A Strategy To Improve E-Learning Adoption, Implementation And Development In Higher Education In Egypt

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A Strategy to )mprove E‐Learning
Adoption, )mplementation and
Development in (igher Education in Egypt
Mohamed Fathi EL Zayat
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of the University of Sunderland
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
December 2008

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To
My father, My Mother, My Precious Dina…..and above all to ALLAH
may his blessings be upon all of us

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Abstract
Electronic learning has become a common technique to support
learning. Yet, it seems that Egypt is still in a fundamental stage of adopting
and implementing e-learning despite the plentiful factors that suggest e-
learning as a support tool which might enhance the process of learning. The
aim of this thesis is to suggest a strategy for improving e-learning adoption,
implementation and development in higher education in Egypt. The delivery
of this strategy required a deep exploration of the factors which might be
affecting the development of e-learning in Egypt.
In order to achieve this exploration, a review of literature has been
conducted in 3 stages. The first review involved the definition of e-learning,
the opportunities and limitations offered through e-learning. The review also
focused on the adoption staged of new technology innovation and how it
develops.
The second review focused on the factors affecting e-learning
development. It involved 6 literature resources from different countries
discussing what affects the success of e-learning systems. The review
concluded that there is a number of e-learning critical success factors
deemed essential by almost all authors of the literature resources reviewed.
Based on this conclusion, a framework was developed consisting of five
categories of critical success factors affecting e-learning development.
The third literature review focused on Egypt’s status of e-readiness in
terms of technological infrastructure; socio-cultural acceptance; economic
and financial capability; e-content availability and development; and the
institutional-governmental policies regarding e-learning support. This review
concluded that the framework developed in the 2nd
review needs modification
to account for Egypt status, this modification resulted in developing an
adaptive-theoretical framework of factors affecting e-learning development in
Egypt.
As this framework was mainly based on reviewing literature, a field
survey was conducted to verify the validity of this framework. The field survey
involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection

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instruments including 107 semi-structured interviews with staff and students,
and 700 questionnaires administered on students. The sample was taken
from 5 different universities across Egypt.
The findings of the field survey gave deep and insightful indications of
the sample’s experiences regarding the use of technology in learning. The
analysis and interpretations of the survey findings informed the existence and
importance of the 5 categories of factors suggested in the framework.
Furthermore, it suggested some refining modification to reflect on the field
survey findings.
Based on the review of literature; the framework suggested; and the
field survey findings, a strategy for improving e-learning development in
higher education in Egypt was suggested and evaluated. The strategy
evaluation was conducted in co-operation with a team of acknowledged
practitioners in the field of e-learning, they were selected from Egypt and the
UK based on their expertise and research interest. The evaluation of the
strategy informed some changes which have been made to enhance the
strategy structure and content.

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Acknowledgment
What a long and exhausting journey, I can clearly remember when I got a call
from my father asking me if I am interested in joining a diploma program on
distance learning and teaching provided by the Arabian Gulf University in Bahrain in
Co-ordination with the University of Sunderland, UK.
Since that day, everything in my life changed. I went to Bahrain to join the
diploma program, and I was lucky as I met Dr. Alan Fell and Dr. Judith Kuit. They
encouraged me to prepare a research point and apply for a PhD program at the
University of Sunderland. I got accepted here I am finishing my thesis for
examination.
Three people I am grateful for:
• My father, the man who has always encouraged me to be nothing but the best, the
man without whose support, guidance and encouragement, I wouldn’t be here now.
To him, and from all my heart, Thank You. You have changed my life and future.
Baba, I owe all this to you.
• My mother, the person who I always felt that whoever I am or whatever I do she will
always love, care and be proud of me. To you mama, I will always always remember
what you have done and continue to do for me.
• My Dodo, my only true love, my scented candle, my sweet future and my home.
To you my lovely fiancé, and very soon my bride to be; I know we have been on hold
for a long time, but now it is our moment. Be ready, we are almost there…we are
almost home.
Since I came here to Sunderland in 1st
November 2005, he was always taking
care of me...guiding me and sailing with me in this journey. To you Dr. Alan, thanks a
lot for all what you have done, I am honoured to be your student...I will always
remember your guidance and advise….you have helped me to grow and I hope I
have been a good student whom you might be proud of.
I can’t forget the help and support Dr. Judith gave me, especially in the
finishing stages of this thesis. I felt that she understands me and feels what I feel.
Thank you very much Dr. Judith.
I sincerely thank Professor Gilbert Cockton for all his efforts to strengthen the
thesis structure. His great knowledge and experience has definitely changed the way
thisthesiswaswritten.ToyouProfessorCockton,ThankYou.

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Table of Content
Abstract____________________________________________________________ v
Acknowledgment ___________________________________________________ vii
Table of Content___________________________________________________ viii
List of Figures _____________________________________________________ xiii
List of Tables ______________________________________________________ xiv
List of Appendices__________________________________________________ xvi
List of Abbreviations________________________________________________ xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction _______________________________________________ 1
1. Introduction_____________________________________________________ 2
1.1 Forward_____________________________________________________________ 2
1.2 E‐Learning ___________________________________________________________ 2
1.3 Why E‐learning in Egypt? _______________________________________________ 3
1.3.1 Background ______________________________________________________________3
1.3.2 The need for e‐learning_____________________________________________________4
1.4 E‐Learning Projects in Egypt_____________________________________________ 6
1.5 Egypt E‐Readiness_____________________________________________________ 9
1.6 Egypt E‐learning Readiness ____________________________________________ 10
1.7 Research Focus ______________________________________________________ 11
1.7.1 Aims and Objectives ______________________________________________________12
1.7.2 The proposed strategy ____________________________________________________12
1.7.3 Research Contribution_____________________________________________________13
1.8 Structure of the Thesis ________________________________________________ 13
1.9 Summary___________________________________________________________ 15
Chapter 2: What is e‐learning? ________________________________________16
2. Literature Review 1 (What is e‐learning?)______________________________17
2.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 17
2.2 What is E‐Learning? __________________________________________________ 19
2.2.1 Definition of E‐Learning____________________________________________________21
2.2.2 Thesis Definition of E‐Learning ______________________________________________25
2.3 E‐Learning Opportunities and limitations_________________________________ 26
2.3.1 Benefits of E‐Learning _____________________________________________________26
2.3.2 E‐learning limitations _____________________________________________________29
Isolation Issue______________________________________________________________29

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Access to Technology________________________________________________________33
Technology related Skills _____________________________________________________33
2.4 E‐Learning in Higher Education _________________________________________ 33
2.5 Higher Education Students and E‐Learning________________________________ 35
2.6 E‐Learning Development ______________________________________________ 36
2.6.1 Technology Development __________________________________________________36
2.6.2 E‐Learning Adoption ______________________________________________________38
Rogers’ Model _____________________________________________________________39
Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1986) _________________________________42
2.7 Summary___________________________________________________________ 44
Chapter 3: Factors Affecting e‐learning Development ______________________46
3. Literature Review 2 (Factors Affecting e‐learning Development) ___________47
3.1. Introduction________________________________________________________ 47
3.2. Factors Affecting E‐Learning Development: Review of Literature _____________ 48
3.4. Developing a Framework _____________________________________________ 76
Research Strategy Check Point 1 _______________________________________80
3.5. Summary __________________________________________________________ 82
Chapter 4: Egypt’s e‐Readiness ________________________________________83
4. Literature Review 3 (Egypt’s e‐Readiness) _____________________________84
4.1. Introduction________________________________________________________ 84
4.2. Egypt E‐Readiness ___________________________________________________ 85
4.2.1 Technology _____________________________________________________________85
4.2.1.1 Background _________________________________________________________85
Computers ______________________________________________________________87
Internet ________________________________________________________________87
Dial‐up Services________________________________________________________87
Broadband____________________________________________________________89
4.2.1.2 Technology Infrastructure in Egyptian University____________________________89
4.2.1.3 Technology Development Projects in Egyptian Universities____________________93
4.2.1.4 Technology Training Support____________________________________________95
4.2.2 Socio‐Cultural Issues in Egypt _______________________________________________97
4.2.3 E‐Content in Egypt_______________________________________________________109
4.2.3.1 E‐Content Availability ________________________________________________109
4.2.3.2 E‐Content development in Egypt _______________________________________111
Cultural E‐Content _______________________________________________________112
Educational E‐Content____________________________________________________112
4.2.4 Economic/Financial issues in Egypt__________________________________________113
4.2.5 E‐Learning Institutional policies in Egypt _____________________________________119
4.3. Reflecting on Egypt E‐Readiness_______________________________________ 124

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Research Strategy Check Point 2 ______________________________________129
4.4. Summary _________________________________________________________ 130
Chapter 5: Research Methodology ____________________________________131
5. Research Methodology ___________________________________________132
5.1 Introduction _______________________________________________________ 132
5.2 Research Approach__________________________________________________ 132
5.3 Research Design ____________________________________________________ 137
5.4. Research Sample ___________________________________________________ 140
5.5. Research tools _____________________________________________________ 141
5.5.1 Research Tools Design____________________________________________________148
5.5.1.1 Research Interview __________________________________________________148
5.5.1.1 (a) Interview aims ______________________________________________150
5.5.1.1 (b) Construct the Research Interview __________________________________151
5.5.1.1 (c) Considerations of Approach_______________________________________155
5.5.1.1 (d) Evaluating the Interview structure appropriateness____________________156
Interview Pilot study ___________________________________________________157
Interview Main Study ____________________________________________________158
Interview Main Study Sample____________________________________________158
5.5.1.2 Research Questionnaire_______________________________________________160
A. Questionnaire Aim ____________________________________________________160
B. Basis of the questionnaire_______________________________________________161
C. Identify the sample ____________________________________________________161
D. Decide how to collect replies ____________________________________________161
E. Questionnaire design___________________________________________________162
Questionnaire Pilot Study _________________________________________________164
Questionnaire pilot study sample ___________________________________________164
Questionnaire Reliability and validity ________________________________________165
Questionnaire Main Study_________________________________________________168
Questionnaire Main study Sample __________________________________________168
5.6 Strategy Evaluation Method __________________________________________ 169
5.7 Summary__________________________________________________________ 171
Chapter 6: Research Results__________________________________________173
6. Research Results_________________________________________________174
6. Research Results_________________________________________________174
6.1 Introduction _______________________________________________________ 174
6.2 Interview pilot study results __________________________________________ 175
6. 2.1 Interview data Analysis __________________________________________________180
6. 3 Questionnaire pilot study results ______________________________________ 190

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6.3.1 Questionnaire reliability tests results ________________________________________190
6. 3.2 Questionnaire validity test results __________________________________________192
6.4 Answering the Research Questions_____________________________________ 194
6. 4.1 Interview main study results ______________________________________________196
6.4.1.1 Staff sample interview data analysis results _______________________________196
6.4.1.2 Students sample interview data analysis results____________________________199
Technology issues _______________________________________________________199
Socio cultural issues______________________________________________________205
E‐Content Design issues __________________________________________________214
Financial / Economic issues________________________________________________217
Governmental/institutional support issues ___________________________________220
6.4.1.3 Interview studies Conclusion___________________________________________225
Staff __________________________________________________________________225
Students_______________________________________________________________226
Research Strategy check point 3 ______________________________________230
6.4.2 Questionnaire data analysis results _________________________________________231
Technology issues _______________________________________________________232
Socio‐culture issues ______________________________________________________236
E‐Content design issues___________________________________________________240
Economic/Financial issues_________________________________________________243
Governmental/Institutional support issues ___________________________________246
6.5 Discussion of Research Findings _______________________________________ 249
6.6 Research Results Interpretation _______________________________________ 253
6.6.1 Identifying the Factors relative importance (priority) ___________________________253
6.6.2 Egypt Framework Refined_________________________________________________260
6.7 Summary__________________________________________________________ 263
Chapter 7: Proposed Strategy ________________________________________265
7. Strategy________________________________________________________266
7.1 Introduction _______________________________________________________ 266
7.3 Basis of the strategy_________________________________________________ 267
7.3.1 Literature______________________________________________________________267
7.3.2 Research Survey Results __________________________________________________268
7.3.3 Egypt Framework Refined_________________________________________________268
7.4 Aims of the Strategy_________________________________________________ 269
7.5 Development Implementation Procedures ______________________________ 269
Development of Basic/Fundamental Factors_______________________________________272
Technological Readiness Development_________________________________________272
Development of Enabling Factors _______________________________________________274
Economic Readiness Development ____________________________________________274
Socio‐Cultural Readiness Development_________________________________________276
Development of Operational Factors_____________________________________________277

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Governmental/Institutional Policies Development________________________________277
E‐Content Design Development_______________________________________________278
7.6 Summary__________________________________________________________ 282
Chapter 8: Strategy Evaluation _______________________________________283
8. Strategy Evaluation ______________________________________________284
8.1. Introduction_______________________________________________________ 284
8.2 Feedback and Reflection _____________________________________________ 285
8.3 Summary__________________________________________________________ 295
References________________________________________________________ 296
Bibliograpgy_______________________________________________________306

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List of Figures
FIGURE 1 THE STAGES OF ADOPTION ACCORDING TO ROGERS' MODEL (1995)..................................... 39
FIGURE 2 ROGER’S (1995) ADOPTER’S OF NEW INNOVATION DISTRIBUTION CURVE .............................. 40
FIGURE 3 THE THEORY OF REASONED ACTION BASED ON FISHBEIN & AJZEN (1980)............................. 43
FIGURE 4 THE TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL BASED ON DAVIS ET AL (1989)................................ 44
FIGURE 5 KHAN’S (2001) E‐LEARNING FRAMEWORK....................................................................... 55
FIGURE 6 IHEP 2000 E‐LEARNING BENCHMARKS............................................................................ 61
FIGURE 7 E‐LEARNING QUALITY ASSURANCE FACTORS (FRESEN, 2005).............................................. 65
FIGURE 8 E‐LEARNING SUCCESS FACTORS (OLIVER, 2001)................................................................ 72
FIGURE 9 E ‐LEARNING DEVELOPMENT FACTORS (SELIM, 2005)........................................................ 74
FIGURE 10 FRAMEWORK OF CRITICAL FACTORS AFFECTING E‐LEARNING DEVELOPMENT BASED ON
LITERATURE SURVEY............................................................................................................ 80
FIGURE 11 NUMBER OF LANDLINES (2000‐2007) .......................................................................... 86
FIGURE 12 NUMBER OF ISPS (2000‐2008)................................................................................... 86
FIGURE 13 ICT COMPANIES (2000‐2008)..................................................................................... 86
FIGURE 14 MOBILE PHONE USERS (2000‐2008)............................................................................ 86
FIGURE 15 INTERNET USERS (2000‐2008)..................................................................................... 86
FIGURE 16 THE STRUCTURE OF THE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ENHANCEMENT
PROJECT ........................................................................................................................... 94
FIGURE 17 REPRESENT THE LOCATION FROM WHERE INTERNET USERS USE THE INTERNET........................ 99
FIGURE 18 TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS USED BY THE SAMPLE................................................. 100
FIGURE 19 SOURCES OF INTERNET USE BY THE SAMPLE ................................................................... 100
FIGURE 20 REPRESENT THE LEVELS OF SPENDING ON INTERNET SERVICES............................................ 101
FIGURE 21 REPRESENT THE INTERNET USAGE RATES........................................................................ 101
FIGURE 22 REPRESENT THE INTERNET USAGE RATES PER SESSION...................................................... 102
FIGURE 23 REPRESENT THE PARENT’S PERCEPTIONS OF INTERNET USE EFFECTS ON THEIR FAMILIES. ........ 102
FIGURE 24 REPRESENT SAMPLE POINT OF VIEW REGARDING INTERNET ADVANTAGES............................ 103
FIGURE 25 INTERNET DISADVANTAGES......................................................................................... 104
FIGURE 26 ICT EXPENDITURE IN EGYPT (2002‐2005) ................................................................... 116
FIGURE 27 ICTP BUDGET BY UNIVERSITY ..................................................................................... 118
FIGURE 28 BUDGET BY DIMENSION ............................................................................................. 118
FIGURE 29 MODIFICATION MADE FOR THE E‐LEARNING DEVELOPMENT FACTORS
FRAMEWORKECONOMICFINANCIAL FACTORS....................................................................... 128
FIGURE 30 MODIFICATION MADE FOR THE E‐LEARNING DEVELOPMENT FACTORS FRAMEWORK.............. 128
FIGURE 31 E‐LEARNING DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK (EGYPT)....................................................... 129
FIGURE 32 RESEARCH APPROACH ............................................................................................... 136
FIGURE 33 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................................... 139
FIGURE 34 INTERVIEW CONSTRUCTION PROTOCOL, (SPICKARD, 2004, P.2) ...................................... 151
FIGURE 35 DERIVING THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS.......................................................................... 152
FIGURE 36 EGYPT FRAMEWORK REFINED ..................................................................................... 262

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List of Tables
TABLE 1EGYPT’S E‐LEARNING READINESS SCORES AND WORLD RANK POSITION...................................... 11
TABLE 2 LEARNING ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT OVER 3 DECADES ....................................... 37
TABLE 3 AGREEMENT ON DIFFERENT FACTORS AMONG LITERATURE .................................................... 79
TABLE 4 INTERNET ACCESSIBILITY AND SECURITY IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES......................................... 90
TABLE 5 TYPES OF INTERNET ACCESS IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES ......................................................... 91
TABLE 6 LAN AVAILABILITY AND SECURITY IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES................................................. 91
TABLE 7 LOCAL SERVERS AVAILABILITY IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES....................................................... 91
TABLE 8 E‐MAIL SERVICE AVAILABILITY IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES ...................................................... 91
TABLE 9 NUMBER OF USERS AGAINST EACH PC AND INTERNET ENABLED PC IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES .... 92
TABLE 10 EDUCATION EXPENDITURES (1990‐2000) ..................................................................... 114
TABLE 11 THE AVAILABILITY OF PCS AND INTERNET ENABLED PCS IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES ............... 122
TABLE 12 FREEDOM TO ACCESS PCS AND INTERNET ENABLED PCS IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES............... 122
TABLE 13 CONDITIONS OF PCS USAGE BY STUDENTS IN EGYPTIAN UNIVERSITIES ................................. 122
TABLE 14 INTERVIEW PILOT STUDY SAMPLE.................................................................................. 157
TABLE 15 INTERVIEW MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY GENDER.................................................................. 159
TABLE 16 INTERVIEW MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY SPECIALTY .............................................................. 159
TABLE 17 INTERVIEW MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY UNIVERSITY ............................................................. 159
TABLE 18 INTERVIEW MAIN STUDY STAFF SAMPLE ........................................................................ 159
TABLE 19 QUESTIONNAIRE PILOT STUDY SAMPLE BY GENDER AND SPECIALTY .................................... 165
TABLE 20 QUESTIONNAIRE MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY GENDER .......................................................... 169
TABLE 21 QUESTIONNAIRE MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY SPECIALTY....................................................... 169
TABLE 22 QUESTIONNAIRE MAIN STUDY SAMPLE BY UNIVERSITY...................................................... 169
TABLE 23 EVALUATORS CODING SCHEME AND BRIEF SUMMARY OF EXPERTISE .................................... 171
TABLE 24 INTERVIEW PARTICIPANTS’ CODES SUMMARY................................................................... 175
TABLE 25 FACTORS' MEAN, SD, CROBACH’S ALPHA AND SPLIT HALF ANALYSIS VALUES ........................ 191
TABLE 26 FACTOR INTER CORRELATION VALUES ............................................................................. 193
TABLE 27 TECHNOLOGY FACTORS AND ITS ITEMS CORRELATIONS ..................................................... 193
TABLE 28 SOCIO‐CULTURAL FACTORS AND ITS ITEMS CORRELATIONS................................................ 193
TABLE 29 E‐CONTENT DESIGN FACTORS AND ITS ITEMS CORRELATIONS............................................. 194
TABLE 30 ECONOMIC/FINANCIAL FACTORS AND ITS ITEMS CORRELATIONS ........................................ 194
TABLE 31 GOVERNMENTAL/INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AND ITS ITEMS CORRELATIONS .......................... 194
TABLE 32 STUDENTS' ICT INFRASTRUCTURE EVALUATION ............................................................... 232
TABLE 33 RESPONSES TO QUESTIONING PCS ABUNDANCE............................................................... 233
TABLE 34 PEOPLE' INTERNET ACCESSIBILITY ................................................................................... 234
TABLE 35 PEOPLE'S ICT SKILLS COMPETENCY ................................................................................ 235
TABLE 36 ICT TRAINING CENTERS AVAILABILITY............................................................................. 235
TABLE 37 TECHNICAL SUPPORT SATISFACTION .............................................................................. 236
TABLE 38 E‐LEARNING EFFICIENCY (QUESTIONNAIRE SAMPLE) ........................................................ 237
TABLE 39 ACCEPTANCE OF E‐LEARNING AMONG STUDENTS' ENVIRONMENT ....................................... 239

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TABLE 40 AVAILABILITY OF ARABIC E‐CONTENT............................................................................. 240
TABLE 41 EFFICIENCY AND DESIGN .............................................................................................. 240
TABLE 42 E‐LEARNING SYSTEMS SIMULATION TO F2F CLASSROOMS ................................................. 241
TABLE 43 E‐LEARNING DEVELOPERS IN EGYPT............................................................................... 242
TABLE 44 TECHNOLOGY AFFORDABILITY ....................................................................................... 243
TABLE 45 PRIORITY OF HAVING A PC AT HOME.............................................................................. 244
TABLE 46 E‐LEARNING COST EFFICIENCY...................................................................................... 244
TABLE 47 E‐LEARNING ENGAGEMENT BENEFITS ON NATIONAL COMMUNITY....................................... 245
TABLE 48 E‐LEARNING ADOPTION PLANNING IN EGYPT................................................................... 246
TABLE 49 GOVERNMENTALINSTITUTIONAL POLICIES REGARDING E‐LEARNING ENGAGEMENT............... 247
TABLE 50 QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES MEAN, SD, VARIANCE AND RANGE........................................ 254
TABLE 51 SAMPLE RESPONSES SCORES RANGE AMONG FACTORS...................................................... 255
TABLE 52 MEAN, SD AND FREQUENCIES OF QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES.......................................... 259
TABLE 53 STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION ELEMENTS AND PROCEDURES............................................... 280
TABLE 54 STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION ELEMENTS AND PROCEDURES1ST
BASIC/FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS
..................................................................................................................................... 280
TABLE 55 EVALUATORS CODING SCHEME AND BRIEF SUMMARY OF EXPERTISE .................................... 285

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List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Enhanced Strategy……………………………………………………….. 310
Appendix 2 Interview Questions……………………………………………………… 320
Appendix 3 Interviewee’s ArabicEnglish Quotations………….............. 323
Appendix 4 Questionnaire Pilot Study version…………………................. 332
Appendix 5 Questionnaire Main study Version……………………………….. 338
Appendix 6 Questionnaire Arabic Version………………………………………. 343
Appendix 7 Field Survey Approval Letters……………………………………….. 348

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List of Abbreviations
BSDTP The Basic Skills Development Training Program
CCTP The Contact Centre Training Program
CSF Critical Success Factors
EGP Egyptian Pound
GBP Great Britain Pound
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GVM Global Vision Media
ICDL International Computer Driving Licence
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ICTEP Information and Communication Technology Enhancement Project
IDSC Information and Decision Support Centre
JISC Joint Information Systems Committee
LAN Local Area Network
LTSN Learning and Teaching Support Network
MICT Ministry of Information and Communication Technology
MOE Ministry of Education
MOHE Ministry of Higher Education
NCER New Zealand Council for Educational Research
NELC National E‐learning Centre
ODLQC Open and Distance Learning Quality Council
PDA Personal Digital Assistance
PTP The Professional Training Program
SCU Supreme Council of Universities
SUTP The Super User Training Program
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNESCWA United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
USD United States Dollar
VLE Virtual Learning Environment
WSIS World Summit of Information Society

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1. Introduction
1.1 Forward
Since the invention of computers and digital technologies, many of
these technologies have been used to assist the process of learning.
Nowadays Electronic Learning might be considered one of the widely used
learning techniques which provides flexibility and ease of access for learners.
However, the effectiveness of e-learning systems is associated with the
standards and approaches used in its development and how these
approaches have considered the learner’s needs and characteristics.
The focus of this thesis is on supporting the development and
implementation of e-learning in Egypt. It aims to provide guidelines of how to
improve the effectiveness of e-learning through addressing the challenges
that might be facing the take up of e-learning in higher education in Egypt.
The thesis introduces a strategy that suggests an action plan including a set
of policies that could help in implementing successful e-learning systems in
higher education institutions (universities) in Egypt.
The following sections include discussions of what is meant by e-
learning; why e-learning in Egypt?; the need for an e-learning development
strategy in Egypt. It also demonstrates the focus of the research; the
research aims and objectives; contribution of the research; and an outline of
the structure of the thesis.
1.2 E-Learning
One of the educational outcomes that has emerged from the
development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is e-
learning. Generally e-learning is learning which involves the use of any

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electronic device starting from computers to mobile phones, and which may
or may not involve the use of the internet or an intranet
E-learning stands for Electronic Learning which is an approach of
delivering education using computers and communication technologies,
such technologies include the internet, CD-ROMs, Personal Digital
Assistant (PDAs), Mobile phones and any other electronic device that can
be used to deliver or support education or training.
E-learning might be presented through several means, for example:
computer software, internet websites. Furthermore, some applications have
been specially developed for e-learning such as Virtual Learning
Environments (VLEs) which provide the learner with several facilities like
easy access to learning materials, communication with tutors and
peers..Etc. These VLEs provide flexible access to learning as it can be
accessed anywhere and anytime.
E-learning has grown rapidly during the past years. It has allowed
learners to save money and acquire their knowledge and skills at their own
pace and in their own time.
1.3 Why E-learning in Egypt?
1.3.1 Background
Data gathered from Egypt’s Information Portal, The Information and
Decision Support Centre (IDSC) (2008) stated that, Egypt’s population had
reached 74.3 million. Total number of students enrolled in different
education levels is 18.2 million, total number of students enrolled in
university level is 2.4 million served by 26 universities (17 public and 9

4
private). Only 453.000 students are enrolled in the 9 private universities and
the remainder is in the 17 public universities.
Most of these universities are located in larger cities, and this is one of
the problems that face students when joining the university, large numbers
of the students enrolled in universities are living in locations that are far from
major cities, and consequently they face many difficulties like transportation,
accommodation and time management.
Universities are forced to accept large numbers of students beyond their
capacity to absorb them, this resulted in an overcrowded educational
environment where the number of students attending one lecture can
exceed 3000 (Personal Experience).
1.3.2 The need for e-learning
E-learning has been thought of as a supporting and enhancement
tool of higher education in Egypt. This could be concluded from various
projects initiated to engage in e-learning and provide the proper
environment to successfully adopt it. For example: the national e-learning
centre which was established to initiate and monitors the adoption of e-
learning in the higher education sector.
Several reasons have been identified justifying the need for a radical
solution to help recover the Egyptian educational system at all levels.
Fayek (2004) listed several problems which she described as
“national specific problems”, it included:
• Over-crowded classrooms.
• High price of traditional educational books.
• Soaring prices of private tutors
• Chance for handicapped & special needs students.

5
• Transportation Problems.
• Adult education & specialized training.
• Chance for talented students
• Active participation in the International educational community.
• Enhancing the level of national education and graduates.
(Fayek, 2004, p.7)
Furthermore, the study carried out by Beckstrom et al (2004)
identified several priorities for e-learning in Egypt. They provided an
overview of challenges which encourage the engagement of e-learning in
order for it to become a viable alternative of the more traditional learning
methods. The same study stated that before the year (2004) the portion of
tertiary education (1)
versus technical/vocational (2)
education was one third
to two thirds respectively, but in year (2004) the ministry of education
changed its policy regarding the number of students to be accepted in each
education route, and because of this change in policy, the portion was
reversed.
The result of this change in policy had a multi level impact on all
elements of the educational system, the doubling of the number of tertiary
education students resulted in more crowded classrooms without enough
spatial capacity or staff to absorb these numbers of students.
Some researchers (e.g.; Beckstrom et al, 2004, Fayek, 2004)
suggest that e-leaning might represent a tool to overcome the challenges
mentioned earlier. Fayek (2004) stated that “e-learning might be a solution
1
Tertiary education involves instructions that intends to qualify candidates for more advanced
education levels
2
Technical /Vocational educations involves instructions that intends to prepare candidates for
industrial or commercial occupations

6
to national specific problems” (Fayek, 2004, p.7). This might be a very
optimistic view, as it is not easy at all to overcome all of the mentioned
above issues using e-learning.
1.4 E-Learning Projects in Egypt
Most of the Higher education sector is controlled and monitored by the
government through the Ministry of Higher Education. From that, most e-
learning engagement projects are initiated and managed by the
government. The largest two e-learning development projects are carried
out by the Ministry of Education (3)
and the Ministry of Higher Education (4)
.
The following is an overview of the two projects and what they offer.
• The Ministry of Education’s E-learning Portal
(E-learning Portal http://elearning.moe.gov.eg)
The portal consists of 4 subsidiary divisions:
-Knowledge Portal -Questions Data Bank
-E-learning Portal -Teachers Network
The knowledge portal includes information and support services for
students, teachers, parents and employees in the Ministry of Education.
The e-learning portal includes 4 departments: virtual lectures, self-learning
section, e-library and resources network
The questions data bank includes questions and answers for subjects
being taught at schools which student can get back to for practice, and
teachers can use to create exams and tests
3
Ministry of Education is entitled to the management of the education process in the pre‐university
phase.
4
Ministry of Higher Education is entitled to the management of the education process in the
university and post graduate studies phases

7
The teacher network is a portal that provides skills and training
development materials which tutors can use to enhance their teaching
skills and methods.
This portal does not represent an entity from which students can
receive degrees, it mainly act like a support centre through which students
can retrieve information when needed. There are no registered students
whom carrying on scholastic activities using the portal separately from
traditional schools.
• The Ministry of Higher Education’s National E-learning Centre
(National E-learning Centre http://www.nelc.edu.eg/english)
National E-learning Centre of Egypt represents the backbone of e-
learning in higher education in Egypt, it offers for the first time a wide range
of services and support facilities for university staff members to begin
engaging with e-learning.
This centre was established by the Supreme Council of Universities
(SCU), the main goal of this centre is to manage and monitor the
establishment and development of e-learning systems in Egypt’s 17
universities. It focuses on putting standards and regulations to establish a
national e-learning enabling infrastructure in the Egyptian universities. The
Centre manages and monitors the development of 17 e-learning units
established in all Egyptian universities across the country. The NELC works
to attain two main goals:
“(1) E-Learning for every one and every where. By establishing an e-
learning environment by which instructors can be connected with other
students.

8
(2) Provide an adequate e-Learning environment to not only regular
students but also the students who do not have an opportunity to be regular
students.” (National E-learning Centre, 2007, index page)
The NELC includes several sections and provides various services
for staff and content developers, the following are the different sections and
services provided through the centre:
•Instructional Design Course Builder is a system by which university staff
members can create their e-contents step by step using templates and
readymade interfaces, the system is based on theoretical and practical
research in the areas of cognition, educational psychology, and problem
solving.
•Virtual Labs portal includes several Pre-programmed Virtual labs which
allow the user to simulate different kinds of experiments and tests, it
includes virtual labs for: Medicine, Pharmacy, Physics, Mathematics,
Computing, Biology, Chemistry and Geology.
•Learning Style Identification System is a tool which can be used to
identify the learner learning style preferences, it includes several
questionnaires which by answering it a learning style preferences profile is
created.
•E-Courses Production Management System is used to facilitate
managing and monitoring e-courses, plus evaluating the course and collect
feedback about different courses.
•Workshops and seminars is a section in which the user can find up to
date information, papers, reports, proposals and all kinds of professional
development materials.
•Open Source Educational Materials Resources, in this section the
content developer can find readymade open source content materials,
which can be used as it is, or modified to comply with the needed
requirements.

9
• Course Development Training Programs is a web site which provides
training for content developers as well as time tables and schedules for all
incoming training programs.
•External Courses, at this section there are several links to external e-
learning materials in different specialties. These external resources can be
used whether as an e-content or as a guideline of how to build e-contents.
Despite the various services provided through the centre, it seems that
the number of e-contents developed or under development is still small, the
centre uses Moodle VLE as the learning platform, and it only contains 14
courses which by any how does not include even a small portion of contents
being taught across the 17 public universities in Egypt.
1.5 Egypt E-Readiness
In the Economist E-readiness ranking report 2008 Egypt occupied the
57th
position out of 70 with a score of 4.81/10, and in the previous year
report (2007) Egypt was occupying the 58th
position out of 69 with a score of
4.28/10. This indicates that Egypt’s e-readiness did not improve as it moved
one position up but the total number of countries evaluated increased by 1
(70 countries in 2008 instead of 69 in 2007). So, at the end, Egypt still in the
same position with a minor improvement fraction of 0.53 (from 4.28 in 2007
to 4.81 in 2008) on a scale from 1-10.This might be due to the rising
competition in the ICT development race, something made the Economist
Intelligence Unit name the 2007 report (Raising the Bar) and the 2008
(Maintaining momentum).

10
The Economist evaluated the performance of countries based on 6 point
criteria:
Connectivity and Technological Infrastructure (Egypt Score 2.75/10)
Business Environment (Egypt Score 6.04/10)
Social and Cultural Environment (Egypt Score 5/10)
Legal Environment (Egypt Score 4/10)
Government Policy and Vision (Egypt Score 5.10/10)
Consumer and Business Adoption (Egypt Score 3.55/10)
In another report by the World Economic Forum (2008) focusing the
networked readiness rankings, Egypt was the 63 out of 127. The report
evaluated each country based on its readiness in terms of
telecommunications infrastructure.
1.6 Egypt E-learning Readiness
The Economist Intelligence Unit (2003) issued a report about e-
learning readiness world rankings which is the most recent till the moment
of writing this thesis. In this report Egypt occupied the 51 position out of
60 with a score 3.98 / 10. The Economist Intelligence Unit considered 4
criteria when developed this rank: (The 4Cs)
Connectivity (The quality and extent of internet infrastructure)
Capability (A country’s ability to deliver and consume e-learning, based on literacy
rates, and trends in training and education)
Content (The quality and pervasiveness of online learning materials)
Culture (Behaviors, beliefs and institutions that support e-learning development within
the country)
These factors were derived from nearly 150 qualitative and
quantitative criteria categorized in 4 main categories: Education; Industry;

11
Government; Society. The following Table (1) summarizes Egypt positions
and scores among the 4 categories:
Table 1Egypt’s e‐learning readiness scores and world rank position
The previous discussions might indicate that Egypt electronic
readiness seems to be in need for development. It could be argued based
on the above discussions that the primary evaluation of Egypt’s e-readiness
might be below average if not poor. In such status of e-readiness, the
development of e-learning might represent a challenge that needs careful
consideration and adequate planning.
1.7 Research Focus
As the previous discussions might indicate that Egypt readiness to
engage e-learning might still be at a fundamental stage which needs
development, the focus of the research was to investigate the possible
factors that might be slowing the development of Egypt’s readiness to adopt
e-learning. The exploration of these factors was implemented through asking
two main questions:
1. What are the factors which may affect e-learning development in
Higher Education in Egypt?
2. How do Egyptian HE student perceive the relative importance of these
factors and its need for development?
Category
Score
out of 10
Position
out of 60
Education 4.06 52
Industry 3.71 54
Government 4.33 45
Society 4.08 48
Source: Based on data provided by The Economist Intelligent unit (2003)

12
1.7.1 Aims and Objectives
In order to answer the research questions, the following objectives
needed to be attained:
1. Evaluate the current status of e-learning in HE in Egypt.
2. Identify factors that affect the application and uptake of e-learning in
HE in Egypt.
3. Analyze the factors affecting implementation of e-Learning and
assess their relative strength on e-learning development.
4. Provide guidelines to support effective implementation of e-learning in
HE in Egypt.
1.7.2 The proposed strategy
Through achieving these aims, the research developed a strategy to
improve e-learning adoption and implementation in higher education in
Egypt. The strategy intends to cover the aspects that are essential for
enhancing the process of e-learning implementation in Egypt, it should also
consider Egypt’s current status of e-learning readiness and any unique
characteristics that differentiate Egypt from any other countries. The aim of
the strategy is to provide guidelines on what is needed to be done to improve
e-learning adoption in higher education in Egypt. As the learner is the main
focus of the learning process, the strategy concentrates on how to enable e-
learning adoption through addressing the issues and barriers that learners
face when trying to engage in e-learning in Egyptian universities. Therefore,
the strategy might be described as being a learner –centered or learner-
oriented strategy.
The aim of this strategy is to assist and encourage e-learning adoption
and implementation in higher education in Egypt.

13
1.7.3 Research Contribution
Throughout the review of available literature, it appeared that there is
very little, if any, academic research into e-learning development in Egypt,
which might make this research a valuable addition to the field of e-learning
development in Egypt.
There are few papers which discuss e-learning in Egypt but none of
these reviewed have discussed e-learning development or what the barriers
are to the take-up of e-learning. The research findings revealed some of the
issues that might be affecting the development of e-learning in Egypt.
The research explored some of the factors affecting e-learning
development in Egypt. Moreover, it identifies the factors relative strength in
affecting E-learning adoption and development in HE in Egypt.
This research addresses an issue which is believed critical, and would
provide a guide as to how Higher education in Egypt can engage more
efficiently and effectively in e-learning (through the thesis strategy) and
overcome the barriers that stand in the way of e-learning development.
1.8 Structure of the Thesis
• Chapter 2 Literature Review 1 (What is E-Learning)
This Chapter discusses e-learning definition and the development
stages that this definition went through. It also discusses the development
of technology used in the learning context and how the adoption of new
technologies occurs.

14
• Chapter 3 Literature Review 2 (Factors Affecting E-Learning Development)
This Chapter includes a review of several literature resources that
discussed various factors that deemed to be affecting the development of
e-learning. It also includes the derivation of a framework of factors which
may affect the successful implementation of e-learning.
• Chapter 4 Literature Review 3 (Egypt’s E-Readiness)
This Chapter includes a review of Egypt current status of readiness to
engage e-learning in terms of the five categories of factors included in the
e-learning development framework developed in Chapter 4. It also
includes the modification made to the framework to account for Egypt
status found based on the literature review conducted in this Chapter.
• Chapter 5 Research Methodology
This Chapter focuses on the research methods used in achieving the
research goals. It give an overview on which research approaches were
followed and why. It also covers the sample used in the research, it
illustrated how the research tools were chosen and why, it also illustrates
the design and construction of the research tools and the structure of the
survey conducted.
• Chapter 6 Research Results
This Chapter covers the results of the studies conducting in the survey
including the interview and questionnaire pilot study results, and the
interview and questionnaire main studies. It also includes the methods
used in analyzing the survey data and the conclusions reached based on
these analyses.

15
• Chapter 7 Research Strategy
This Chapter covers the structure of the strategy proposed by the
research and how this strategy has been evaluated.
1.9 Summary
In this introductory Chapter a brief overview has been given of what is
meant by e-learning. It also discussed why e-learning might be needed in
Egypt; why there is a need for a strategy that helps improving e-learning
adoption in higher education in Egypt; the current status of Egypt’s e-
readiness. This Chapter also demonstrated the focus of the research; the
research questions; research aims and objectives; research contribution; and
outlined the thesis structure.
In the next Chapter, a literature review was conducted including a
discussion of the definition of e-learning and how this definition has
developed; the opportunities and limitations offered by e-learning; the
adoption and development of e-learning.

16
Chapter 2: What is e-learning?

17
2. Literature Review 1 (What is e-learning?)
2.1 Introduction
In the previous Chapter and introduction was given of why e-learning
might be needed in Egypt, it also gave a brief overview of Egypt e-readiness
and some of the projects currently undertaken to adopt e-learning. The
introduction Chapter also illustrated the focus of the research and the
questions which should be asked in order to achieve the research aims and
goals.
In order to be able to explore the factors that might be slowing Egypt’s
successful adoption of e-learning, it is important to understand clearly what
is meant by e-learning and how it develops. The review of literature
conducted in this research included three stages:
1st. A deep review of what is e-learning and how new technology
innovations might be adopted.
2nd.A review of the factors which might be affecting the development of
e-learning.
3rd. A deep review of Egypt’s current status of electronic readiness .
In this Chapter the first literature review was conducted focusing on what
is meant by e-learning and how the definition of e-learning developed so far.
It also discusses the opportunities and limitations offered through e-learning;
e-learning in Higher Education and how higher education students can
benefit from e-learning.

18
This Chapter also relates two of the most common models that
discussed technology innovation adoption and what stages do societies go
through before the adoption of a new technological innovation happens.
It’s argued that the power of societies is highly affected by its stock of
knowledge and how effectively does it use this knowledge in order to create
new knowledge.
Ruttenbur et al (2000) say that “keeping up with new information and
knowing how to use it are “mission critical” activities to businesses and
individuals alike in a market where competition is no longer characterized by
the big beating up the small, but rather by the fast running past the slow”.
Ruttenbur et al (2000, p.10)
They define training and education as: “giving people the information
and skills they need to compete effectively in the marketplace”. Ruttenbur et
al (2000, p.10). They argue that many traditional learning methods are not
suitable for today’s fast growing knowledge driven economies.
Ruttenbur et al (2000) emphasize on the idea that education and training
institutions need to understand this definition of training and education in
order to be able to provide ways of qualifying individuals with enough skills
to cope with today’s society.
They describe the idea of e-learning as ”the use of networked
technology that will make the learning revolution possible” Ruttenbur et al
(2000, p.10).
They argue that e-learning will play a critical role in changing the way
we work and live.

19
There might be a common agreement with their belief due to the
flexibility that e-learning provides for learners which makes learning
accessible to anyone, anytime and anywhere. Adding to this that e-learning
true power will arise when it is effectively used to bring the right information
to the right people at the right time.
This positive view of e-learning by Ruttenbur et al (2000) suggests that
e-learning offers a wide range of opportunities that need exploring. The next
sections provide a discussion of what is e-learning and what it offers.
2.2 What is E-Learning?
As mentioned earlier in Chapter 1, E-learning stands for electronic
learning which is an approach of delivering education using computers and
communication technologies, such technologies might include but not
limited to: the internet, CD-ROMs, Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs), Mobile
phones and any electronic device that can be used to deliver education or
training.
Electronic learning play different roles:
• Facilitate Learning
E-learning software and virtual learning environments (VLEs) can be
used to support learning by facilitating communication between students,
students and tutors. It is also used to provide an easy tool to develop
academic discussions and blogs as well as submitting assignments and
receive feedback.

20
• Blended learning
Blended learning means that the process of learning is implemented
using multiple approaches, where the learner interact directly with his tutor
(face to face teaching) and also through different kinds of technologies to
facilitate and support learning process.
Heinze and Procter (2004) define Blended Learning as:
“The effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of
teaching and styles of learning” (Heinze and Procter, 2004, p.1)
• Online Learning
Online learning mainly means that all learning activities are implemented
entirely online, it might be over the internet or over a local area network
(LAN); it also might be delivered via different means like websites or VLEs.
E-learning depends mainly on electronic devices like computers, PDAs
and mobile phones powered by 3G technology (Mobile Learning), and the
use of networks and communication technologies like wireless networks and
GPRS (General Pocket Radio Service) to connect students together with
their peers and/or with their tutors.
E-learning plays multi-level roles in the process of learning. For example:
e-learning could be used for self learning or to support learning on campus.
In the last two decades e-learning has become an important support
tool for traditional learning methods, if not an alternative, as it offers several
qualities which are not achievable in the traditional methods like flexibility,

21
low cost (for student), more diversified, instructionally designed contents
and easy access for more number of people.
Neuhauser (2002) reported in his study on the effectiveness of online
learning that 95% of the online learners included in his research sample felt
that e-learning is as effective as traditional learning, if not more (Neuhauser,
2002). This finding tends to suggest that e-learning has become more
acceptable as a learning tool in the minds and perceptions of learners. After
all, it has allowed learners to save money and acquire their knowledge and
skills online at their own pace and in their own time, which helped working
or busy students to get their degrees more conveniently.
2.2.1 Definition of E-Learning
Boezerooij (2006) argues that it is difficult to find a commonly accepted
definition of e-learning. Raising the same point, Dublin (2003) and Oblinger
& Hawkins (2005) claim that there is no definition accepted by all
researchers. Dublin states that one of the myths about e-Learning is that
“everybody knows what you mean when you talk about e-Learning:
however, the term e-Learning means different things to different people”
(Dublin, 2003, p.2)
Zemsky and Massy (2004) raised the same point saying that “data are
lacking because e-learning is still a concept in search of consistent
definition” (Zemsky and Massy, 2004, p.11).
Zemsky and Massy (2004) propose that e-learning is defined through
three broad domains:

22
1. e-learning as Distance Education
They assume that in people’s perception of the term e-learning refers to
distance education or education delivered online.
2. E-learning as facilitated transactions on the web
Same writers emphasize on that the facilities offered by Learning
Management Systems (LMS) represents “the second e-learning big
triumph”. These LMS’s offer a wide set of options and communication tools
to help tutors and students interact and implement day to day activities
which help improving the learning process.
3. E-learning as electronically mediated learning
This domain focuses on the e-learning material itself rather than the
electronic system, it focuses on the design of the material starting from e-
books, CD-ROMs, Web sites to assessment and electronic tests. Despite
the different natures of all of these tools, they all are mediated electronically.
Zemsky and Massy (2004)
Despite this debate of a common definition of e-learning, some research
provided the following statements, which have been presented from the
oldest to the latest, to either define the term e-learning or to describe the
idea of e-learning.
The European Commission (2001) describes e-Learning to be “The use
of new multimedia technologies and the Internet to improve the quality of
learning by facilitating access to facilities and services as well as remote
exchanges and collaboration” (The European Commission, 2001, p.2)

23
A similar definition was provided by Joint Information Systems
Committee, (JISC, 2003), it defines e-learning as “learning facilitated and
supported through the use of information and communications technology
(ICT)”. (JISC, 2003, p.1)
Clark & Mayer (2003) suggest that e-learning is “instruction delivered on
a computer by way of CD-ROM, internet or intranet with the following
features:
• Includes content relevant to the learning objective
• Uses instructional methods such as examples and practice to help
learning
• Uses media elements such as words and pictures to deliver the content
and methods
• Builds new knowledge and skills linked to individual learning goals or to
improved organizational performance.”
Clark & Mayer (2003, p.13)
Stockley (2005) defines E-Learning as “the delivery of a learning,
training or education program by electronic means, e-learning involves the
use of a computer or electronic device (e.g. a mobile phone) to provide
training, educational or learning material” (Stockley, 2005)
Oblinger and Hawkins (2005) suggest that e-learning “has morphed from
a fully-online course to the use of technology to deliver some or all of a
course independent of fixed time and place….. Students can be residential,
commuting or at a distance” (Oblinger and Hawkins, 2005, p.14)
It can be noticed that most of these definitions focus on the means used
to provide e-learning rather than the process of learning itself. This
realization might have reduced the scope that e-learning as a concept is

24
really covering. The scope of the term e-learning in terms of delivery
involves the use of any kind of electronic equipments to present learning
content, but in terms of objectives it should involve the implementation of
learning.
Mason and Rennie (2006) included an e-learning definition produced by
Open and Distance Learning Quality Council, UK which is for the first time
distinct between the content of learning and the process. “E-Learning is the
effective learning process created by combining digitally delivered content
with (learning) support and services”. (Mason and Rennie, 2006, p14)
The previous review included some definitions of e-learning which have
been published in the recent half decade. It could be noticed that the
definition focus went through several stages:
1st. the focus was too general “just learning facilitated by technology and
internet use”
2nd. It gave more focus on content design and presentation.
3rd. More technologies were mentioned as technology developed
4th. Lastly but not finally, the focus of the definition was reoriented to give
more and more focus on the learning process itself by emphasizing
on the building and creation of effective learning rather than the
delivery means or content and presentation.
The previous 4 stages might describe the phases of maturity which the
definition went through, at each stage there might be a slight change in the
focus of the definition, however this does not mean that other areas are
neglected or ignored, but it means that another area of interest has
emerged and needs attention.

25
Considering the above discussion about different definitions of e-
learning, it could be suggested that it is difficult to reach a specific definition
of e-learning. Oblinger and Hawkins (2005) raise the same point saying that
“for some, e-learning may mean a fully online course. For others, it may
mean the use of course management systems. Discussing the strategic
implications of e-learning will be impossible if there is no common definition
of e-learning” Oblinger and Hawkins, 2005, p.15)
2.2.2 Thesis Definition of E-Learning
It might be concluded that most of the definitions mentioned focus mainly
on the mean of delivery but not with the same extent on the process of
learning. This might be because these definitions looked at e-learning in
terms of various delivery options and missed the learning process itself.
However, the definition raised by the Open and Distance Learning Quality
Council didn’t ignore the learning process, and according to the definition,
the word created in the phrase (effective learning process created...) imply
that the learning happens. In other words, all kinds of facilities and support
might be provided in an e-learning system, but the outcome might not be
learning.
From the above discussion, it might be proposed that the process of
interaction with electronically mediated education materials might not be
named as e-learning, unless the learning happens, otherwise it could be
named “e-education”.
Following this line of focus on the process of learning rather than the
mean of delivery, this thesis is adopting the definition produced by the Open

26
and Distance Learning Quality Council, UK: E-Learning is the effective
learning process created by combining digitally delivered content with
(learning) support and services” (Mason and Rennie, 2006, p14)
2.3 E-Learning Opportunities and limitations
2.3.1 Benefits of E-Learning
E-learning affords a number of benefits when compared with traditional
face to face (F2F) learning. Perhaps the most obvious benfit is flexibility as
e-learners can learn from any location at any time, making learning possible
for people who have not been able to provide time for learning in their daily
schedules.
Oblinger and Hawkins (2005) stress this point by saying that “For the
growing population of adult learners, the demands of balancing work, family,
and learning make e-learning a valuable option. For these students,
completing courses is easier to do with the flexibility of e-learning”. Oblinger
and Hawkins, 2005, p.14)
Also in addition to the flexibility provided through e-learning, cost saving
achieved for students from not having to travel away from home or spend
excess time away from work. There are other qualities offered through e-
learning. For example:
The easiness of communication through different channels helps creating
interest groups, and the members of these groups can keep a registry of
contribution of all members creating a small scale database of new ideas,
realizations, perceptions, mistakes ……etc

27
E-learning systems provide consistency as E-learning eliminates the
problems associated with different teaching styles to the same subject
(content). For example: the use of unified Learning Management Systems
(LMS) offer consistency for learners in terms of interface, navigation
menus, communication tools and other facilities used throughout the whole
course .
It can lead to increased retention and a stronger assimilation of
knowledge, this is because of many elements that are combined in e-
learning to reinforce the message, such as video, audio, quizzes,
interaction, etc. There is also the ability to revisit or replay different sections
of the content, which is a convenient and helpful option for e-learner.
It can be managed with a reasonable amount of easiness for large groups
of students, and tutors can review a student's scores and identify any areas
that need additional training.
Laurillard (2004) suggests that the learning which involves using ICT
helps student to gain different types of skills and capabilities, she provided
the following list of skills that could be gained or enhanced through e-
learning:
1. Internet access to digital versions of materials unavailable locally.
2. Internet access to search, and transactional services.
3. Interactive diagnostic or adaptive tutorials.
4. Interactive educational games.
5. Remote control access to local physical devices.
6. Personalized information and guidance for learning support.
7. Simulations or models of scientific systems.
8. Communications tools for collaboration with other students and teachers.

28
9. Tools for creativity and design.
10.Virtual reality environments for development and manipulation.
11.Data analysis, modeling or organization tools and applications.
12.Electronic devices to assist disabled learners.
Laurillard (2004, p.1)
She claims that such skills will have a multi dimensional impact on
student’s learning process
“Cultural: students are comfortable with e-learning methods, as they are
similar to the forms of information search and communications methods
they use in other parts of their lives.
Intellectual: interactive technology offers a new mode of engagement
with ideas via both material and social interactivity online.
Social: the reduction in social difference afforded by online networking
fits with the idea that students should take greater responsibility for their
own learning.
Practical: e-learning offers the ability to manage quality at scale, and
share resources across networks; its greater flexibility of provision in time
and place makes it good for widening participation”
(Laurillard , 2004, p.2)
In addition Stephenson (2001) suggests the following advantages of e-
learning:
• Easy access to and interrogation of high volumes of diverse learning resources,
including texts, pictures, library materials, learning tools and other aids to
learning selected by the instructor;
• Ease of access to other materials from other sources, including non-educational
sources.
• Ease of access to experts, inside and external to the institution.
• Interaction in various modes: teacher-student, student-student, student self
learning materials.
• Interaction in various time dimensions: in real time (synchronous) or over a
period (asynchronous);

29
• Access to a range of personal support: by email with tutor and mentors, or
through peer group discussions.
• Ease of navigation to sources and persons within and outside the learning
course or materials.
• Logging or tracking of activities for personal records, sharing or assessment.
• Feedback loops, either from teachers, peers and others or from within the
materials themselves through progress checking, quizzes and online
assessment.
• Linkage to other media such as sound, video and TV.
• Ease of access to simulations of dangerous or complex activities for learning
purposes.
• Global connectivity and collaboration opportunities;
• Flexibility of access from different locations.
(Stephenson, 2001, p.1)
O’Neill et al (2004) concluded that e-learning represents an important
tool for meeting the growing demand for education worldwide. They
mentioned that Goddard (1998) argues that the demand for higher
education is expanding exponentially throughout the world and by 2025 as
many as 150 million people will be seeking Higher Education”. (O’Neill et al,
2004, p.314)
The critical role that e-learning plays in this context is providing access
to higher education for more people and contribute in overcoming the
challenges of growing number of learners year after year.
2.3.2 E-learning limitations
Isolation Issue
E-learning is just like any tool, it features benefits as well as limitations,
O’Neill et al (2004) believe that the lack of interaction is an important issue,

30
they quote that Cooper (1999) remarks that “electronic contact cannot
sustain the qualities and multi-dimensionality of kind of tutor-student
relationship that real learning seems to require” (Cooper, 1999, p.26)
They emphasize on the same concept by pointing out a suggestion
raised by Bourner and Flowers (1997) that in order to involve technological
developments in HE learning, it is important to increase the scale of human
contact with this technology supported learning context. (O’Neill et al, 2004)
Stelzer and Vogelzangs (2000) produced interesting results from their
analysis of distance learners’ feelings and behavior. They categorized the
situation of isolation into two types: Being alone in terms of physical
existence and feeling alone in terms of psychological mental set. The
following is a summary of their suggestions about isolation and its effect on
motivation.
They suggest that this isolation and its consequent emotions have a
direct effect on learner motivation, and categorized this effect into 7 sub-
categories:
• Attitudes: the learner needs to build a positive attitude towards the learning
situation s/he is experiencing, and this cannot be implemented unless s/he
gets positive support from the tutor.
• Needs: the learner needs in such context is difficult to express, even though
different communication tools are available for him/her.
• Stimulation: the distance learner is more vulnerable to distraction than the
traditional learner, the design and flow of electronic material should be
interesting enough to gain an ongoing attention from the learner.

31
• Affect: distance learner emotions are affected by the isolation situation,
therefore the tutor should put efforts into encouraging the learner and raise
his motivation through raising the success expectancy and self esteem.
• Competence and reinforcement: the learner needs to feel competent and
to be rewarded for his/her performance.
• Arousal: has two extremes boredom and high arousal, both have negative
effect on the learning process, as the first one may result in disengagement
and the second to anxiety. The continuity of effective learning is highly
related to this feeling, and the best case is to maintain a moderate level of
learner arousal through the whole learning process.
• Intrinsic motivation: it is important to keep challenging the learner within
reasonable amount to keep them engaged and enthusiastic.
Based on: (Stelzer and Vogelzangs, 2000)
Considering the above effects of isolation and studying alone, it can be
assured that e-learning systems developers and tutors are extremely
challenged to consider all of the above factors in constructing e-learning
systems. It is not easy to account for all of these aspects when designing,
implementing and operate e-learning systems.
On the other hand, e-learning requires higher level of students’ self-
motivation than traditional classroom learning as well as high degree of
readiness to self-dependency.
Going further by these conclusion, Schwartzman (2001) argues that
students who constantly use technology in their learning might have
difficulties in building their social skills and behaviors. He believes that the

32
development of these personality features is far more important than
knowing how to deal with modern technologies. O’Donoghue et al (2004)
This opinion might contradict with the suggestion made by Laurillard
(2004) which has been mention previously that students who use
technologies in their learning gain different useful skills and capabilities.
However, Laurillard (2004) might has been focusing on ICT skills, while
Schwartzman (2001) focuses social skills and behaviors.
Leading to a relevant point, O’Donoghue et al (2004) claim that “there is
still insufficient evidence to ascertain whether students perform better in an
online environment in comparison with the conventional classroom”
(O’Donoghue et al, 2004, p.66). However they added that online learning
might be preferred by shy students who feel more comfortable studying
alone.( O’Donoghue et al, 2004)
This lack of evidence claimed by O’Donoghue et al (2004) might
contradict with the results of research carried out by Global Vision Media
(GVM, 2006). However, it is worth mentioning that these results might be
affected by the commercial nature of the organization as it develop and sell
e-learning solutions. The results of this research include the following:
• The average marks of e-learners are similar if not better than classroom
learners.
• A higher percentage of e-learners made (A)s while a greater number of
classroom students made (B)s
• The percentage of e-learner who made (W, Withdrawn) was at low
percentage in contradiction to the common expectancy.
• 95% of e-learners evaluated the online courses to be effective or even
more effective than traditional classroom. GVM (2006)

33
Access to Technology
It might be noticed that through the above discussion most research
opinions assume that students have access to technology and already have
the skills needed to deal with it.
Unfortunately this is not reality, the access to internet enabled PCs is not
available to every student, although most universities provide PCs for
students to use, but this is only while being on-campus. Distance learners
whom cannot be on campus are required to have internet enabled PCs to
carry on their studies, for some of them it is not easy to have the money
needed to buy a PC and subscribe in internet access service.
Technology related Skills
O’Donoghue et al (2004) refer to what Uhlig (2002) suggests that not
only the availability of technology is the challenge; the skills needed to deal
with this technology might represent a barrier to access e-learning. Students
are required to know how to use keyboard, mouse, and navigate through
different applications and screens…etc (Uhlig, 2002) (O’Donoghue et al,
2004).
2.4 E-Learning in Higher Education
Since e-learning became recognized as an additional mean which can be
used to access learning, many higher education institutions adopted e-
learning to meet the rapid growing demand on higher education (O’Neill et al,
2004).
Agreeing on the same point Sharpe and Benfield (2005) suggest that
“Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in both the uptake of e-learning

34
within higher education and research into its impact for institutions,
practitioners and students’ (Sharpe and Benfield, 2005, p.1)
Recently almost all higher education institutions in the UK operate at least
one virtual learning environment (Sharpe and Benfield, 2005). In a report
produced by Lepori et al (2003) which reviewed the introduction of e-learning
in 24 universities across Europe, they found that the majority of these
universities adopt e-learning mainly to support students, and the courses
offered on campus, which consequently should improve the quality of
education provided for students.
The same authors believe that, despite the rapid spread of e-learning in
both distance education and on campus, it has not yet changed the
institutions fundamentally, yet it still integrating with the organizational and
educational systems of higher education institutions. “Universities adopt ICT
not in accordance with a general (normative) strategy that they should
reconvert to e-learning, but rather with a more pragmatic approach:
technology is introduced to respond to clearly identifiable needs or
opportunities” (Lepori et al, 2003, p.82). In other words, institutions tend to
apply e-learning applications to mainly support F2F learning on-campus
rather than replacing it (Lepori et al, 2003).
The same study by Lepori et al (2003), found that 21 out of 24 universities
investigated established a centre to control and organize the activities of e-
learning, yet despite that, e-learning control seems to be quite decentralized
among the university. The study reported that 87% of universities included in
the sample declared that, the adoption of e-learning techniques was to

35
enhance the educational process, while only 13% mentioned economic
reasons like paper, printing, telephone calls….etc.
It might be concluded that in higher education institutions, e-learning acts
more as a support tool than a separate tool to access learning. Although
there are plenty of universities offer high quality e-learning courses, it seems
that the focus of e-learning implementation is more on learning support than
provide learning independently.
2.5 Higher Education Students and E-Learning
“Digital Natives” (Prensky, 2001), “Net Generation” (Negroponte, 1996) all
are names which relate to the current younger generation of students.
Prensky (2001) describes this generation as “the first generation to grow
up with new technologies” (Prensky, 2001, p1). He proposes that this context
affects the ways which students think and process information.
Andone et al (2007) suggest that digital students have very specific needs
and expectations in their learning environment, suggesting that “They will
enjoy enhanced interactivity and connectivity with others, and expect to learn
in groups which might be physical or virtual” (Andone et al, 2007, pp, 1-2).
Emphasizing on the same point Woods (2002) suggests that students “rely
on the Net to help them with completing their schoolwork. They use it for
research, collaboration with other students, and as a resource for information
passed on to them by other students or teachers” (Woods, 2002, p1).
Woods (2002) reported that students ask for professional development
and technical assistance from their tutors, they want development programs
to improve their keyboard use skills and internet literacy. He added that

36
“Students also use it as a virtual guidance counselor and as a way to store
important school-related materials”. (Woods, 2002, p1).
A study carried out by Jones (2002) reported that 20% of today’s college
students have begun to deal with computers between 5 and 8 years of age,
and between the ages of 16 to 18 they all have begun to use computers.
86% of students included in the research sample usually go online for various
activities and 72% of them check their email inboxes on daily basis, the
majority of the research sample 85% own computers and 77% at least have
2 e-mail accounts. (Jones, 2002)
It could be concluded from the previous discussion that today’s university
students are more digitally ready than any previous generation, and this
might lead us to conclude that their readiness for using e-learning is quite
high, which should encourage higher education institution to go more deeply
in engaging e-learning in the educational system.
2.6 E-Learning Development
2.6.1 Technology Development
The development of e-learning may not be discussed without mentioning
the development of educational technology as both are related to each other.
Technology has rapidly developed in the recent 3 decades with the
invention Personal Computers (PCs), established Networks and the wide use
of the World Wide Web and ICT in general. Laurillard (2004) suggests that
the development of technology has been a “historical accident driven by
curiosity, the market, luck, and politics” (Laurillard, 2004, p.7) not by the

37
needs of learners. She stated that “Learning technologies have been
developing haphazardly, and a little too rapidly for those of us who wish to
turn them to advantage in learning” (Ibid).
Laurillard (2004) presents the following Table showing some of the main
developments in ICT and delivery technologies over the last three decades
including what was used before and what is used now.
Table 2 Learning assistive technology development over 3 decades
Date New technology
Old technology
equivalent
Learning support function
1970’s
Interactive computers Writing
New medium for articulating and
engaging with ideas
Local hard drives and
floppy discs
Paper Local storage with the user
1980’s
WIMP interfaces
Contents, indexes,
page numbers
Devices for ease of access to
content
Internet Printing
Mass production and distribution of
content
Multimedia
Photography, sound,
and film
Elaborated forms of content
presentation
1990’s
Worldwide Web Libraries Wide access to extensive content
Laptops Published books
Personal portable access to the
medium
Email Postal services
Mass delivery of communications
messages
Search engines
Bibliographic
services
Easier access to extensive content
Broadband
Broadcasting,
telephones
Choice of elaborated content and
immediacy of communication
2000’s
3G Mobiles Paperbacks
Low-cost access to elaborate
content
Blogs Pamphlets Personal mass publishing
Laurillard (2004, p.8)
Linking the above Table with the discussion of today’s students’ features,
we can understand the transition of change in learning approaches. Downes
(2006) stated that “learners absorb information quickly, in images and video
as well as text, from multiple sources simultaneously. They operate at "twitch

38
speed," expecting instant responses and feedback. They prefer random "on-
demand" access to media, expect to be in constant communication with their
friends. He suggests that these features affect the way learning should be
presented to learners. He added that ‘In learning, these trends are manifest
in what is sometimes called "learner-centered" or "student-centered" design.
This is more than just adapting for different learning styles or allowing the
user to change the font size and background color; it is the placing of the
control of learning itself into the hands of the learner”.
This change in both learner features and learning technologies emerged
new challenges to be met and also opportunities learners could benefit from.
2.6.2 E-Learning Adoption
The process of e-learning engagement includes several phases and is
typically affected by different factors. Elgort (2005) for example, suggests that
“Adoption of e-learning in the university context is influenced by a number of
factors, including organizational, socio-cultural, intra- and interpersonal
factors, to mention a few” (Elgort, 2005, p1).
Raising a similar conclusion, Ndubisi (2004) argue that ”Attitude has an
important direct influence on intention to adopt e-learning. Attitude is
anchored to perceived usefulness, ease of use, and system’s security”
(Ndubisi, 2004, p.260).
This might indicate that e-learning adoption process is not an easy
mission, certain factors should be provided like: positive attitude in the
institutions, perceived usefulness of adopting such system, perceived
easiness of use of the system. Other factors should be considered before

39
adopting e-learning, for example, Institutional readiness, student and staff
readiness in terms of technology use and access, culture prospective.
As E-learning adoption process might be considered as a diffusion of
innovation, several models have been developed to illustrate diffusion of
innovation and how new technology innovations are adopted.
The next section discusses two of the common models suggested to
describe and illustrate the process of diffusion of innovation. It includes
Rogers’ Model (1995) of diffusion of Innovation and Davis’ (1986)
Technology acceptance model.
Rogers’ Model
Rogers’ model (1995) of diffusion of innovation suggests that adoption
process could be broke into 5 stages:
Rogers (1995) suggests that diffusion of innovation go through 5 stages, it
begin with the awareness, the knowledge of existence of such innovation,
some might be interested in exploring this innovation and others may not, for
whom are interested, they begin to evaluate the innovation in terms of
usefulness, ease of use, ease of access.. Etc, if the comparison between the
advantages and disadvantages of the innovation was in favor of its
advantages, the user will then consider making a trial, if the trial was
successful the innovation then reach the ultimate stage and start to be
Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption
Figure 1 The stages of adoption according to Rogers' Model (1995)

40
deployed by users, and at this point the adoption of the innovation should be
implemented.
Furthermore as some research have agreed (e.g.: Elgort (2005) , Rogers’
model (1995) of diffusion of innovation categorizes innovation adopters into 5
categories, he suggests that these categories can be represented by a bell
shape (normal) distribution curve as follows (see Figure 2):
• Innovators representing 2.5%
(The group who used the new innovation for the first time)
• Early adopters 13.5%
(Early supporters and users)
• Early majority 34%
(Majority resulted by the increase in early adopters)
• Late majority 34%
(Majority who adopt the innovation but late that early majority)
• Laggards 16%
(Percentage of community resisting change)
It could be suggested that the diffusion of e-learning can be related to
Rogers’ model of diffusion of innovation as follows:
1. The rise of e-learning as we perceive it now was mainly initiated by the
section of learning communities who support using new technologies in
learning. (Innovators)
Figure 2 Roger’s (1995) Adopter’s of new innovation distribution curve

41
2. The main contribution that World Wide Web made was the easy access
communication, before WWW the communications between two people
from different countries was difficult and expensive, the internet overcame
these problems and provided a powerful tool for all kinds of communication
at a very reasonable cost. The development of the WWW has made a
dramatic jump in the technology based learning and increased the
possibilities of new facilities and support tools to be emerged, which
consequently resulted in developing new learning technologies like for
example: education web sites, Journals. The group who firstly used this
new tool and deploy it in learning might represent the (Early adopters of e-
learning).
3. The development of new technologies was noticeably rapid, in just few
years and nearly with the beginning of the new millennium, the internet
capacity of data transfer was doubled, and with it new learning possibilities
arise. Learning Management Systems were developed, Virtual Laboratories
were constructed, all kinds of communication became available at a touch
of a button. This rapid diffusion of technology made it easier to access
learning and trust learning through computers. Besides, the flexibility
offered by this approach of learning allowed larger number of people to
access learning, and Universities in the developed countries begun to
engage e-learning as a tool to support learning (Early majority)
4. Due to early majority trials, e-learning became recognized as a valid tool to
support learning, and the culture of e-learning became more acceptable to

42
larger number of learners who have been informed with the benefits of e-
learning by their peers (early majority) who used it before them. (Late
majority)
5. Reluctance is a normal case in any innovation, and it might grow and also
might disappear, it all depends on how the innovation is powerful enough to
convince more and more people. (Laggards)
This application of Rogers’ Model of diffusion of innovation on the
adoption of e-learning might be a natural description of the adoption phases
of e-learning. However, some might argue that this application is not
entirely correct as e-learning adoption is affected by various factors and
variables.
Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1986)
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was initiated by Davis
(1986). The goal of TAM is “to provide an explanation of the determinants
of computer acceptance that is general, capable of explaining user
behavior across a broad range of end-user computing technologies and
user populations, while at the same time being both parsimonious and
theoretically justified” (Davis, 1986, p.985)
The basis on which the TAM was developed were derived from
Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) Theory of Reasoned Action.
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) assumes that “a person’s
behavior is determined by their attitude towards the outcome of that
behavior and by the opinions of the person's social environment” (Fishbein
& Ajzen, 1980, p.62)

43
The TRA suggests that there are 2 factors affecting the person’s
intention to conduct certain behavior: Attitude toward the behavior and
subjective norm. see Figure (3)
Based on the TRA, Davis et al (1986) suggests that the attitudes toward
accepting technology and using are affected by two sets of factors:
1. Perceived Usefulness (PU), which he defined as “the degree to which a
person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her
job performance” (Davis, 1989)
2. Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Which was defined as” the degree to
which a person believes that using a particular system would be free
from effort” (Ibid)
The following Figure (4) represents the TAM according to Davis (1989):
Attitude toward
the behavior
(Personal
Beliefs)
Subjective
norm (other
individuals’
evaluation of
the behavior)
Intention Behavior
Figure 3 The Theory of Reasoned Action based on Fishbein & Ajzen (1980)

44
These two models suggest that the adoption of a new technology is not a
straight forward process, it is highly related with and affected by several
factors which influence the success and efficacy of this adoption like for
example: attitude, acceptance and perception.
This discussion of how new technology innovations are adopted shades
light on the challenges that might face the adoption of e-learning in any
community. It was important to clearly understand the processes within these
adoption stages in order to be able to create and suggest the targeted
strategy to improve e-learning adoption in higher education in Egypt.
2.7 Summary
In this Chapter, the first literature review was conducted focusing on
what is meant by e-learning and the different definitions raised by authors to
describe it. It also discussed how the definition of e-learning developed over
the last decade and what changes had happened to the focus of that
definition.
Perceived
Usefulness
Perceived
Ease of Use
Attitude
toward using
Behavioral
Intentions
(BI)
Actual Use
Figure 4 The Technology Acceptance Model based on Davis et al (1989)

45
This Chapter also discussed the opportunities and limitations offered
by e-learning; how the higher education institutions are engaging e-learning
and how students could be benefit from this engagement.
This Chapter also covered the stages within the process of adoption of
new technology innovations through discussing two of the common models of
diffusion of innovation.
In the next Chapter, the 2nd
literature review was conducting focusing
on the development of e-learning and what factors are involved in this
development. The 2nd
review of literature covered 6 studies that discussed
the development of e-learning and concluded a framework of critical factors
affecting e-learning development.

46
Chapter 3: Factors Affecting
e-learning Development

47
3. Literature Review 2 (Factors Affecting e-learning
Development)
3.1. Introduction
In the previous Chapter, a review of literature was conducted including
different definitions of e-learning and how these definitions developed; an
insight look into the opportunities and limitations offered by e-learning and
how this relates to higher education institutions and students.
The review in Chapter 2 also included a discussion of how educational
technology developed and the stages within the process of adopting new
technology innovations. It gave an overview on two of the common models of
diffusion of innovation and applied one of them to the adoption of e-learning.
In this Chapter the 2nd
literature review was conducted focusing on the
development of e-learning and the factors involved in this development. At
the end of the Chapter, a framework of critical factors affecting e-learning
development was developed.
Currently, there is a global trend toward using and developing e-
learning. However, research concerned with the development of e-learning
suggests that there is a group of factors, standards and requirements need
consideration in order to build, operate, maintain and develop e-learning
systems.
As the thesis focus is on e-learning development in higher education
in Egypt, and as there is evidence that Egypt still in a fundamental stage of e-
learning adoption, it was important to explore the factors affecting e-learning
development as suggested by authors from more e-learning adoption
experienced countries. The purpose of this explorative review was to get

48
informed with guidelines and paths of where and how to investigate e-
learning development factors in Egypt. It helped in developing a framework of
what and where to search for factors which could enable a more effective e-
learning implementation in higher education in Egypt.
The following section includes a review of 6 literature resources from
different countries which discussed the factors affecting e-learning
development. The review presents an overview of each study and what
factors were suggested through it. At the end, an analytical review was
conducted to check the occurrences of different factors among the 6 studies
reviewed. This methodology was followed to benefit from the experiences of
countries that have had an ahead start in e-learning adoption and
development.
3.2. Factors Affecting E-Learning Development: Review of
Literature
E-learning occurs in a wide range of teaching activities of one form or
another. Hence, to create an effective open, flexible and distributed learning
environment for diverse learners, we must explore key factors encompassing
various dimensions of e-learning environment (Khan 2005).
Relating to this, some of the literature on the effectiveness of e-
learning programs refer to these factors using the term “critical success
factors” (CSF). This term (Critical Success Factors) originated in the field of
management, implementation and evaluation. It refers to the personal and
individual factors that are essential if an organization is to be successful in
achieving its goals.

49
CSFs are defined as those areas that an organization must get right
or it will not succeed (New Zealand Council for Educational Research-
NCER, 2004).
CSF approaches seek to identify a small number of factors that are in
the “must get right” category.
Rockart (1982) developed a CSF methodology to define the crucial
elements required for the successful performance of an information
specialist. This methodology involves a three-stage process involving focus
groups or interviews with the target audience. The three stages are:
Stage 1
Identification of goals and objectives of the
organization/department/unit/individual.
Stage 2
Identification of the CSFs required to achieve the
goals and objectives.
Stage 3
Determination of how achievement would be
measured.
Based on (Rockart,1982)
CSFs can occur at a range of levels, such as organizational,
departmental or unit, or at the level of an individual’s role. The strength of the
CSF approach lies in focusing attention on the tasks and activities which
must be right if goals and objectives are to be achieved (Bullen, 1995).
Adopting this process for educational settings might take the following
form:

A Strategy To Improve E-Learning Adoption, Implementation And Development In Higher Education In Egypt

A Strategy To Improve E-Learning Adoption, Implementation And Development In Higher Education In Egypt

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