sana Chemical technology report for NPTEL Course

CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY
Submitted By Submitted To
SANA PARVEEN MOINA MAM
21PKPM102 (Assistant Professor)
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM
STUDIES
ZAKIR HUSAIN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,
ALIGARH
(2022-2023)

Contents
CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................4
PRODUCTION OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS.................................................4
2.1. SULFURIC ACID ....................................................................................4
4. Dilution: -.....................................................................................................................4
2.3 COAL GASIFICATION: -..........................................................................7
2.4 AMMONIA SYNTHESIS ...........................................................................9
2.5 UREA PRODUCTION.............................................................................10
2.6 NITRIC ACID........................................................................................12
2.7 STYRENE PRODUCTION PROCESS: -.....................................................14
2.8 Terephthalic Acid....................................................................................16
CHAPTER 3...............................................................................................18
INDUSTRIAL CATALYSTS .........................................................................18
3.1 PRODUCTION OF ISO-BUTANE. ............................................................19
CHAPTER 4...............................................................................................21
SUSTAINABLE BIO-REFINERY...................................................................21
4.1 BIO-BASED FUELS................................................................................21
4.2 TYPES OF BIO-BASED FUELS: -.............................................................21
4.3 BIO-BASED CHEMICALS.......................................................................22
CHAPTER 5...............................................................................................25
PRODUCTION OF BULK CHEMICALS ........................................................25
5.1 METHANOL TO GASOLINE...................................................................27
FUEL ADDITIVES ......................................................................................28

CHAPTER 6...............................................................................................30
CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................30

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The inorganic chemical industry plays a pivotal role in the modern world, providing the essential
building blocks for a wide array of products and processes. This report delves into the intricate
realm of inorganic chemical production, focusing on key compounds such as sulfuric acid,
synthesis gas, ammonia, styrene, dimethyl terephthalate (DMT), terephthalic acid (TPA), and
methanol carbonylation. Each of these chemicals holds a unique place in the industrial landscape,
serving as raw materials or intermediates in various sectors, from plastics manufacturing to
energy production.
Understanding the inorganic chemical industries goes beyond mere chemical synthesis; it
involves a comprehensive grasp of the chemical reactions driving production, the catalysts
steering these reactions, and the delicate balance of thermodynamic properties that dictate the
feasibility of these processes.
In this report, we will explore the intricate world of these essential chemicals. For each chemical,
we will elucidate its production methods, the chemical reactions underpinning its synthesis, the
catalysts orchestrating these reactions, and the thermodynamic properties that govern the
equilibrium states within these processes. These facets are crucial for the efficient and sustainable
operation of inorganic chemical industries and have profound implications for environmental
considerations and economic viability.
This report aims to provide insights into the intricate workings of the inorganic chemical
industries through a detailed analysis of the production processes, chemical reactions, catalysts,
and thermodynamic properties of these key chemicals. It underscores the significance of
optimizing these processes to minimize environmental impact and
maximize economic benefits, reflecting the ever-evolving landscape of industrial chemistry in the
21st century.

CHAPTER 2
PRODUCTION OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS
2.1. SULFURIC ACID
PRODUCTION METHOD:
Sulfuric acid, often referred to as the "king of chemicals," is a fundamental compound in the
chemical industry. Its production primarily relies on the Contact Process, a multistep industrial
process. Here are the key steps involved:
1 Sulphur Combustion: - Elemental sulfur (S8) is burned in the air to produce sulfur dioxide
(SO2).
Reaction: S8 + 8O₂ ⟶ 8SO₂.
2. Sulphur Dioxide Conversion: -The produced SO2 is then catalytically converted into sulphur
trioxide (SO3) through a series of reactions.
Reaction: 2SO₂ + O₂ ⟶ 2SO₃
3. Absorption in Water: -The resulting SO3 is absorbed into concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
to form oleum (H₂S₂O₇), also known as fuming sulfuric acid.
Reaction: SO₃ + H2SO₄ ⟶ H₂S₂O₇
4. Dilution: - Oleum is subsequently diluted with water to produce the final sulfuric acid
solution.
Reaction: H₂S₂O₇ + H₂O ⟶ 2H₂SO₄.
Sulfuric acid is known for its strong acidic properties. It can readily dissociate in water to
produce hydronium ions (H3O+), leading to highly acidic solutions:
Reaction: H₂SO₄ + H₂O ⟶ H₃O+ + HSO₄
Furthermore, sulfuric acid is involved in various chemical reactions, including dehydration
reactions where it removes water molecules from organic compounds:

1. Dehydration of Alcohols:
Reaction: H₂SO₄ + ROH ⟶ H₂O + RSO₄H.
2. Dehydration of Sugar (Sucrose): -
Reaction: H₂SO₄ + C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ ⟶ 12C + 11H₂O + H₂SO₄.
Thermodynamics: -
The production and use of sulfuric acid are closely tied to its thermodynamic properties. Here
are some key aspects:
1. Exothermic Reactions: The combustion of sulphur to form SO₂ and the conversion of
SO₂ to SO₃ are highly exothermic, releasing significant amounts of heat. This heat is often
harnessed for process efficiency.
2. Equilibrium Reactions: - The reactions involved in sulfuric acid production are
equilibrium reactions. The equilibrium constants for these reactions are temperature-
dependent. Higher temperatures Favor the forward reactions, increasing the yield of sulfuric
acid.
3. Dilution Effect: - Sulfuric acid is often shipped and used as a concentrated solution.
Dilution of concentrated sulfuric acid with water is highly exothermic, and appropriate safety
measures must be taken to control the temperature rise during this process.
4. Azeotrope Formation: - At certain concentrations and temperatures, sulfuric acid forms
azeotropic mixtures with water, which have distinct boiling points. These azeotropes can
impact the separation processes in sulfuric acid production and purification.
Production Method: -
Synthesis gas, often referred to as syngas, is a crucial intermediate in the production of a wide
range of chemicals and fuels. It is primarily produced through two common methods: steam
methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification.
1. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): -

In SMR, methane (CH4), typically obtained from natural gas, is reacted with steam (H2O)
over a catalyst to produce syngas.
Reaction: CH₄ + H₂O ⟶ CO + 3H₂.
2. Coal Gasification: -
In coal gasification, solid coal is converted into syngas by reacting it with oxygen (O2) and
steam in a high-temperature environment.
Reaction: C + H₂O + 0.5O₂ ⟶ CO + H₂.
Reactions: -
The primary reaction involved in syngas production is the reforming or gasification reaction,
as described above. However, syngas itself can participate in various other reactions, making
it a versatile starting material for chemical synthesis. Some notable reactions involving
syngas include:
1. Methanol Synthesis: -
Reaction: CO + 2H₂ ⟶ CH₃OH
2. Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (for hydrocarbons): -
Reaction: CO + 2H₂ ⟶ (-CH₂-) n + H₂O.
3. Ammonia Synthesis: -
Reaction: N₂ + 3H₂ ⟶ 2NH₃.
Thermodynamics: -
The production and utilization of syngas are governed by several important thermodynamic
considerations:
1. Endothermic Reactions:- Both steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification
reactions are endothermic, meaning they require the input of energy in the form of heat to
proceed. This energy is typically supplied through high-temperature conditions.

2. Equilibrium Constants: - The reactions involving syngas are reversible, and their
equilibrium constants are temperature-dependent. Higher temperatures Favor the forward
reactions, leading to higher yields of syngas.
3. Gasification Temperatures: - In coal gasification, extremely high temperatures are
required to break down the complex structure of coal into simpler compounds. The
thermodynamic feasibility of these reactions depends on achieving and maintaining these
elevated temperatures.
4. Shift Reaction: - In syngas production, the equilibrium between carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydrogen (H₂) is critical. The water-gas shift reaction can be used to adjust the CO/H₂
ratio.
Reaction: CO + H₂O ⇌ CO₂ + H₂.
Figure 1 Sulfuric acid production flow diagram
2.3 COAL GASIFICATION: -
Coal gasification is a process that converts coal, a carbon-rich solid fuel, into a gaseous fuel
known as syngas (synthesis gas). This syngas can be used as a versatile feedstock for various
chemical processes and as a cleaner-burning fuel. The gasification of coal involves a series of
chemical reactions that occur under high-temperature and controlled conditions. Here are the
key reactions involved in coal gasification: -
1. Pyrolysis (Drying and Devolatilization: -

At the initial stage of coal gasification, coal is heated in an oxygen-deficient environment
(limited oxygen supply). This results in the release of volatile components and the removal of
moisture.
Drying: C + H2O ⟶ CO + H2
Devolatilization: Organic matter in coal ⟶ Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
2. Combustion (Partial Oxidation): -
In this stage, some of the released volatiles are combusted with a limited supply of oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O)
C + 0.5O₂ ⟶ CO
H₂ + 0.5O₂ ⟶ H₂O
3. Gasification (Main Reactions): -
The remaining solid residue from pyrolysis and combustion (char) is subjected to further
gasification using steam (H2O) and sometimes carbon dioxide (CO2) as reactants. This step is
where the majority of syngas is produced.
 The main gasification reactions for coal are typically as follows:
 Reaction with Steam (Water Gas Reaction): C + H₂O ⟶ CO + H₂
 Shift Reaction: CO + H₂O ⇌ CO₂ + H₂
 Carbon Gasification with Carbon Dioxide: C + CO₂ ⟶ 2CO
The composition of the resulting syngas can be adjusted by controlling the operating
conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and the ratio of steam to coal. Typically, syngas
consists of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H₂), carbon dioxide (CO2), and small amounts
of methane (CH₄), nitrogen (N₂), and other impurities.
Coal gasification is an important process because it allows for the utilization of coal with
reduced emissions compared to traditional coal combustion. The resulting syngas can be used
as a feedstock for various chemical processes, including the production of fuels, chemicals,
and electricity generation with lower environmental impact.

2.4 AMMONIA SYNTHESIS
Ammonia synthesis is a crucial chemical process that involves the production of ammonia
(NH₃) from its elements, nitrogen (N₂) and hydrogen (H₂). This process is of great industrial
significance, as ammonia serves as a fundamental building block for the production of
fertilizers, chemicals, and various other products. The ammonia synthesis reaction is carried
out under specific conditions to optimize yield and efficiency.
The ammonia synthesis reaction is typically represented as follows:
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
In this reaction, nitrogen gas (N2) and hydrogen gas (H2) are combined to form ammonia
(NH3). The reaction is reversible, meaning ammonia can decompose back into nitrogen and
hydrogen under certain conditions.
Thermodynamics: -
The thermodynamics of ammonia synthesis play a critical role in determining the feasibility
and efficiency of the process. Here are the key thermodynamic considerations:
1. Exothermic Reaction: - The synthesis of ammonia is exothermic, meaning it releases
heat. This heat is liberated during the formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen. The
heat of reaction is approximately -45.9 kJ/mol of ammonia produced.
2. Le Chatelier's Principle: - According to Le Chatelier's principle, for an exothermic
reaction like ammonia synthesis, increasing the temperature will shift the equilibrium towards
the reactants (N2 and H2), reducing the ammonia yield. Conversely, lowering the temperature
Favors the formation of ammonia.
3. Pressure: -Increasing the pressure of the reaction also shifts the equilibrium towards the
formation of ammonia. This is in accordance with the principle that raising the pressure of a
gas-phase reaction will Favor the side with fewer gas molecules.
4. Equilibrium Constant (Kp): - The equilibrium constant (Kp) for the ammonia synthesis
reaction is a measure of the extent to which the reaction proceeds at a given temperature and
pressure. A higher Kp indicates a greater yield of ammonia at equilibrium.

The expression for Kp for the ammonia synthesis reaction is: Kp = (NH₃)/ (N₂* H₂³)
A large value of Kp indicates a favourable equilibrium position for ammonia production.
5. Temperature-Pressure Optimization: - Achieving the best conditions for ammonia
synthesis involves a trade-off between temperature and pressure. Lower temperatures Favor
ammonia formation, but higher pressures do as well. Therefore, modern ammonia synthesis
plants operate at moderate temperatures (around 400-500°C) and high pressures (100-250
atm) to maximize yield.
6. Catalyst: - The ammonia synthesis reaction is typically catalysed by iron-based catalysts,
often with the addition of promoters like potassium. These catalysts facilitate the reaction
kinetics, allowing the process to reach equilibrium more quickly.
Figure 2 NH3 production flow diagram
2.5 UREA PRODUCTION
The production of urea, a vital nitrogenous fertilizer and chemical compound, involves a two-
step process: synthesis of ammonia (NH3) and subsequent reaction of ammonia with carbon
dioxide (CO2). Here's an overview of the production process: -
Step 1: Ammonia Synthesis: -
1. Hydrogen Production: - The production process often begins with the generation of
hydrogen (H₂). Hydrogen can be produced through various methods, such as steam methane
reforming (SMR) or electrolysis of water.

2. Nitrogen Separation Air is liquefied, and nitrogen (N₂) is separated from other
components of air using a process called air separation. Nitrogen is then stored for further
use.
3. Ammonia Synthesis Ammonia is synthesized through the Haber-Bosch process, which
combines hydrogen and nitrogen in the presence of an iron-based catalyst at high temperature
and pressure.
Reaction: N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
4. Purification and Recovery The resulting ammonia gas often contains impurities. It
undergoes a series of purification steps to remove these impurities, leaving behind high-purity
ammonia.
Step 2: Urea Synthesis
5. Carbon Dioxide Generation Urea production requires carbon dioxide (CO2). In some
cases, CO2 is obtained as a byproduct from various industrial processes. Alternatively, it can
be produced through combustion or recovered from flue gases.
6. Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide Reaction The ammonia gas produced in the first step is
reacted with carbon dioxide to produce ammonium carbonate, which is an intermediate in
urea production.
Reaction: 2NH₃ + CO₂ + H₂O ⟶ (NH₄)2CO₃.
7. Urea Formation The ammonium carbonate produced is then heated to break down into
ammonia and carbon dioxide, which can be recycled. The remaining ammonia is then reacted
with carbon dioxide in a high-pressure reactor to produce urea.
Reaction: 2NH₃ + CO₂ ⟶ NH₂CONH₂ + H₂O
8. Urea Concentration and Granulation: - The liquid urea solution is concentrated to
increase its urea content. It's then cooled and granulated to produce urea granules or prills,
which are the final products suitable for storage and distribution.
9. Prilling or Granulation: - The concentrated urea solution is prilled or granulated into
solid urea particles of a desired size and shape. This process involves spraying the

concentrated solution onto a solid seed material, which allows the urea to solidify into pellets
or granules.
10. Packaging and Distribution: - The final urea product is packaged into bags or stored in
bulk for distribution to agricultural and industrial customers.
Figure 3 Urea production flow diagram.
2.6 NITRIC ACID
Nitric acid (HNO₃) is a highly corrosive and strong acid with numerous industrial
applications, including the production of fertilizers, explosives, and various chemicals. The
production of nitric acid involves a multi-step process, primarily consisting of ammonia
oxidation, followed by the absorption of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in water. Here are the key
reactions and thermodynamics involved:
Step 1: Ammonia Oxidation: -
1. Ammonia Oxidation: - In the first step, ammonia (NH₃) is oxidized to form nitrogen
monoxide (NO) or nitric oxide.
Reaction: 4NH₃ + 5O₂ ⟶ 4NO + 6H₂O.
2. Formation of Nitrogen Dioxide: - Nitrogen monoxide (NO) reacts further with oxygen
(O₂) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
Reaction: 2NO + O₂ ⟶ 2NO₂.

Step 2: Absorption of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂): -
3. Absorption in Water: - Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is absorbed into water to form nitric acid
(HNO3) and nitrogen oxide (NO):
Reaction: 3NO₂ + H₂O ⟶ 2HNO₃ + NO.
Thermodynamics: -
The production of nitric acid involves several important thermodynamic considerations:
1. Exothermic Reactions: - Both the ammonia oxidation and nitrogen dioxide absorption
reactions are highly exothermic, meaning they release a significant amount of heat. This heat is
often harnessed for process efficiency.
2. Equilibrium Reactions: - The reactions involved in nitric acid production are equilibrium
reactions, and the thermodynamic equilibrium constants are temperature-dependent. Higher
temperatures tend to Favor the formation of products (HNO₃ in this case).
3. Pressure: - The pressure affects the equilibrium position of the reactions, but unlike some
other processes, the pressure is not typically used as a major factor in controlling the
equilibrium in nitric acid production.
4. Concentration Effects: - The concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the absorber
solution significantly influences the concentration of nitric acid produced. Concentrated
solutions of nitric acid can be obtained by carefully controlling the conditions and concentration
of NO₂.
5. Heat Management: - Due to the exothermic nature of these reactions, heat management is
crucial to prevent overheating and control the reaction rates. Cooling systems and temperature
control are employed to ensure the reactions proceed efficiently.

Figure 4 Nitric acid production flow diagram
2.7 STYRENE PRODUCTION PROCESS: -
Styrene is an important industrial chemical used in the production of various plastics, resins,
and synthetic rubber. Its production typically involves the dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene.
Here's an overview of the process:
1. Feedstock Preparation: - The primary feedstock for styrene production is ethylbenzene
(C8H10), which is typically obtained from the petrochemical industry through the alkylation of
benzene with ethylene. Ethylbenzene is often stored and transported as a liquid.
2. Dehydrogenation: - The key step in styrene production is the dehydrogenation of
ethylbenzene, which involves the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the ethylbenzene
molecule to form styrene.
Reaction: C8H10 ⟶ C6H5CH=CH2 + 2H2
In this reaction, ethylbenzene is heated to high temperatures (usually around 500-600°C) in
the presence of a suitable catalyst.
3. Catalyst: - The dehydrogenation reaction is catalysed by a solid catalyst, which is typically
a mixture of iron oxide (Fe2O3) and potassium oxide (K2O) supported on an inert material.
This catalyst facilitates the dehydrogenation reaction and helps increase the yield of styrene.

4. Heat Management: - The dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene is an endothermic reaction,
meaning it absorbs heat. Therefore, heat is supplied to the reaction to maintain the required
temperature. This heat can come from various sources, such as electrical heating elements or
combustion of a fuel.
5. Product Separation: - After the dehydrogenation reaction, the product stream contains not
only styrene but also hydrogen gas and some impurities. The product stream is typically
cooled, and styrene is separated from hydrogen and impurities by various separation
processes, such as distillation or fractionation.
6. Purification: - The separated styrene may undergo further purification steps to remove any
remaining impurities. This can include processes such as solvent extraction or further
distillation.
7. Product Storage and Distribution: -The purified styrene is then typically stored and
transported in tanks or containers for various industrial applications. It's important to note that
styrene production is a highly controlled process with a focus on safety and environmental
regulations. The high temperatures and potential presence of flammable gases require careful
handling and safety measures. Additionally, efforts are made to optimize the process to
minimize environmental impact and energy consumption. Styrene is a valuable intermediate
chemical used in the production of polystyrene, synthetic rubber, and other polymer
materials, making it a critical component of the petrochemical industry.
Figure 5 styrene production flow diagram.

2.8 Terephthalic Acid
Terephthalic acid (TPA) is a key chemical used in the production of polyester fibres, films, and
resins, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The primary method for TPA production is
the oxidation of p-xylene, a petrochemical feedstock. Here's an overview of the TPA
production process:
Terephthalic Acid (TPA) Production Process: -
1. Feedstock Preparation: - The primary feedstock for TPA production is p-xylene
(paraxylene), which is typically derived from crude oil or natural gas. P-xylene is a key starting
material for TPA because it contains the necessary carbon atoms arranged in a specific
configuration.
2. P-xylene Oxidation: - The key step in TPA production is the oxidation of p-xylene to form
terephthalic acid. This oxidation process is typically carried out using air or oxygen as the
oxidizing agent in the presence of a catalyst. The reaction can be described as follows:
Reaction: p-xylene + O2 ⟶ Terephthalic Acid (TPA)
Catalysts, such as heavy metal catalysts (often cobalt or manganese), are employed to
facilitate this oxidation reaction.
3. Liquid-Phase Oxidation: - The oxidation of p-xylene is typically conducted in the liquid
phase, with p-xylene and a solvent in a reactor. The solvent helps dissolve the reactants and
products and aids in temperature control.
4. Temperature and Pressure Control: - The oxidation reaction is carried out at elevated
temperatures and pressures, typically in the range of 150-200°C and 10-30 atmospheres. These
conditions promote the oxidation of p-xylene to TPA.
5. Separation and Purification: - After the oxidation reaction, the reaction mixture contains
TPA along with unreacted p-xylene, byproducts, and impurities. The mixture undergoes a
series of separation and purification steps, which may include distillation, crystallization, and
filtration, to isolate and purify the TPA.

6. Crystallization: - One of the key purification steps involves crystallizing TPA from the
reaction mixture. By controlling the cooling rate and other parameters, high-purity TPA
crystals can be obtained.
7. Drying: - The TPA crystals are typically dried to remove any remaining solvent or water,
resulting in a dry, powdered form of TPA.
8. Packaging and Distribution: - The final TPA product is often packaged into bags or
containers for distribution to customers in the plastics, textiles, and other industries.
It's important to note that the production of TPA is a carefully controlled process with a focus
on safety, efficiency, and environmental considerations. Efforts are made to optimize the
process to minimize waste and energy consumption while maximizing the yield and purity of
TPA, which is a critical component in the production of various polyester-based materials.
Figure 6 Terephthalic Acid production flow diagram

CHAPTER 3
INDUSTRIAL CATAYSTS
Introduction to Heterogeneous Catalysis: -
Heterogeneous catalysis is a fundamental branch of catalysis in which the catalyst exists in a
different phase from the reactants. Most commonly, it involves a solid catalyst interacting with
gaseous or liquid reactants. This process plays a pivotal role in numerous industrial
applications, including chemical production, environmental remediation, and energy
conversion.
Key Concepts in Heterogeneous Catalysis: -
1. Surface Chemistry: - Heterogeneous catalysis hinges on the catalytic activity of the solid
catalyst's surface. The catalyst's surface is where reactant molecules adsorb, react, and
subsequently desorb as products. Therefore, understanding the surface chemistry and structure
is crucial in designing effective catalysts.
2. Active Sites: - On the catalyst surface, specific sites known as active sites are responsible
for facilitating chemical reactions. These active sites often have unique chemical properties
compared to the bulk material. For instance, metal catalysts might have exposed metal atoms as
active sites.
3. Adsorption and Desorption: - Reactant molecules adsorb onto the active sites, where
chemical reactions occur. The strength of adsorption and the ease of desorption influence the
catalytic activity and selectivity of the catalyst.
4. Reaction Mechanisms: - Detailed knowledge of the reaction mechanisms on the catalyst
surface is essential for optimizing catalyst design and performance. This includes
understanding elementary steps such as adsorption, dissociation, surface reactions, and
desorption.
Applications of Heterogeneous Catalysis: -

1. Chemical Synthesis: - Heterogeneous catalysis is widely employed in the production of
chemicals and fuels. For example, the synthesis of ammonia (NH3), methanol (CH3OH), and
various hydrocarbons from syngas (a mixture of CO and H2) relies on heterogeneous catalysts.
2. Environmental Cleanup: - Catalysts are used to reduce harmful emissions in
environmental applications, such as the catalytic converters in automobiles that convert toxic
gases like carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and unburned hydrocarbons into less
harmful substances.
3. Petrochemical Industry: - Catalysis plays a critical role in refining crude oil into valuable
products like gasoline, diesel, and petrochemical feedstocks. Solid acid catalysts are commonly
used in various refining processes.
4. Energy Conversion: - Heterogeneous catalysis is vital in the production of hydrogen (H2)
for fuel cells and the conversion of biomass into biofuels.
3.1 PRODUCTION OF ISO-BUTANE.
Catalysis with Zeolites in the Production of Isobutene: -
Zeolites are crystalline, porous aluminosilicate minerals with a well-defined and regular pore
structure. They are widely used as solid catalysts in various chemical processes due to their
unique properties. One of the important applications of zeolite-based catalysis is in the
production of isobutene (2-methylpropene). Isobutene is a valuable chemical intermediate used
in the production of various products, including synthetic rubber and plastics.
The production of isobutene from feedstocks such as iso-butanol or methanol can be achieved
using zeolite catalysts. Here's a simplified overview of the process: -
1. Dehydration Reaction: - Isobutene is often produced through the catalytic dehydration of
iso-butanol. Iso-butanol (CH₃CHOHCH₂CH₃) contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group that needs to be
removed to form isobutene.
CH₃CHOHCH₂CH₃ ⟶ CH₂=C(CH₃) ₂ + H₂O.
2. Zeolite Catalyst: - Zeolites are well-suited for this reaction because of their high surface
area and well-defined pore structure. Specific zeolites, such as H-ZSM-5 or SAPO-34, are
often used as catalysts.

3. Adsorption and Activation: - Iso-butanol is adsorbed onto the surface of the zeolite
catalyst. The acidic protons (H+) on the zeolite surface serve as active sites, facilitating the
elimination of water from iso-butanol.
4. Desorption of Isobutene: - After the elimination of water, isobutene desorbs from the
catalyst surface, leaving the catalyst active for further reactions.
5. Product Separation: - The resulting isobutene is then separated from the reaction mixture,
typically through distillation or other separation techniques.
Advantages of Zeolite Catalysis: -
1. High Selectivity: - Zeolites are known for their shape-selective properties, which means
they can discriminate between different molecules based on their size and shape. This property
allows for high selectivity in the production of isobutene.
2. Acidity: - The acidic sites on the zeolite surface are crucial for catalysing the elimination of
water from iso-butanol, making zeolites effective catalysts for this reaction.
3. Stability: - Zeolites are stable at high temperatures and in various reaction conditions,
making them suitable for industrial processes.
4. Catalyst Recycling: - Zeolite catalysts can often be regenerated and reused, reducing the
overall cost of the process.
Challenges: -
1. Coking: - Catalyst deactivation due to the formation of carbonaceous deposits (coke) on the
catalyst surface can be a challenge. Regeneration techniques are employed to address this issue.
2. Feedstock Purity: - The purity of the feedstock (iso-butanol or methanol) can impact the
efficiency and lifetime of the zeolite catalyst.
Overall, zeolites play a vital role in the production of isobutene, offering advantages in terms
of selectivity and stability, making them valuable catalysts in the petrochemical and chemical
industries.

CHAPTER 4
SUSTAINABLE BIO-REFINARY
4.1 BIO BASED FUELS
Bio-Based Fuels: Harnessing Nature's Energy
Bio-based fuels are a category of renewable energy sources derived from biological materials.
These fuels are produced from organic matter such as plants, algae, and waste organic
materials, making them a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Here's a short note on bio-based
fuels.
4.2 TYPES OF BIO-BASED FUELS: -
1. Bioethanol: - Bioethanol is produced by fermenting and distilling sugars, starches, or
cellulose from crops like corn, sugarcane, or switchgrass. It is commonly used as an additive in
gasoline (E10) or as a pure ethanol fuel (E85) in flexible-fuel vehicles.
2. Biodiesel: - Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils (like soybean, canola, or palm oil) or
animal fats through a process called transesterification. It can be blended with or substituted for
diesel fuel in diesel engines.
3. Biogas: - Biogas is generated from the anaerobic digestion of organic matter, such as
agricultural residues, food waste, or sewage. It primarily contains methane (CH4) and can be
used as a clean-burning fuel for electricity generation or as a vehicle fuel.
4. Biohydrogen: - Biohydrogen is produced through the fermentation of organic materials by
certain microorganisms. It has the potential to be a clean fuel for fuel cell-powered vehicles.
5. Bio-jet Fuel: - Bio-jet fuels are derived from biomass and can replace conventional aviation
fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation industry.
Advantages of Bio-Based Fuels: -
1. Renewable: - Bio-based fuels are derived from renewable resources, which can be
replenished through sustainable agricultural practices.
2. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: - These fuels generally have lower carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions compared to fossil fuels, helping mitigate climate change.

3. Energy Security: - Bio-based fuels can enhance energy security by reducing dependence on
fossil fuel imports.
4. Job Creation: -The production of bio-based fuels can stimulate rural economies by creating
jobs in agriculture and biofuel processing.
Challenges and Considerations: -
1. Feedstock Competition: - The use of bio-based fuels can compete with food production
for land and resources, potentially affecting food prices and food security.
2. Land Use Change: - Expanding biofuel production can lead to deforestation and land-use
changes, which may have negative environmental consequences.
3. Energy Intensity: - The energy input required for cultivating, harvesting, and processing
biofuel crops can be significant and should be carefully managed to ensure a positive energy
balance.
4. Technical Challenges: - Some bio-based fuels face technical challenges, such as cold flow
issues for biodiesel and storage concerns for biogas.
Future Prospects: -
Bio-based fuels continue to evolve with ongoing research and development. Emerging
technologies, such as advanced biofuels from non-food feedstocks and algae-based fuels,
show promise in addressing some of the challenges associated with traditional biofuels. The
transition to sustainable bio-based fuels is a vital step toward a greener and more sustainable
energy future.
4.3 BIO-BASED CHEMICALS
Bio-based chemicals, also known as bio-chemicals or biobased chemicals, are a class of
chemicals derived from renewable biological sources, such as plants, algae, and
microorganisms. These chemicals offer a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative
to traditional petrochemicals. Here are some key points about bio-based chemicals:
Types of Bio-Based Chemicals: -
1. Bio-Based Polymers: - These are biodegradable or non-biodegradable polymers produced
from bio-based feedstocks. Examples include bio-based polyethylene, bio-based
polypropylene, and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

2. Bio-Based Solvents: - Environmentally friendly solvents produced from bio-based
feedstocks, often used in applications like coatings, paints, and cleaning products.
3. Bio-Based Platform Chemicals: - Key chemical building blocks derived from biomass,
which serve as precursors for a wide range of chemical products. Examples include bio-based
succinic acid, 1,4-butanediol, and lactic acid.
4. Bio-Based Specialty Chemicals: - Specialized chemicals produced from renewable
sources, often used in industries such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture.
Examples include bio-based vitamins, flavours, and fragrances.
Advantages of Bio-Based Chemicals: -
1. Renewable Feedstocks: - Bio-based chemicals are derived from renewable resources,
reducing reliance on finite fossil resources.
2. Reduced Carbon Footprint: - Many bio-based chemicals have a lower carbon footprint
compared to their petrochemical counterparts, contributing to greenhouse gas emission
reduction.
3. Biodegradability: - Bio-based polymers and solvents are often biodegradable, which can
help reduce plastic pollution and environmental impact.
4. Sustainability: - The production of bio-based chemicals can stimulate rural economies,
promote sustainable agricultural practices, and reduce negative environmental effects
associated with traditional chemical manufacturing.
1. Feedstock Availability: - The availability and sustainable sourcing of biomass feedstocks
can be a challenge, and competition with food production is a concern.
2. Scale-up and Cost: - Scaling up bio-based chemical production to meet industrial demand
can be economically challenging, especially for novel or specialty chemicals.
3. Technical Hurdles: - Some bio-based chemical processes may require optimization or
novel technologies to achieve commercial viability.
4. Market Penetration: - Bio-based chemicals face competition from well-established
petrochemicals, and market adoption can be influenced by factors like cost and performance.
Future Prospects: -

The development and adoption of bio-based chemicals are driven by the increasing awareness
of environmental sustainability and the desire to reduce the carbon footprint of the chemical
industry. As technology advances and economies of scale are realized, bio-based chemicals
are expected to play an increasingly significant role in a more sustainable and circular
economy, supporting efforts to mitigate climate change and reduce the environmental impact
of chemical production.

CHAPTER 5
PRODUCTION OF BULK CHEMICALS
The production of bulk chemicals using transition metal catalysts is a significant area of
chemical manufacturing. Transition metals and their compounds serve as catalysts in
numerous industrial processes due to their ability to facilitate chemical reactions efficiently.
Here, we'll provide an overview of the production of bulk chemicals using transition metal
catalysts:
Transition Metal Catalysts:
Transition metals, such as iron, nickel, cobalt, platinum, palladium, and others, exhibit unique
catalytic properties due to their electron configuration. These metals can undergo reversible
changes in their oxidation states during chemical reactions, making them effective catalysts
for various processes.
Production of Bulk Chemicals with Transition Metal Catalysts: -
1. Hydrogenation Reactions: - Transition metal catalysts are commonly used in
hydrogenation reactions, where hydrogen gas (H2) is added to unsaturated compounds. For
example:
 Nickel or platinum catalysts are used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils to produce
solid fats like margarine.
 Palladium on carbon (Pd/C) catalyst is employed in the hydrogenation of benzene to
cyclohexane.
2. Oxidation Reactions: - Transition metals can catalyse the oxidation of organic
compounds. For instance.
 Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is used in the production of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) via the
contact process.
 Manganese dioxide (MnO2) serves as a catalyst in the oxidation of alcohols to
aldehydes or ketones.
3. Ammonia Synthesis: - The Haber-Bosch process, which is essential for ammonia (NH3)
production, relies on iron-based catalysts. In this process, nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2)

gases are reacted in the presence of an iron catalyst under high pressure and temperature to
produce ammonia.
4. Methanol Production: - Methanol (CH3OH) is synthesized via the catalytic
hydrogenation of carbon monoxide (CO) in the presence of copper-zinc-aluminium oxide
catalysts. This process is crucial for the production of chemicals and fuels.
5. Polymerization Reactions: - Transition metal catalysts play a pivotal role in the
polymerization of olefins (e.g., ethylene and propylene) to produce polyethylene (PE) and
polypropylene (PP). Ziegler-Natta catalysts, which typically contain transition metals like
titanium or chromium, are widely used in this context
6. Acetylene Hydrochlorination: - In the production of vinyl chloride, a precursor for
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cuprous chloride (CuCl) is used as a catalyst in the acetylene
hydrochlorination process.
Advantages of Transition Metal Catalysts: -
Selectivity: - Transition metal catalysts can be highly selective, leading to the desired
products with minimal byproducts.
Efficiency: - They can operate under mild conditions (temperature and pressure), reducing
energy consumption.
Catalyst Regeneration: - Many transition metal catalysts can be regenerated and reused,
reducing waste and costs.
Broad Applicability: - Transition metal catalysts are versatile and applicable in various
chemical processes.
Challenges: -
Catalyst Poisoning: - Catalysts can be deactivated or poisoned by impurities or contaminants
present in the feedstock.
Catalyst Deactivation: - Over time, catalysts can lose their activity due to fouling or
chemical changes on the catalyst surface.
Environmental Concerns: - Some transition metals are toxic, and their release into the
environment is a concern if not properly managed.
The use of transition metal catalysts in the production of bulk chemicals is a cornerstone of
the chemical industry, enabling the efficient and sustainable manufacture of a wide range of

essential products. Continuous research and development aim to improve catalytic processes,
making them more efficient, environmentally friendly, and economically viable.
5.1 METHANOL TO GASOLINE
Haldor Topsoe and TIGAS are two different technologies for the conversion of methanol into
gasoline. Both processes involve catalytic reactions and are used in the production of liquid
transportation fuels. Let's briefly explore each of these technologies:
1. Haldor Topsoe Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG): -
Haldor Topsoe is a Danish company known for its expertise in catalysts and process
technologies. Their Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG) process is a catalytic conversion
technology that transforms methanol into high-quality gasoline.
Key Features: -
Zeolite Catalyst: - The MTG process employs a proprietary zeolite-based catalyst, which is
central to the conversion of methanol into gasoline. Zeolites are porous materials with a well-
defined structure that provides an ideal environment for the required chemical reactions.
Reaction: - The primary reaction in the MTG process involves the conversion of methanol
(CH3OH) to hydrocarbons (gasoline range) through a series of complex steps, including
dehydration, oligomerization, and hydrocracking.
Gasoline Quality: - MTG produces gasoline with a high-octane rating and low sulphur
content, meeting stringent fuel quality standards.
Efficiency: - The MTG process is designed for high efficiency and selectivity to maximize
the yield of gasoline.
Commercialization: - The Haldor Topsoe MTG technology has been employed in various
methanol-to-gasoline plants worldwide, contributing to the production of gasoline from
methanol feedstock.
TIGAS is another technology used for the conversion of methanol into gasoline, but it's not
associated with Haldor Topsoe. While Haldor Topsoe is known for its MTG process, TIGAS
is typically associated with Total, the French multinational energy company.
Key Features: -

Catalyst and Process: - The TIGAS process involves the use of specific catalysts and
process conditions to convert methanol feedstock into high-octane gasoline.
High-Quality Gasoline: -TIGAS is designed to produce gasoline with high octane ratings,
making it suitable for use in modern internal combustion engines.
Applications: - Total has been involved in the development and implementation of TIGAS
technology as part of its efforts to explore alternative feedstocks for gasoline production.
Both Haldor Topsoe's MTG and Total's TIGAS represent technologies that contribute to the
diversification of feedstocks for gasoline production. They leverage the catalytic conversion
of methanol, a versatile and potentially renewable feedstock, into valuable transportation
fuels. These processes have the potential to play a role in reducing the carbon footprint of the
transportation sector by utilizing methanol from various sources, including biomass and
renewable energy-powered electrolysis.
FUEL ADDITIVES
Fuel additives are chemical compounds or products that are introduced into fuels to enhance
their properties, improve combustion, reduce emissions, and protect engines and fuel systems.
These additives are designed to address various challenges associated with modern fuels.
Here's a brief overview of fuel additives: -
Types of Fuel Additives: -
1. Octane Boosters: - These additives increase the octane rating of gasoline, preventing
knocking and improving engine performance. They are especially valuable for high-
performance and turbocharged engines.
2. Cetane Improvers: - Cetane improvers raise the cetane number of diesel fuel, improving
ignition quality, reducing diesel knock, and enhancing engine efficiency.
3. Detergents and Cleaners: - These additives keep fuel injectors, carburetors, and intake
valves clean by preventing carbon deposits and fuel system fouling. They improve fuel
economy and reduce emissions.
4. Anti-Knock Agents: - These compounds, such as tetraethyl lead (once used but now
phased out), reduce engine knock in gasoline engines. Today, alternatives like
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) are used.

5. Corrosion Inhibitors: - Corrosion inhibitors protect fuel systems from rust and corrosion,
particularly in marine and storage applications.
6. Fuel Stabilizers: - Fuel stabilizers prevent fuel degradation during storage, ensuring it
remains usable over extended periods.
7. Anti-Gelling Agents: - Diesel anti-gelling additives prevent fuel from gelling in cold
temperatures, maintaining fuel flow and preventing engine damage.
8. Ethanol Stabilizers: - These additives help stabilize ethanol-blended fuels, like E10 or
E85, to prevent phase separation and maintain fuel quality.
Benefits of Fuel Additives:
1. Improved Performance: - Octane boosters and cetane improvers enhance engine
performance, allowing for more efficient combustion.
2. Fuel Efficiency: - Detergents and cleaners keep fuel systems clean, reducing fuel
consumption and improving mileage.
3. Emission Reduction: - Clean fuel systems and improved combustion result in lower
emissions of pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
4. Engine Protection: - Additives protect engines and fuel systems from wear, corrosion, and
deposits, extending their lifespan.
5. Cold Weather Reliability: - Anti-gelling agents ensure that diesel fuel remains liquid and
engine-friendly in cold temperatures.
6. Stability: - Fuel stabilizers maintain fuel quality during long-term storage, preventing
degradation and engine problems.
1. Compatibility: - Not all additives are compatible with every fuel type or engine. Choosing
the right additive for the specific application is crucial.
2. Regulatory Compliance: - Additives must comply with environmental regulations and
emission standards.
3. Dosage Control: - Overuse or misuse of additives can lead to engine problems or reduced
effectiveness.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
In this comprehensive exploration of fuel and chemical production, catalysis emerged as
a central theme, highlighting the crucial role of catalysts in numerous industrial
processes. Transition metal catalysts, such as those employed by Haldor Topsoe and
Total in methanol-to-gasoline (MTG) and TIGAS technologies, have revolutionized the
production of bulk chemicals like gasoline. These catalysts enable the efficient
conversion of methanol, derived from various sources including biomass, into high-
quality fuels, aligning with sustainability goals.
Furthermore, the discussion delved into the world of fuel additives, where chemical
compounds enhance fuel properties, combustion efficiency, and environmental
performance. From octane boosters to detergents, additives continue to be instrumental in
optimizing engine performance, reducing emissions, and protecting fuel systems.
Overall, these technologies underscore the chemical industry's commitment to
innovation, sustainability, and environmental responsibility. As the world seeks cleaner
and more efficient energy solutions, catalysis and fuel additives stand as cornerstones in
the ongoing journey toward a greener and more sustainable future. They exemplify the
power of science and engineering to drive positive change in the way we produce and
utilize fuels and chemicals, reducing environmental impact and enhancing the efficiency
of essential processes.

sana Chemical technology report for NPTEL Course

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to sana Chemical technology report for NPTEL Course

Similar to sana Chemical technology report for NPTEL Course (20)

More from Sana Khan

More from Sana Khan (14)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

sana Chemical technology report for NPTEL Course