cooling with liquid nitrogen.
Such a treatment could have produced a β phase being
equilibrium at the given temperature (700о
С) with its
subsequent hardening and possible martensitic trans-
formation.
The X-ray phase analysis of the Cu-Sn-Zn speci-
mens has been performed with a DRON 2 diffractome-
ter using CoKα radiation; the quantitative metallo-
graphic analysis has been performed with a Neophot 2
microscope. The specimens have been etched with a
custom-composition etch.
The analyses have shown that the annealed speci-
men has a two-phase α + ε structure with the α and ε
phases FCC lattice and contains 8 vol. % of the ε phase.
The hardened alloy is also a two-phase one, consisting
of the α and β'' phases (8 vol. % of the β'' phase; β'' is a
martensitic metastable phase with orthorombic struc-
ture.
3. The Thermodynamic Study
3.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Cu-Sn-Zn Al-
loys
The thermodynamic properties of Cu-Sn-Zn al-
loys have been determined using the previously devel-
oped methods applicable to non-equilibrium specimens
[3,8]. The primary method is a version of the EMF
method: the Touch Instant EMF method (TIE) [9, 12].
To register the EMF we have used a GDS-806C
general-purpose digital oscilloscope.
The TIE method has been applied to the experi-
mental thermodynamic research of the Cu-Sn-Zn alloy
with the following concentration element types:
(-) Cu, Cu │CuSO4, aq│Cu-Sn-Zn, Cu(+) (1)
(-) Cu, Sn│SnCl2, aq │Cu-Sn-Zn, Cu (+) (2)
(-) Cu, Zn│ZnSO4, aq│Cu-Sn-Zn, Cu (+) (3)
(-) Cu, Cu-Sn-Zn (hardened)

│CuSO4, aq│Cu-Sn-Zn (annealed) Cu (+) (4)
│ SnCl2, aq │Cu-Sn-Zn (annealed) Cu(+) (5)
│ZnSO4, aq│Cu-Sn-Zn (annealed) Cu (+) (6)
Water or water-glycerin solutions of the corre-
sponding salts have been used as electrolytes. The elec-
trolyte concentration range has been 0.1М…1М. The
measurement method is covered in detail in the mono-
graph [3].
The EMF values for the elements (1-3) vary di-
rectly with the difference of the components' chemical
potentials in the alloyed electrodes (i = - ziFE),
where z is the ion charge of the potential-determining
component (in this case for all the elements z =2); Δμi
= μi - μi
o
and corresponds to the difference of the com-
ponents' chemical potentials in the alloy and a pure
metal (i.e. in the standard state). F is the Faraday con-
stant, E is the mean EMF value.
Table 1
Relation between Chemical Potential Variations in the Cu-Sn-Zn Alloy and the Temperature
Т, К 295 313 333
ΔμCu, kJ/g-at. - 0.53 ± 0.07 - 0.74 ± 0.08 - 0.82 ± 0.06
ΔμSn, kJ/g-at. - 6.20 ± 0.25 - 7.12 ± 0.30 - 7.87 ± 0.30
ΔμZn, kJ/g-at. - 10.90 ± 0.29 - 13.47 ± 0.40 - 14.26 ± 0.35
Table 2
Calculated Partial Enthalpy and Entropy of Formation for the Cu-Sn-Zn alloy
S
 , J/g-atom∙К H
 , kJ/g-atom
Cu 8 ± 2 - 3.2 ± 1.0
Sn 36 ± 4 - 15.1 ± 3.5
Zn 58 ± 8 - 28.5 ± 4.5
All the integrated thermodynamic functions for the Cu-Sn-Zn alloy have been calculated as follows:
∆Фint = ∆ФCu + ∆ФSn+ ∆ФZn
For instance, the Gibbs energy of formation the triple Cu-Sn-Zn alloy from its components has been deter-
mined as:
ΔfG = xCu ΔμCu + xSnΔμSn + xZn ΔμZn
Table 3
Gibbs energy of Formation the triple Cu-Sn-Zn alloy vs. temperature
Т,К 295 313 333
Δ f G, kJ/mole - 1.46 ± 0.15 - 1.82 ± 0.20 - 1.99 ± 0.20
The integral enthalpy and entropy values for the
Cu-Sn-Zn alloy have been evaluated as follows:
ΔfS = 13 ± 3 J/g-atom∙К and ΔfH = - 5.3 ± 1.5
kJ/g-atom.
The excess Gibbs energy value, i.e. its variation as
a solution is formed from the pure components over the
ideal solution value has been calculated as follows:
i
i
x
x
x
x x
x
RT
G
G
G
G ln
id
ex

−

=

−

=

The result is =
 ex
x
G - 0.5... - 0.8 kJ/mole show-
ing a small negative deviation from the ideal solutions
law. Such a deviation indicates a relative stability of the
specimens' structure while the small formation entropy
value indicated a possible inclusion of a new ε phase,
compounds (i.e. Cu5Sn, Cu4Sn) and other intermetal-
lides in the α solid solution [5-7].
3.2 Determining the Difference of Thermody-
namic Properties in the Hardened and Annealed Speci-
mens
All the above given thermodynamic data are for
the annealed (equilibrium) Cu-Sn-Zn alloy specimens.
Using the galvanic cell EMF values (4-) we have man-
aged to directly calculate the difference of the compo-
nents' chemical potentials and the difference of the
Gibbs energies in the hardened and annealed Cu-Sn-Zn
alloy specimens of the same chemical composition at Т
= 295 К (see Table 4) with the following equations:
an
hrd
hrd
-
an
i
i
i 

 −
=
 and
hrd
-
an
hrd
-
an
hrd
-
an
Cu
Cu
hrd
-
an
Zn
Zn
Sn
Sn x
x
x
G 

 
+

+

=

Table 4
Difference of the Components' Chemical Potentials and the Gibbs energies in the hardened and annealed Cu-Sn-
Zn alloy specimens at Т = 295 К (J/mole)
hrd
-
an
Cu

 hrd
-
an
Sn

 hrd
-
an
Zn

 hrd
-
an
G

480 ± 100 2390 ± 150 1850 ± 140 710 ± 90

The calculated
hrd
-
an
G
 ≈ 700 J/mole value cor-
responds to the Gibbs energy difference in the hardened
specimens, containing 8 vol. % of the martensitic β'
phase, and the annealed alloys of the same chemical
composition that contain the ε phase. In both case the
primary phase component is the solid α solution. The
slightly increased Gibbs energy value in the hardened
specimens is probably due to the positive "non-chemi-
cal" contribution into their Gibbs energy from the inter-
nal stress and various defects caused by both fast cool-
ing and the martensitic transformation. The hardened
specimens under the thermodynamic experiments have
been in a non-equilibrium state so some extra (internal)
parameters are required to describe it. For example in
the Fe-Ni and Mn-Cu systems we have used (ξ), the
martensitic phase part of the austenite-martensite sys-
tem [3], as one of such parameters. So the obtained
hrd
-
an
G
 ≈ 700 J/mole value corresponds to ξ = 0.08.
By extrapolating the ΔG = f(ξ ) relation [3] to ξ = 1.0
(100 % of the martensitic phase) we obtain
hrd
-
an
G
 ≈
4000 J/mole. It is close to the similar values in systems
with non-thermoelastic martensitic transformation like
Fe-Ni.
4. Conclusions
The direct galvanic cell EMF measurements have
enabled the determination of their equilibrium values
and calculate the partial thermodynamic functions for
the Cu-Sn-Zn alloys. Since the partial values have been
determined for all three components the calculation the
integrated thermodynamic properties has also been car-
ried out. The measurements have been taken at several
temperatures to determine the partial and integral for-
mation enthalpy and entropy.
The alloy under investigation features a negative
formation Gibbs energy. It shows a relative thermody-
namic stability of its state at the experimental tempera-
tures.
The hardened specimens feature an excess Gibbs
energy compared to "equilibrium" annealed alloys of
the same chemical composition. It enables the evalua-
tion of the "non-chemical" macrostructure contribution
into the thermodynamic properties of the Cu-Sn-Zn al-
loys.
The Touch Instant EMF method also facilitates the
thermodynamic properties study in hardened metallic
alloys at low temperatures, while preserving their non-
equilibrium state required for many engineering appli-
cations.
References
1. Karelov S.V., Naboichenko S.S., Mamya-
chenkov S.V. Hydroelectrometallurgy for Integrated
Cu Remelted Alloys Processing // Non-Ferroues Metals
Publishing. 1997. Vol. 5. Pp. 29-32
2. Karelov S.V., Mamyachenkov S.V.,
Naboichenko S.S. Anode Polarization in Cu Alloys //
Non-Ferroues Metals Publishing. 1997. Vol. 9. Pp. 21-
24
3. Rostovtsev R.N. Thermodynamic Analysis of
Non-equilibrium States in Metallic Alloys Tula: Grif &
Co
Publishing, 2012. 104 pp.
4. H. Warlimont, L. Delayey Martensitic Trans-
formations in Copper-, Silver-, and Gold-based Alloys
Moscow, Nauka Publishing, 1980. 205 pp.
5. Mamyachenkov S.V. Study of the Hydroelec-
trometallurgy Processes in Multicomponent Remelted
Non-Ferrous Alloy Production A thesis abstract. Yeka-
terinburg, 2008. 47 pp.
6. Copper-based Double and Multi-component
Systems / M.Ye. Dritz et al. // Reference book / Baykov
Metallurgy Research Institute, USSR Academy of Sci-
ence. Moscow, Nauka Publishing, 1979. 248 pp.
7. Hansen M., Anderko K. Constitution of Bi-
nary Alloys En-Ru trans. 2 volumes Edited by I.I.
Novikov, I.L. Rosenberg. Moscow, Metallurgizdat
Publishing, 1962. Vol. 1. 772 pp.
8. Rostovtsev R.N. A Method for Experimental
Thermodynamical Properties Determination in Non-
Equilibrium Metallic Alloys // Metal Science and Heat
Treatment. 2002. Vol. 5. Pp. 34-36
9. Okajima K., Sakao H. On the New Method of
Determining the Activities In Molten Alloys. – The
Touch Instant EMF method // Trans. Jap. Inst. Met.
1968. V.9, N 1. P.47-53
10. Electrochemical Methods Applied to Thermo-
dynamics of Metallic Systems / Morachevsky A.G. et
al. Moscow, IKTs Academ-Kniga Publishing, 2003.
334 pp.
11. Rostovtsev R.N. The EMF Method as Applied
to Metallic Alloys Thermodynamics // Tula State Uni-
versity Proceedings. The Physical Series. 2003. Vol. 3.
Pp. 115-119
12. Rostovtsev R.N. The Touch Instant EMF
Method as Applied to Non-Equilibrium Metallic Alloys
Thermodynamics // Samara State University Proceed-
ings. Physics and Mathematics Series 2004. Vol. 27.
Pp. 158-164.

GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES
REVIEW ON “LOCATION THEORY” – FROM CLASSIC TO MODERN PERSPECTIVES
Young-Jin Ahn,
Juraev Z.
Department of Geography,
Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6804-7273
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8129143
ABSTRACT
This study provides a modest review of location theory in economic geography, tracing its evolution from
classical origins to contemporary perspectives. By examining the works of influential scholars and analyzing key
debates and trends, this study aims to deepen our understanding of the theoretical foundations and practical appli-
cations of location theory. The study takes a systematic approach by analyzing prominent publications in the field
to shed light on the dynamic nature of location theory and its interdisciplinary nature. The findings contribute to
the existing literature by offering a holistic understanding of the development of the field, emphasizing the inte-
gration of geography and economics, and examining the various factors that influence location decisions. The
study highlights the complex dynamics that determine spatial patterns of economic activity and provides valuable
insights for policymakers and researchers. In addition, this study serves as a teaching tool that enhances students’
understanding of economic geography and encourages further research in this dynamic field. Ultimately, the re-
sults contribute to our knowledge of the spatial dimensions of economic activity and provide guidance for policy
actions and future research.
Keywords: Location theory; Economic geography; Economic perspectives; Education; Interdisciplinary.
1. Introduction
Location theory, as a foundational concept in eco-
nomic geography, has undergone significant develop-
ment and refinement over time, enabling scholars to
gain profound insights into the spatial aspects of eco-
nomic activity and the determinants of location. This
study aims to contribute to the existing literature on ge-
ography and economics by providing a comprehensive
review of location theory, spanning from its classical
origins to contemporary perspectives, while also sum-
marizing key debates and ongoing trends in the field.
The main objective of this study is to present a detailed
analysis of the development of location theory, aiming
to enhance our understanding of its theoretical founda-
tions and practical applications (Moses, 1958). Specif-
ically, it explores the influential contributions of es-
teemed scholars such as Johann Heinrich von Thünen,
Alfred Weber, Walter Christaller, Harold Hotelling,
and August Lösch. While these scholars' works have
been extensively examined by numerous economic ge-
ographers, it is crucial to interpret their findings within
the context of contemporary location theory and ongo-
ing trends. Therefore, this study seeks to illuminate the
theoretical underpinnings that have shaped modern lo-
cation theory. To accomplish these objectives, a sys-
tematic approach is employed, involving the analysis of
key sections from prominent publications in the field.
So, this comprehensive review of location theory
makes significant contributions to the existing literature
in several ways. Firstly, it provides a comprehensive
understanding of the field's evolution by offering an
overview of its historical development, spanning from
classical origins to contemporary perspectives. By
delving into the theoretical foundations, debates, and
emerging trends within economic geography, this study
enhances our comprehension of location theory as a dy-
namic and evolving discipline. Secondly, by examining
the works of various scholars and analyzing relevant
studies (including books and chapters), this research fa-
cilitates the integration of geography and economics. It
underscores the interdisciplinary nature of location the-
ory and highlights the diverse factors that influence lo-
cation decisions, such as agglomeration economies, in-
stitutional influences, technological advancements, and
sustainability considerations. This analysis offers valu-
able insights into the intricate dynamics governing the
spatial patterns of economic activity.
Thus, the overarching purpose of this study is to
revisit location theory within the realm of economic ge-
ography, tracing its evolution from classical models to
contemporary perspectives, and making a substantial
contribution to the existing literature in geography and
economics. Moreover, it is our hope that this research
will serve as educational literature for students of eco-
nomic geography, deepening their understanding of the
field and its associated factors influencing location de-
cisions. Ultimately, the findings of this study are ex-
pected to advance our understanding of the spatial di-
mensions of economic activity, inform policy actions,
and stimulate further research in this dynamic and in-
terdisciplinary field.
2. Research Materials and Method
In order to achieve the objectives outlined in this
study, a systematic and comprehensive approach is
adopted. The research methodology includes several
key components, including literature review, data col-
lection, and analysis. The following sections provide an
overview of the research materials and methods used in
this study. Thus, the study begins with a comprehensive
review of relevant literature in the field of economic
geography and location theory. Scholarly articles,
books, research papers, and other relevant publications
are examined to gain a comprehensive understanding of
the historical development, theoretical underpinnings,

debates, and emerging trends in location theory. The
study considers works by influential scholars such as
Moses (1958) and examines the contributions of Jo-
hann Heinrich von Thünen, Alfred Weber, Walter
Christaller, Harold Hotelling, and August Lösch, to
name a few. Data collection for this study involves
gathering information from a variety of sources, includ-
ing academic databases, business journals, and reputa-
ble publications. The data collected include empirical
studies, case studies, and theoretical models that pro-
vide insight into the factors that influence location de-
cisions and the spatial patterns of economic activity. In
addition, relevant statistical data and indicators related
to agglomeration economies, institutional influences,
technological advances, and sustainability issues are
collected for analysis. The collected data will be ana-
lyzed using qualitative research method. The qualita-
tive analysis includes a thematic analysis of the litera-
ture review to identify key themes, theoretical frame-
works, and debates within location theory.
The analysis aims to provide a comprehensive un-
derstanding of the development of location theory, its
theoretical foundations, and emerging trends in the
field. The results of the literature review and data anal-
ysis are synthesized and interpreted to develop a so-
phisticated understanding of location theory. The anal-
ysis integrates historical perspectives with contempo-
rary insights and highlights the interdisciplinary nature
of location theory and its implications for economic ge-
ography. The theoretical foundations and practical ap-
plications of location theory are examined in the con-
text of current trends and contemporary challenges. It
is important to acknowledge the limitations of this
study. The research is based on existing literature, and
the results are dependent on the quality and availability
of the sources examined. In addition, ethical consider-
ations, such as proper citation and attribution, are given
utmost importance to maintain academic integrity and
avoid plagiarism. All in all, this thesis employs a com-
prehensive research methodology that includes a litera-
ture review, data collection, and analysis to analyze the
development of location theory, understand its theoret-
ical underpinnings, and explore its practical applica-
tions in economic geography.
3. Location Theory
Location theory, as a branch of economic geogra-
phy, plays a crucial role in analyzing the complex
placement and dispersion of economic activities
(Krugman, 1999). It aims to uncover the factors that in-
fluence location decisions and their consequences for
performance and competitiveness. The factors consid-
ered in location theory encompass a wide range of con-
siderations, including transportation costs, labor avail-
ability, market accessibility, taxation, and government
regulations (Juraev, 2023). Moreover, location theory
acknowledges the intricate connection between the spa-
tial arrangement of economic activities and the distri-
bution of wealth and income within a society. The prac-
tical implications of location theory are evident in di-
verse domains, including urban planning, regional
development, transportation planning, and environ-
mental management (Warf, 2006). By providing
knowledge and insights to policymakers and business
leaders, location theory facilitates informed decision-
making regarding resource allocation and the design of
policies to promote economic growth and development.
Within location theory, economic geographers focus on
two key factors: distance and area (Essletzbichler,
2011). These factors exert a significant influence on
transportation costs, which subsequently affect product
prices, the choice of production locations, and the size
of geographic markets (O’Kelly & Bryan, 1996). Over
its more than one hundred years of development, loca-
tion theory has undergone various approaches by dif-
ferent theorists (Essletzbichler, 2011). These ap-
proaches combine abstract analysis of common charac-
teristics with detailed historical examples, allowing
researchers to isolate specific factors for analysis
through abstraction (Warf, 2006). Location theorists
have developed formal and abstract models that serve
as invaluable tools for understanding spatial phenom-
ena. However, they also recognize that these models
alone are not sufficient to fully explain the development
of specific areas. Location theorists recognize the need
for comprehensive historical analysis as an integral as-
pect of their approach. By examining historical exam-
ples alongside abstract models, researchers gain a
deeper understanding of the complex dynamics in-
volved in siting decisions (Essletzbichler, 2011). This
integration of historical analysis and the use of abstract
models has led to valuable insights into location deci-
sions and their impact on spatial patterns. It under-
scores the multi-layered nature of economic geography
and contributes to our understanding of how particular
places develop.
In addition to these contributions, location theory
must consider other critical factors, such as the role of
social, cultural, and political dynamics in shaping loca-
tion decisions. These factors, when combined with eco-
nomic factors, play a crucial role in shaping the spatial
distribution of economic activity. By acknowledging
and examining these broader influences, location the-
ory can provide a more holistic understanding of the
complexities involved in decision-making processes.
This article aims to offer a comprehensive analysis of
location theory, spanning from its historical founda-
tions to contemporary perspectives. By integrating ab-
stract models with historical context, it seeks to deepen
our comprehension of the multifaceted nature of eco-
nomic geography and the intricate interplay between
location decisions, spatial patterns, and the evolution of
specific places (Essletzbichler, 2011). This research
contributes to the existing literature and facilitates in-
formed decision-making in the areas of policy, plan-
ning, and economic development. It also underscores
the need for further research and analysis to continually
improve our understanding of the complexities of loca-
tion theory and its implications for economic geogra-
phy (Warf, 2006).
In the realm of location theory, several robust ap-
proaches and notable studies have made significant
contributions to the field. Distinguished scholars of
economic geography have played pivotal roles in ad-
vancing our understanding of location theory within the
domain of economic geography. Through their rigorous
analysis and empirical research, they have provided

valuable insights into the factors that shape location de-
cisions and the intricate dynamics of spatial patterns.
Moreover, several influential books have been instru-
mental in shaping the development of location theory
over time. It is worth highlighting some of these semi-
nal works and studies conducted by prominent eco-
nomic geographers.
One of the current prominent contributions to the
field of location theory is Peter Dicken's book, “Global
Shift: Mapping the Changing Contours of the World
Economy” (2015). This comprehensive analysis ex-
plores the transformative shifts taking place in the
global economic landscape and their implications for
the spatial distribution of economic activities. Dicken's
work delves into the interactions between globaliza-
tion, industrial restructuring, and location decisions,
providing valuable insights into the dynamics of con-
temporary location theory. Another influential work is
Paul Krugman’s book, “Geography and Trade”
(1992). As a Nobel laureate, Krugman examines the re-
lationship between international trade and the spatial
distribution of economic activities. He introduces es-
sential concepts such as economies of scale and ag-
glomeration, shedding light on their significance in de-
termining location decisions and shaping patterns of
economic activity. Enrico Moretti's book, “The New
Geography of Jobs” (2012), is also a significant contri-
bution to the field. Moretti explores the interplay be-
tween innovation, job creation, and regional develop-
ment. He emphasizes the importance of clustering and
knowledge spillovers in fostering economic growth,
presenting a fresh perspective on location theory within
the context of the knowledge economy.
So, if we draw upon the contributions of esteemed
scholars like Peter Dicken, Barney Warf, and many oth-
ers, as well as referencing influential books on location
theory, this article enhances the depth and credibility of
the discussion on the multidimensional nature of eco-
nomic geography and the intricate dynamics involved
in location decisions. It underscores the ongoing need
for research and analysis to further advance our under-
standing of location theory and its practical implica-
tions for economic development.
3.1.Models of Location Theory
Location theory encompasses various models that
attempt to elucidate how businesses and industries se-
lect their locations. Some of the most common models
include as follows. The first is “Thünen’s Model”
which was developed by Johann Heinrich von Thünen
in the early 19th century, this model explains the loca-
tion of agricultural activities based on market distance
and transportation costs. The second is “Weber’s
model” which was created by Alfred Weber in 1909,
this model explains the location of manufacturing ac-
tivities based on the proximity of raw materials, trans-
portation costs, and labor expenses. The third is
Christaller’s “Central place theory” which was devel-
oped by Walter Christaller in 1933, this theory explains
the location of cities and settlements based on their
functions and the range of goods and services they of-
fer. Next, “Hotelling’s Model” was Formulated by
Harold Hotelling in 1929, this model explains the loca-
tion choices of businesses selling similar products, with
an emphasis on minimizing transportation costs and
achieving equidistance from customers. Finally, “the
gravity model”. This model is based on the notion that
the attractiveness of a location is proportional to its size
and inversely proportional to its distance from other lo-
cations (Gabszewicz & Thisse, 1992; Essletzbichler,
2011; Warf, 2006, Dicken, 2015; Juraev, 2023). So,
these models provide a framework for understanding
the factors that influence location decisions and the spa-
tial distribution of economic activities. However, it is
important to acknowledge that they are simplifications
of complex economic processes and are subject to lim-
itations and assumptions (Table 1 and Appendix 1, Fig-
ure 2).
3.2.Theorists and Models - A Broad View
A) Von Thünen’s Model.
Von Thünen’s model, developed by Johann Hein-
rich von Thünen in the early 19th century, holds a
prominent place in location theory as one of the earliest
and most influential models. Its primary objective is to
explain the spatial distribution of agricultural activities.
The model operates under the assumption that farmers
make location decisions based on transportation costs
and proximity to the market. In this model, intensive
agriculture is conducted in the innermost ring, while
extensive agriculture takes place in the outer rings. As
distance from the market increases, transportation costs
rise, and the price of agricultural products decreases
due to increased competition. Thus, farmers must care-
fully balance transportation costs with potential profits
when determining their optimal location (Warf, 2006;
Essletzbichler, 2011).
B) Weber’s Model (The Location Triangle
Model).
Also known as the location triangle model, We-
ber’s model was formulated by German economist Al-
fred Weber in 1909. Its purpose is to elucidate the loca-
tion choices of manufacturing activities by emphasiz-
ing the minimization of production costs. See the
formula below:
Total Cost = (Weight of Input * Distance to Input)
+ (Weight of Output * Distance to Market)
The model assumes that raw materials and fin-
ished goods are transported via rail or water and that
the labor force is uniform and immobile. Furthermore,
it posits that manufacturing firms strive to minimize
overall costs rather than maximize profits. The optimal
location is represented by a triangle, with each vertex
representing a different factor: the source of raw mate-
rials, the market for final products, and the location of
other firms in the industry. According to Weber’s con-
cept, a manufacturing firm selects a location that mini-
mizes labor, transportation, and agglomeration costs.
Transportation costs refer to the expenses associated
with transporting raw materials and finished goods to
and from the factory, while labor costs encompass the
costs of employing and training workers. Agglomera-
tion costs represent the cost reductions achieved by
merging with other companies in the same sector, such
as utilizing shared labor markets and raw materials
(Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011).

C) Christaller’s Theory of Central Places.
Developed by German geographer Walter
Christaller in the 1930s, Christaller’s theory of central
places seeks to explain the distribution and location of
cities and settlements based on their functions and the
range of goods and services they offer. The theory op-
erates on the premise that settlements are organized into
hexagonal market areas, each served by a central place
or city.
Range of Good/Service = 3 * (Market Distance /
Number of Competing Centers) ^ (1/2)
The size and function of the central place are de-
termined by the size and density of the surrounding
population, as well as the variety of goods and services
available. The hierarchy of central places is established
based on the concept of threshold, which refers to the
minimum size of a market required to support a specific
good or service (Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011).
D) Hotelling’s Model (The Linear City Model).
The Hotelling model, also known as the linear city
model, was developed by economist Harold Hotelling
in 1929. It aims to explain the location choices of firms
in a duopoly, where a market consists of only two firms.
Location of Firm 1 = (Total Length of Market *
Difference in Transportation Costs) / (Sum of
Transportation Costs)
The model assumes that consumers are situated
along a linear market, while the firms are positioned at
opposite ends. Each firm produces a homogeneous
product and strategically selects its location along the
linear market to maximize profits. The Hotelling model
predicts that in a duopoly, both firms will choose to lo-
cate equidistant from each other at the middle point of
the market. This decision is driven by the trade-off be-
tween capturing a larger market share by moving closer
to the competitor, and the accompanying increase in
transportation costs. Consequently, both firms opt for a
location that minimizes transportation costs and max-
imizes market share. The model has also been extended
to other contexts, such as political competition and
product differentiation (Essletzbichler, 2011).
E) The Gravity Model.
A gravity model is a mathematical tool used to
predict the level of trade, migration, or communication
between two locations based on their size and distance
from each other.
Interaction = (Population A * Population B) / (Dis-
tance between A and B) ^ 2
Originally introduced by economist Jan Tinbergen
in the early 20th century, the gravity model has found
widespread application in transportation planning, in-
ternational trade analysis, and migration studies. The
model operates on the assumption that the level of in-
teraction between two locations is directly proportional
to the product of their sizes and inversely proportional
to the distance separating them (Anderson, 2011; Ess-
letzbichler, 2011). The formula for the gravity model is
typically expressed as:
T = k * (P1 * P2) / D^a
Here, “T” represents the volume of interaction, k
is a proportionality constant, “P1” and “P2” denote the
sizes of the two locations, “D” represents the distance
between them, and a is a parameter reflecting the sen-
sitivity of interaction to distance. The gravity model
provides insights into the spatial patterns of interaction
and can be used to predict the effects of changes in size
or distance on the volume of interaction. It has proven
to be a valuable tool in understanding and predicting
various phenomena, including international trade
flows, migration patterns, and communication net-
works.
Table 1.
Location theory’s models
Theorist/Model Description
Von Thünen's Model
Explains the spatial distribution of agricultural activities based on transpor-
tation costs and proximity to the market.
Weber's Model (The Location
Triangle Model)
Emphasizes the minimization of production costs in manufacturing loca-
tion choices
Christaller’s Theory of Central
Places
Explains the distribution and location of cities and settlements based on
their functions and range of goods and services.
Hotelling's Model (The Linear
City Model)
Analyzes the location choices of firms in a duopoly market to maximize
profits.
Gravity Model
Predicts the level of interaction between locations based on their size and
distance.
Note: Autor prepared the Table (Sources: Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011).
4. Classical Theories of Location
4.1.German Historical School
The classical theories of location provide insights
into the spatial patterns and factors that influence the
location decisions of economic activities. These theo-
ries have evolved over time, with the German historical
school playing a significant role in shaping economic
thought and the development of location theory. This
article explores the general features of classical loca-
tion theories and their relationship to the German his-
torical school, as well as the influential Methodenstreit
debate between Carl Menger and Gustav Schmoller
(Bostaph, 1978). The Older German Historical School
(1841-1883) emerged during a period of economic, po-
litical, and intellectual change (Schinzinger, 1987;
Pearson, 1999). Its primary objective was to emphasize

the impact of social cultures and historical periods on
the economy (Essletzbichler, 2011). Although initially
limited in its influence on German location theory, the
school rejected the individualistic and deductive ap-
proach of English classical political economy, as well
as methodological individualism. This rejection laid the
foundation for the development of modern geograph-
ical thought (Essletzbichler, 2011).
Wilhelm Roscher and Alfred Schäffle were prom-
inent representatives of the older German historical
school. Roscher emphasized the importance of histori-
cal data and specific event descriptions, favoring indi-
vidual theories over universal ones. He believed that
general laws and regularities could be established
through induction and comparative methods. While not
directly focused on location analysis, Roscher, and
Schäffle contributed to location problems by highlight-
ing the role of agglomeration economies, stages of de-
velopment, inertia, path dependence, and the influence
of culture, history, environment, and institutions on in-
dustrial location. They maintained a rejection of univer-
sal theories and emphasized historical and geographical
specificity (Essletzbichler, 2011).
Furthermore, in addition to the substantive de-
bates, the realm of economic geography has also been
marked by significant methodological controversies.
Menger versus Schmoller (1883-1884) significantly in-
fluenced economic thought and its impact on location
theory. Carl Menger criticized the Viennese School of
History for relying solely on observation and descrip-
tion, advocating for relevant abstractions, and under-
standing of underlying essences. Menger proposed
anti-inductivism, individualism, the universality of
economic principles, and the loss of historical identities
as methodological theses (Klooster, 2017). These the-
ses were later embraced by modern economists, leading
to the decline of the German historical school and its
context-sensitive economic theories (Essletzbichler,
2011).
The representatives of the German historical
school later revised Menger’s critique and incorporated
his ideas. By making Menger’s critique their own, they
created intellectual space for the continuation of the
Thünen tradition and the study of the location. This rec-
onciliation facilitated the development of abstract and
general models within the framework of location the-
ory, combining the historical specificity emphasized by
the school with the analytical rigor of Menger’s meth-
odological proposals (Juraev, 2023). Although the
older German historical school had limited initial influ-
ence on location theory, it played a crucial role in shap-
ing the intellectual landscape of economic geography.
The rejection of universal theories, emphasis on histor-
ical and geographical specificities, and the subsequent
methodological dispute with Menger led to the devel-
opment of abstract and general models within location
theory. Understanding the historical context and evolv-
ing debates surrounding location analysis deepens our
comprehension of the contributions of classical loca-
tion theorists and the intellectual developments that
shaped the field (see Table 2).
4.2.Alfred Weber and the Method Controversy
Alfred Weber, a prominent German economist,
and sociologist made significant contributions to loca-
tion theory, particularly in understanding industrial
movements and their underlying factors. Influenced by
Thünen’s ideas, Weber aimed to identify the drivers of
industrial relocation and challenge prevailing notions
about entrepreneurial motivations. While his work gar-
nered both praise and criticism, Weber’s approach to
analyzing industrial relocation and his methodological
stance in the Methodenstreit positioned him as a true
successor to von Thünen (Warf, 2006).
Weber’s primary concern was to uncover the fac-
tors influencing the relocation of industries. Contrary to
the widely held view that entrepreneurs are primarily
driven by profit maximization, Weber argued that min-
imizing costs played a more significant role in their de-
cisions. To support this argument, he classified costs
based on regional differences, forming the foundation
for his analysis of location patterns. One criticism of
Weber’s work, however, is the lack of detailed auxil-
iary assumptions and historical analysis. Weber failed
to fully connect his location model of the pure economy
with his historical studies, leading to certain gaps in his
analysis (Ahn, 2009).
Following his work on location theory, Weber ex-
clusively focused on real-world problems. He em-
ployed evolutionary and historical analysis to gain in-
sights into location patterns and dynamics. Weber also
transitioned to sociology and became a prominent fig-
ure in the academic movement against fascism in Ger-
many. Critics of Weber’s approach claim that he did not
return to formal location analysis after his initial work,
suggesting that he belongs to the historical school ra-
ther than the school of formal economic analysis
(Blaug, 1979; Ponsard, 1983).
Tord Palander, a scholar who extensively studied
Weber’s theory and its limitations, acknowledged the
importance of Weber’s model for understanding “pure”
economics. Palander recognized Weber’s departure
from formal location analysis in his later work and,
contrary to the opinions of some scholars, assigned him
to the historical school (Essletzbichler, 2011).
Alfred Weber’s contributions to location theory,
particularly in the realm of industrial movements and
the factors influencing them, establish him as a true
successor to von Thünen. Despite the lack of detailed
auxiliary assumptions and historical analysis in his
work, Weber’s classification of costs and emphasis on
minimizing costs rather than maximizing profits of-
fered valuable insights. While critics have raised con-
cerns about Weber’s departure from formal location
analysis, his contributions to location theory remain
significant and influential.
4.3.Walter Christaller and the Method Contro-
versy
Walter Christaller, an esteemed geographer, made
important contributions to the study of city distribution.
Like his predecessors Thünen and Weber, Christaller
challenged the prevailing belief that historical investi-
gations and statistical methods alone were sufficient to
uncover true laws. Instead, he aimed to provide a gen-

eral explanation and discover laws by isolating key re-
lationships and developing a theory focused specifi-
cally on the location of retail shops. Notably,
Christaller shifted his focus from studying the location
decisions of individual producers, as Thünen and We-
ber did, to adopting a broader systems-level perspective
that encompassed cities and market areas. This shift fa-
cilitated a more comprehensive understanding of the
dynamics at play in cities and markets, considering
their interdependencies and interactions (Warf, 2006;
Essletzbichler, 2011).
Initially, Christaller’s work faced skepticism due
to its abstract nature. His advisor, Robert Gradman,
considered it overly theoretical. It was only when Au-
gust Lösch introduced Christaller’s ideas to Edward L.
Ullman, who was working on his own "Theory of Lo-
cation of Cities," that Christaller began gaining recog-
nition among quantitative geographers in the United
States. Subsequently, he became highly regarded in
their field, and his ideas exerted significant influence.
In the 1960s and 1970s, during the quantitative revolt
in German geography and with the dissemination of his
work through English-language textbooks,
Christaller’s ideas experienced a resurgence in esteem.
However, it is important to note that he was not fully
appreciated in the geographical community of his time
(Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011).
So, Walter Christaller’s quest for laws governing
the distribution of cities led to the development of a the-
ory focused on the location of retail shops. His shift
from analyzing individual producer decisions to study-
ing cities and market areas expanded our understanding
of the dynamics shaping urban landscapes. Although
his ideas initially faced criticism and were not highly
regarded in his time, they eventually gained recogni-
tion, particularly in the United States, and experienced
a resurgence in German geography during the quantita-
tive revolution. Christaller’s contributions have had a
lasting impact on the field of geography and continue
to shape our understanding of urban systems (Juraev,
2023).
4.4.August Lösch and the Method Controversy
August Lösch, a prominent German location theo-
rist, made significant contributions to the field by ex-
panding Walter Christaller’s central place hierarchy to
include agriculture and production in his analysis. Lö-
sch’s approach focused on the market areas of compet-
ing producers, deviating from the microeconomic per-
spectives of Thünen and Weber. An essential aspect of
Lösch’s work was the integration of equilibrium and
historical analysis.
Collaborating with Joseph Schumpeter, who was
influenced by Carl Menger’s equilibrium economics
but also recognized the importance of dynamic and his-
torical analysis, Lösch combined abstract theories with
concrete, historical, and empirical studies. This ap-
proach enabled him to develop a comprehensive under-
standing of location decisions by considering both
long-term equilibrium trends and the dynamic factors
shaping real-world scenarios. Like his predecessors,
Thünen, Weber, Ritschl, Palander, and Christaller, Lö-
sch was keenly aware of the distinction between real
and idealized location patterns. He understood the prac-
tical implications of location decisions and the need to
account for the complexity of the physical and eco-
nomic environment. This awareness guided his re-
search and analysis, ensuring that his work remained
grounded in empirical reality while still providing val-
uable theoretical insights (Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler,
2011).
Lösch’s contributions to location theory can be
seen as part of the rich tradition of German location the-
orists who combined abstract, general theories with em-
pirical research. This group of scholars merged theoret-
ical insights with historical and concrete analyses to de-
velop a holistic understanding of location dynamics.
Lösch’s work represented the culmination of this tradi-
tion. He built upon the foundations laid by his prede-
cessors and advanced the field through his own contri-
butions (Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011).
Location Attractiveness = (Profit Potential * Acces-
sibility) / (Transport Costs * Site Rent)
However, it is important to note that Lösch’s em-
phasis on macroeconomics within regional science led
to a shift away from a focus on the location decisions
of individuals and firms in partial equilibrium condi-
tions. While this shift allowed for more comprehensive
insights into regional dynamics, it may have contrib-
uted to the marginalization of location theory within
economics. This marginalization may have resulted in
the loss of valuable insights into the factors influencing
the location decisions of individuals and firms, insights
that could have enriched our understanding of eco-
nomic processes. So, August Lösch’s contributions to
location theory extended the central theory of location
to include historical analysis. His collaboration with
Schumpeter and his awareness of real and ideal location
patterns exemplifies the tradition of German location
theorists who combined theoretical and empirical ap-
proaches. However, the shift to macroeconomics and
the subsequent marginalization of location theory may
have resulted in the loss of valuable insights into indi-
vidual and firm location decisions within economics.
Despite this potential limitation, Lösch’s work remains
influential and represents a significant contribution to
the field of location theory (Juraev, 2023; Juraev 2023).

Table 2.
Classical Theories of Location and Key Contributions
German Historical
School
1. Emphasized historical and geographical specificities.
2. Highlighted agglomeration economies.
3. Considered stages of development, inertia, and path dependence.
4. Recognized the influence of culture, history, environment, and institutions on
industrial location.
Methodenstreit Debate
1. Influenced economic thought and location theory.
2. Reconciled historical specificity and analytical rigor within location theory.
3. Shaped modern economists’ methodological approach.
Alfred Weber
1. Emphasized minimizing costs in location decisions.
2. Challenged the primacy of profit maximization.
3. Provided insights into the factors influencing entrepreneurs' location choices.
Walter Christaller
1. Developed a comprehensive understanding of urban dynamics.
2. Considered interdependencies and interactions between cities and market areas.
3. Focused on the distribution of cities and the location of retail stores.
August Lösch
1. Expanded Christaller’s theory of central places.
2. Incorporated agriculture and production into location analysis.
3. Considered long-term equilibrium trends and dynamic factors in location deci-
sions.
Relevance of Location
Theories
1. Contributes to understanding the interplay of historical, geographic, economic,
and cultural factors in shaping economic activities.
2. Provides valuable insights for analyzing and understanding location dynamics in
various contexts.
Note: This Table summarizes the classical theories of location and the key contributions of the German historical
school, Alfred Weber, Walter Christaller, and August Lösch. It highlights their respective concepts and how they
contribute to our understanding of location analysis in real-world contexts (The author made the Table).
4.5.Criticism.
Location theory, a prominent framework in eco-
nomic geography, has been subject to criticism regard-
ing its limitations and assumptions. Scholars have iden-
tified various criticisms, including simplified assump-
tions, homogeneity, static nature, neglect of
externalities, and inadequate attention to institutional
factors. One primary criticism revolves around the sim-
plified assumptions employed in location models.
These models often rely on highly simplified represen-
tations of firm and consumer behavior, which may not
accurately capture the complexities of real-world deci-
sion-making processes. Another criticism is related to
the assumption of homogeneity within location models.
Many of these models assume that all actors behave in
the same way, disregarding the diverse characteristics,
preferences, and decision-making criteria that exist
among firms and individuals in reality. The lack of con-
sideration of externalities is another notable criticism.
Many location models fail to adequately incorporate
external factors, such as congestion, pollution, and en-
vironmental degradation, which can significantly influ-
ence location decisions. By ignoring these factors, lo-
cation models may lead to suboptimal or unsustainable
choices. Furthermore, critics argue that location models
often overlook the role of institutions and governance
in shaping location decisions. Factors such as political
stability, labor regulations, and cultural norms can have
a significant impact on firms’ decisions to locate in spe-
cific regions. However, these institutional factors are
often disregarded in traditional location models. Be-
sides, the “fetishization of location theory” criticism
highlights an over-reliance on location theory within
economic geography, resulting in the neglect of other
essential factors. This criticism suggests that an exces-
sive focus on spatial analysis, at the expense of consid-
ering cultural, institutional, and power relations, has
limited the understanding of economic activities in
their social and political contexts. One critique of this
fetishization is the failure to acknowledge the broader
social and political dynamics that shape location deci-
sions. Decision-making processes related to location
are influenced by a wide range of factors beyond spatial
considerations. Political stability, social dynamics, and
cultural norms significantly contribute to firms’ loca-
tion decisions, but these factors are often overlooked or
given less significance in traditional location models.
Thus, several influential theorists and their works
within location theory have faced criticism for their
simplifications and assumptions (Warf, 2006; Ess-
letzbichler, 2011). However, their contributions remain
valuable and have been adapted and extended to vari-
ous fields.
Von Thünen’s model has been criticized for as-
suming a circular and homogeneous landscape, as well
as a single central market. Despite these limitations,
von Thünen’s model provides a fundamental theoreti-
cal framework for understanding the spatial distribution
of economic activities and has found applications in ur-
ban and regional planning. Weber’s model has faced

criticism for assumptions such as homogeneous labor,
immobility, and fixed input-output ratios. Nonetheless,
Weber’s model continues to offer valuable insights into
the location decisions of manufacturing firms and has
been extended to other sectors, including service indus-
tries and international trade. Christaller’s central place
theory has been criticized for assuming a uniform pop-
ulation density and measuring all goods and services on
a single scale. However, the theory remains an im-
portant framework for understanding the spatial distri-
bution of settlements and has been adapted to areas
such as urban and regional planning. Hotelling’s model
has been criticized for assumptions such as homogene-
ous consumers and equal market power among firms.
Nevertheless, it remains a useful framework for under-
standing firms' location choices in a duopoly and has
stimulated further research in industrial organization
and microeconomics. The Gravity model has faced crit-
icism for simplifications such as linear distance decay
and assumptions of homogeneity in the population or
economy (Warf, 2006; Essletzbichler, 2011). Nonethe-
less, the Gravity model provides valuable insights into
spatial interactions and has been extensively applied in
transportation planning and international trade. While
some scholars argue that traditional models of location
theory have lost relevance in today’s global economy,
location theory has evolved to incorporate new theoret-
ical perspectives and empirical methods. Recent re-
search has focused on the role of networks, institutions,
and power relations in shaping the spatial distribution
of economic activities. Location theory remains a valu-
able tool for understanding the spatial dimensions of
economic activity, particularly in addressing pressing
global challenges such as climate change and economic
inequality. By looking at the distribution of economic
activity and its interaction with social and environmen-
tal factors, scholars and policymakers can develop
more effective strategies to address these challenges.
5. Discussion
The classical theories of location and the contribu-
tions of theorists such as the German historical school,
Alfred Weber, Walter Christaller, and August Lösch,
remain relevant and important to learn for several rea-
sons. These theories provide foundational insights into
the spatial patterns and factors that influence the loca-
tion decisions of economic activities. By understanding
these theories and the intellectual developments that
shaped the field, researchers and practitioners can gain
a deeper comprehension of location analysis and its ap-
plication in real-world contexts. Here, we discuss the
significance and relevance of each set of theories and
theorists’ contributions.
The German historical school, represented by Wil-
helm Roscher and Alfred Schäffle, played a crucial role
in shaping economic thought and the development of
location theory. Their rejection of universal theories
and emphasis on historical and geographical specifici-
ties challenged the prevailing individualistic and de-
ductive approaches of English classical political econ-
omy. The school highlighted the role of agglomeration
economies, stages of development, inertia, path de-
pendence, and the influence of culture, history, envi-
ronment, and institutions on industrial location. These
insights continue to be relevant in understanding the
complex interplay of factors that shape economic activ-
ities in specific regions. The German historical school’s
rejection of universal theories also paved the way for
the development of abstract and general models within
location theory, blending historical specificity with an-
alytical rigor.
The Methodenstreit debate between Carl Menger
and Gustav Schmoller further influenced economic
thought and its impact on location theory. Menger’s cri-
tique of the Viennese School of History and his advo-
cacy for anti-inductivism, individualism, and universal-
ity of economic principles shaped modern economists’
methodological approach. This dispute ultimately led
to the decline of the German historical school and its
context-sensitive economic theories. However, the rep-
resentatives of the German historical school later re-
vised Menger’s critique and incorporated his ideas, rec-
onciling historical specificity with analytical rigor. This
reconciliation allowed for the development of abstract
and general models within location theory, providing a
more comprehensive understanding of location dynam-
ics.
Alfred Weber made significant contributions to lo-
cation theory, particularly to understanding industrial
movements and the factors that influence them. Weber
challenged the prevailing notion that entrepreneurs are
primarily driven by profit maximization and argued
that minimizing costs plays a more important role in
their decisions. His classification of costs based on re-
gional differences offered valuable insights into the re-
location of firms. Although Weber’s later work moved
away from formal location analysis and focused more
on real-world problems, his contributions to location
theory remain significant and influential. Understand-
ing Weber’s approach deepens our understanding of the
motivations for industrial relocation and challenges
prevailing assumptions.
Walter Christaller’s work on the distribution of
cities expanded our understanding of urban landscapes.
He sought to discover general explanations and regu-
larities by isolating key relationships and developing a
theory that focused on the location of retail stores. By
adopting a systemic perspective that considered the in-
terdependencies and interactions between cities and
market areas, Christaller provided a comprehensive un-
derstanding of urban dynamics. Although his work was
initially met with skepticism, it was eventually recog-
nized and experienced a resurgence of appreciation,
particularly in the United States during the quantitative
revolution in geography. Christaller’s contributions
continue to shape our understanding of urban systems.
August Lösch expanded Walter Christaller’s the-
ory of central places by incorporating agriculture and
production into his analysis. His integration of equilib-
rium and historical analysis, in collaboration with Jo-
seph Schumpeter, provided a comprehensive under-
standing of location decisions by considering both
long-term equilibrium trends and dynamic factors. Lö-
sch’s work exemplified the tradition of German loca-
tion theorists who combined theoretical insights with
empirical research to provide valuable theoretical and
practical insights into location dynamics.

However, Lösch’s emphasis on macroeconomics
within regional science may have led to the marginali-
zation of location theory within economics, possibly re-
sulting in a loss of valuable insights into individual and
firm location decisions.
Therefore, classical location theories and the con-
tributions of theorists such as the German historical
school, Alfred Weber, Walter Christaller, and August
Lösch remain relevant and important to learn. These
theories provide fundamental insights into the spatial
patterns and factors that influence location decisions.
They contribute to our understanding of the complex
interplay of historical, geographic, economic, and cul-
tural factors that shape economic activities in particular
regions. By studying these theories and the intellectual
developments that have shaped the field, researchers
and practitioners can gain valuable insights for analyz-
ing and understanding the dynamics of location in dif-
ferent contexts.
6. Educational aspects of the subject
In the realm of economic geography, location the-
ory holds profound educational implications for re-
searchers, students, and individuals captivated by its in-
tricacies. Delving into the multifaceted dimensions of
location theory unveils a world of intellectual growth
and enlightenment. It is imperative for scholars to im-
merse themselves in the constant evolution of this dis-
cipline, diligently keeping abreast of the latest trends
and debates that shape our comprehension of the spatial
intricacies governing economic activity. By actively
engaging in these scholarly deliberations and meticu-
lously scrutinizing the prevailing currents, researchers
can garner invaluable insights that serve as guiding bea-
cons, illuminating the path towards formulating effec-
tive policies and nurturing sustainable development
strategies. Within the vast expanse of location theory,
the heated discourse surrounding spatial agglomeration
and dispersion assumes a pivotal role. This fundamen-
tal debate, encompassing the concentration or dispersal
of economic activities, represents a profound corner-
stone of the discipline. Inquisitive minds must venture
forth, meticulously weighing the merits and drawbacks
of spatial agglomeration and dispersion, while factor-
ing in critical elements such as economies of scale,
knowledge transfers, congestion, resource allocation,
and regional development. Such discernment assumes
paramount importance for policymakers and stakehold-
ers entrusted with the momentous responsibility of
sculpting urban planning, regional policy, and eco-
nomic development strategies. Spatial inequality, an
ever-present specter both within and between regions,
engenders an urgent need for profound scholarly explo-
ration.
Amidst fervent debates, scholars and policymak-
ers strive to unravel the enigmatic roots and far-reach-
ing repercussions of regional disparities. These dispar-
ities range from divergent trajectories of economic
growth to profound dissimilarities in access to re-
sources and social welfare. The ardent pursuit of under-
standing the drivers underpinning spatial inequality
serves as a lynchpin for formulating robust policies that
foster an inclusive and equitable paradigm of regional
development. In the wake of globalization's inexorable
advance, the spatial distribution of economic activities
has undergone a profound metamorphosis. Scholars
must meticulously scrutinize the intricate interplay be-
tween global forces and the intricate tapestry of local
and regional economies, employment dynamics, and
the influential role of states and institutions in shaping
location decisions. Grasping the profound impact of
globalization on economic geography affords research-
ers the ability to craft strategies that nimbly harness the
myriad opportunities emerging within an intercon-
nected world. Thus, by embracing and comprehen-
sively immersing themselves in the educational aspects
of location theory, economic geography researchers,
students, and inquisitive minds at large have the un-
precedented potential to forge a path toward the devel-
opment of policies that bear fruit, usher in sustainable
development strategies, and engender a spatial land-
scape that brims with inclusivity and equity. This pro-
found comprehension empowers decision-makers,
equipping them with the knowledge required to navi-
gate the intricate maze of our rapidly evolving world
and make enlightened choices that resonate far beyond
the confines of their immediate purview.
7. Rationale: “Dynamics of Modern Location
Theory and Economic Geography”
As the field of economic geography continues to
evolve, researchers are diving deeper into the intrica-
cies of modern location theory, illuminating current
trends and debates that shape our understanding of the
spatial dimensions of economic activity. By examining
these trends and participating in the debates, scholars
seek to unravel the complex dynamics and gain insights
that can lead to effective policies and sustainable devel-
opment strategies. One important ongoing debate re-
volves around the contrasting merits of spatial agglom-
eration and dispersion. The question of whether eco-
nomic activities should be concentrated in particular
places or more evenly dispersed is generating intense
debate among scholars and policymakers. Proponents
of agglomeration argue that it promotes economies of
scale, facilitates knowledge transfers, and drives inno-
vation. On the other hand, proponents of dispersal em-
phasize its potential to reduce congestion, better allo-
cate resources, and promote regional development.
This debate permeates areas such as urban planning, re-
gional policy, and economic development strategies as
stakeholders wrestle with the best approaches to opti-
mize spatial configurations. Spatial inequality is an-
other important issue in economic geography, both
within and between regions. Scholars and policymakers
are engaged in intense debate about the causes and con-
sequences of regional inequalities, ranging from une-
ven economic growth and infrastructure deficiencies to
differences in access to resources and social welfare.
Understanding the underlying drivers of spatial ine-
quality is critical to formulating effective policies that
can address these inequalities and promote more inclu-
sive and equitable regional development. Technologi-
cal advances, particularly in information and commu-
nication technologies, have revolutionized economic
activity and the spatial organization of industries. The
rise of telecommuting, e-commerce, and digital plat-

forms has created new dynamics that challenge tradi-
tional notions of location factors. Researchers are ac-
tively studying the impact of these technological
changes on the geography of economic activity, em-
ployment patterns, and urban development. By under-
standing the interplay between technology and loca-
tion, scholars can provide valuable insights into the fu-
ture design of economic landscapes.
The imperative of environmental sustainability
has sparked discussions about how location decisions
can contribute to or mitigate climate change, resource
depletion, and environmental degradation. Scholars in
the field of economic geography are exploring the com-
plex relationships between siting decisions and sustain-
ability factors, including transportation emissions, land
use patterns, and renewable energy infrastructure. The
integration of sustainability considerations into loca-
tion theory and decision-making processes has become
an important trend, reflecting a growing awareness of
the need to balance economic activities with environ-
mental protection. Globalization has undeniably
changed the spatial distribution of economic activities.
The opening of markets, international trade, and for-
eign direct investment have led to global production
networks, global cities, and specialized economic
zones. Scholars examine the impact of these global
forces on local and regional economies, employment
dynamics, and the role of states and institutions in shap-
ing location decisions. By analyzing the complicated
interplay between globalization and spatial reorganiza-
tion, researchers aim to understand the implications for
economic geography and develop strategies to take ad-
vantage of opportunities in a more interconnected
world. Power dynamics play a critical role in shaping
location decisions and spatial inequalities in economic
geography. The influence of political, social, and eco-
nomic power on resource allocation, the distribution of
economic benefits, and location decisions is an area of
growing interest for researchers. By unraveling the
complex interplay between power dynamics and loca-
tion decisions, scholars aim to shed light on the mech-
anisms that perpetuate spatial inequalities and identify
pathways to more equitable and socially just spatial
configurations. All in all, current trends and debates
within modern location theory provide fertile ground to
enhance our understanding of the complex dynamics of
economic geography. By thoroughly examining these
trends and engaging in the debates, scholars can con-
tribute to the development of effective policies, sustain-
able development strategies, and a more inclusive and
equitable spatial landscape. By embracing the evolving
nature of economic geography, we can gain new in-
sights and find a path to more informed and impactful
decisions in our rapidly changing world.
Notes
It is important to note that the funding sources for
the work, if any, should be disclosed according to the
specific guidelines of the journal or publication.
The absence of ghostwriting ensures that the au-
thor has not used the work of others without proper at-
tribution or credit.
The absence of guest authorship means that all in-
dividuals who have contributed to the work are appro-
priately acknowledged as authors.
The absence of conflicts of interest indicates that
the author has disclosed any financial or personal rela-
tionships that could potentially bias the research or its
findings.
The author’s familiarity with the journal’s review-
ing procedures demonstrates their understanding and
compliance with the established standards for manu-
script evaluation.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to sincerely thank the jour-
nal editors and reviewers for their valuable time, exper-
tise, and constructive feedback during the review pro-
cess. Their insightful comments and suggestions have
significantly contributed to improving the quality and
rigor of this work.
References
1. Anderson, J. E. (2011). The Gravity Model,
Annu. Rev. Econ., 3(1), pp.133-160.
2. Blaug, M. (1979). Economics of education in
developing countries: Current trends and new priori-
ties, Third World Quarterly, 1(1), pp.73-83.
3. Bostaph, S. (1978). The methodological de-
bate between Carl Menger and the German historicists.
Atlantic Economic Journal, 6(3), pp.3-16.
4. Essletzbichler, J. (2011). Locating location
models. The SAGE Handbook of economic geography,
pp.23-38.
5. Gabszewicz, J. J., & Thisse, J. F. (1992). Lo-
cation. Handbook of game theory with economic appli-
cations, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1, pp.281-304.
6. Gaspar, J. M. (2020). Paul Krugman: Contri-
butions to geography and trade. Letters in Spatial and
Resource Sciences, 13(1), pp.99-115.
7. Glaeser, E. (2013). A Review of Enrico
Moretti’s The New Geography of Jobs. Journal of
Economic Literature, 51(3), pp.825-837.
8. Juraev, Z., (2023). Essay: Locating Location
Models - Insights from Jürgen Essletzbichler, Re-
searchgate.net, e-article at
http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22353.71526
9. Juraev, Z., (2023). Student Review: Location
Theory, explained by Barney Warf, Researchgate.net,
e-article at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21416.55048
10. Klooster, J. V. T. (2017). Methodenstreit. The
Wiley‐Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Theory, pp.1-
2.
11. Krugman, P. (1999). The role of geography in
development. International regional science review,
22(2), pp.142-161.
12. Moses, L. N. (1958). Location and the theory
of production. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,
72(2), pp.259-272.
13. O’Kelly, M., & Bryan, D. (1996). Agricultural
location theory: von Thunen’s contribution to eco-
nomic geography. Progress in Human Geography,
20(4), pp. 457-475.

14. Pearson, H. (1999). Was there really a German
historical school of economics?, History of Political
Economy, 31(3), pp.547-562.
15. Ponsard, C., (1983). Wages, interest, profits in
French industry, (in French: Salaires, intérêts, profits
dans l'industrie française), JSTOR, pp.919-921.
16. Schinzinger, F. (1987). German historical
school. The new Palgrave: a dictionary of economics,
2, pp.516-518.
17. Warf, B. (2006). Encyclopedia of human ge-
ography, Letter ‘L’, In: Encyclopedia of Human Geog-
raphy by Warf, B., (Ed.), Sage, e-version at
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412952422

HISTORICAL SCIENCES
ЖАНР ПОДОРОЖНИХ ЗАПИСОК НА СТОРІНКАХ «ЛІТЕРАТУРНО-НАУКОВОГО
ВІСТНИКА» В УМОВАХ НАЦІОНАЛЬНО ВІДРОДЖЕННЯ УКРАЇНИ КІНЦЯ ХІХ – ПОЧАТКУ
ХХ СТ.
Любовець Н.
кандидат історичних наук, завідувач відділу теорії та методики біобібліографії
Інституту біографічних досліджень
Національної бібліотеки України імені В.І. Вернадського,
Київ, Україна
THE GENRE OF TRAVEL NOTES ON THE PAGES OF THE "LITERATURE AND SCIENTIFIC
NEWSLETTER" IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE NATIONAL RENAISSANCE OF UKRAINE AT
THE END OF THE 19-TH - BEGINNING OF THE 20-TH CENTURIES
Lyubovets N.
Candidate of Sc. (History), Head of the Department of Theory and Methods of Biobibliography
Institute of Biographical Research
V. I. Vernadskyi National Library of Ukraine
Kyiv, Ukraine
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8129151
АНОТАЦІЯ
Мемуари є важливою частиною національної культурної спадщини, багатовимірним культурно-істо-
ричним феноменом, історико-біографічним джерелом. Різні жанри мемуарних наративів привертають
увагу наукової спільноти та суспільства завдяки своїм особливим функціям і значенню, які вони відіграють
у суспільстві. Зокрема, виступають інструментом передачі історичної памяті та ефективним комунікатив-
ним ресурсом, сприяючи зміцненню суспільних зв'язків, формуванню загальнозначущих національних
цінностей та об'єднанню людей для спільних дій.
Подорожні записки як окремий мемуарний жанр, з яскравою особистісною складовою, у вітчизняній
мемуарній традиції розпочали свій розвиток у часи середньовіччя та раннього модерну та були представ-
лені найбільш яскраво двома відомими подорожніми творами — «Житієм і ходінням» Данила Паломника
та «Мандрівними записками» Василя Григоровича-Барського. Свого розвитку жанр набув у ХІХ ст. в Га-
личині на тлі революційних подій в Австро-Угорщині 1848 р.
Відсутність прямих утисків і заборон щодо українського руху, а також свобода громадських органі-
зацій та друку сприяли перенесенню головного осередку української наукової, освітянської та культурної
роботи, а також видавничої справи на територію Галичини протягом останніх десятиліть ХІХ ст.
Започаткування всеукраїнського часопису літератури, науки та громадського життя «Літературно-на-
укового вістника» створило сприятливі умови для публікації текстів українських мемуарів усіх жанрів. До
жанру подорожній записок відносяться записки Михайла Грушевського «По світу: з подорожних
вражінь», Костя Широцького «На руїнах Бакоти: з подорожніх вражінь» та Романа Заклинського «За
слідами Федьковича: записки з прогульки по Буковині». Всі автори мали свою мету, що і визначило часо-
просторові (хронотоп) та тематичні виміри тексту.
ABSTRACT
Memoirs are an important part of the national cultural heritage, a multidimensional cultural-historical phe-
nomenon, a historical-biographical source. Different genres of memoir narratives attract the attention of the scien-
tific community and society due to their special functions and the importance they play in society. In particular,
they act as an instrument for the transfer of historical memory and an effective communicative resource, contrib-
uting to the strengthening of public relations, the formation of common national values, and the unification of
people for joint actions.
Travel notes as a separate memoir genre, with a bright personal component, in the domestic memoir tradition
began its development in the Middle Ages and early modern period and were represented most prominently by
two well-known notes of travelers - "Life and Travels" by Danyil Palomnik and "Travels" by Vasyl Hryhorovych-
Barskyi. The genre developed in the 19th century in Galicia against the backdrop of revolutionary events in Aus-
tria-Hungary in 1848.
The absence of direct oppression and restrictions on the Ukrainian movement, as well as the freedom of public
organizations and the press, contributed to the transfer of the main center of Ukrainian scientific, educational and
cultural work, as well as publishing to the territory of Galicia during the last decades of the 19-th century.
The сreationof the all-Ukrainian journal of literature, science and public life "Literary and Scientific Bulletin"
created favorable conditions for the publication of texts of Ukrainian memoirs of all genres. The genre of travel
notes includes the notes of Mikhail Hrushevsky "Around the world: from road trips", Kostya Shirotskyi "On the

Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023)

Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023)

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023)

Similar to Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023) (20)

More from Sciences of Europe

More from Sciences of Europe (20)

Sciences of Europe No 120 (2023)