This document discusses using action research as an approach for student work-based learning projects. It provides an overview of action research and how it can be applied to such projects. The key points are: - Action research involves tight coupling between research and action, with the researcher actively involved in planning and introducing changes. It aims to both solve problems and generate new knowledge. - The action research process follows a cycle of diagnosing issues, planning action, taking action, and evaluating the effects of that action to inform further cycles. - For student projects, action research provides a framework for linking theory and practice, research design, reflection, and reporting outcomes. - An important part of action research is

1. Action research: an
approach to student
work based learning
Jennifer Rowley
Introduction
Both part-time and full-time business and
management students, at both undergraduate
and postgraduate level, can find themselves in
a situation in which they need to undertake
research in an organization. This might be an
organization in which they are employed, or
one in which they have been placed or have
contacts that can act as the basis of a work
based project. Typically the academic
expectation is that such projects, which often
form a major element of a student's studies,
offer an opportunity for the student to apply
theory to practice. The objective is to enhance
student learning through:
. Enhancing their understanding, analysis
and critical evaluation of theory, through
the insights offered by application.
. Encouraging students to use the concepts
and models from theory as a lens through
which they can make sense of the
organization.
. Preparing a dissertation or report that
demonstrates students' analytical abilities
in linking theory and practice.
Not surprisingly, when students encounter
this process for the first time, even if they have
been prepared for the experience, the process
is challenging and they need support. In
addition to any support that they may need in
arranging the project or placement,
negotiating their role, and dealing with access
and politics, they are often unclear about the
intended outcomes of the exercise as
articulated above, and, even if they are clear
about these outcomes, they need guidance in
attaining them. Specifically, they may struggle
with:
. the process of applying theoretical models
and concepts to the working
environment;
. any research design that is necessary in
order to collect, analyze and interpret
data;
. reflecting on their own learning, and as
appropriate any organizational change of
development processes;
. structuring the report of the activities or
experience that they, and the organization
in which they have worked, have
encountered.
Action research is a methodology that
encourages students to acquire the habit of
researcher in the workplace and provides
The author
Jennifer Rowley is Head at the School of Management
and Social Sciences, Edge Hill College of Higher
Education, Ormskirk, UK.
Keywords
Action research, Action learning, Workplace learning,
Experiential learning
Abstract
This article seeks to draw out some of the principles and
concepts of action research in order to better inform
student work based learning. After an introduction that
explains the application of action research to work based
learning, the article explores the essence of action
research. The action research cycle and the notion of meta
learning are introduced. A section on taking action
research forward addresses pragmatic issues such as:
journal keeping, managing role duality, and managing
politics and ethics. Finally suggestions are offered for
writing an action research dissertation or work based
project report.
Electronic access
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is
available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
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http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0040-0912.htm
131
Education + Training
Volume 45 . Number 3 . 2003 . pp. 131-138
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910310470993

2. them with an approach that teaches them to
critically evaluate their practice. It can offer a
structured framework for work based learning
projects in undergraduate and Masters
programmes in business and management
and related areas. Research in Australia on
evaluating the application of action research
as an action learning tool in the field of social
and community services demonstrates that
action research as an action learning
educational model is an effective inclusive
model of education management that
promotes a chain reaction in which learning
takes place at multiple levels (Krogh, 2001).
Henry et al. (2001) also promote the use of
action learning and action research in work
based learning in Australia's vocational
education and training sector.
In action research the researcher becomes
actively involved in planning and introducing
some change in policy or direction, then using
their research experience to monitor and
possibly evaluate the effect, and thereby to
learn from the process. Action research
provides a paradigm which supports linking
theory and practice, research design,
reflection, and distillation or reporting of
research outcomes. It is particularly attractive
and beneficial for part-time students, since
through action research they may find an
avenue that allows them to synergise study
and work in an efficient and effective manner.
However, to lift their research, action and
analysis from the descriptive and parochial to
the critical and transferable requires an
awareness of some of the key tenets of action
research.
This article argues that an awareness of and
an engagement with the concept of action
research, and the associated concept of action
learning can be used to generate a clearer view
of the learning and research processes
associated with organizationally based
projects, that are elements of study
programmes. Although, not all such projects
fall within the stricter meaning of the terms
``action learning'' and ``action research'', these
interventions should always lead to learning
and knowledge creation that is of benefit to
both the individual and the organization. This
article, then, seeks to explain in an accessible
form some of the principles and practicalities
of action research. Although the article takes
action research as its focus, it is designed to
enhance the understanding of both tutors and
students as to the way in which action
research can be used to structure the
processes associated with work based
learning.
Defining action research
Action research differs from other research
approaches in that it assumes a tight coupling
between research and action. In traditional
research, research findings and theories may
serve as a basis for recommendations for
future action. With action research, action
and research proceed in parallel. In addition,
action research depends upon a collaborative
problem solving relationship between the
researcher and the client which aims to both
solve a problem, and to generate new
knowledge. One of the early thinkers in action
research was Kurt Lewin, who described
action research as a cyclical process of
diagnosing a change situation or a problem,
planning, gathering data, taking action, and
then fact-finding about the results of that
action in order to plan and take further action
(Dickens and Watkins, 1999; Lewin, 1973).
Key aspects of Gummesson's (2000)
characterisation of action research are:
(1) Action researchers take action.
(2) Action research always involves the two
goals of:
. solving the problem (the role of the
consultant); and
. making a contribution to knowledge
(the role of the researcher).
(3) Action research requires interaction and
cooperation between researchers and the
client personnel.
(4) Action research can include all types of
data gathering methods.
Another perspective is offered by Reason and
Marshall (1987) who argue that all good
research is designed for three audiences:
(1) ``for them'' in that it produces
generalizable ideas;
(2) ``for us'' in that it provides insight into
current situations and solutions to
management problems;
(3) ``for me'' in that it fuels the researcher's
learning.
Lippitt (1979) in distinguishing the three
different meanings for action research in
which the researcher plays different roles,
starts to identify the way in which action
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3. research concepts interface with work based
learning. These include:
(1) Diagnostic research, in which the
researcher gathers the data and presents
them to those who are in a position to
take some action.
(2) In the second model, the researcher
collects data from participants of a system
and provides feedback about the findings
of the data as an intervention, to influence
ongoing action.
(3) The third definition of action research is
seen as the most pure form; here the
researcher participates in a social system
and is involved in a data collection
process about themselves and they use
the data that they have gathered about
themselves to inform some action.
Other authors have defined a range of other
types of action research, such as participatory
action research, action science, action
inquiry, and appreciative inquiry. However,
Lippitt's three categories are sufficient to
demonstrate that in action research the
researcher can have different types of
engagement with the community being
studied and associated action processes. Most
work based learning projects would fit one of
these categories, although they may not fit
into the third category, which might be
described as the purest form of action
research.
These distinctions between different types
of action research start to indicate the
differing roles for the researcher in action and
other research, as well as the cyclical nature of
action research, as represented in the action
research cycle. These different
characterisations of action research also start
to suggest the contexts in which action
research is applicable and possible. Kurt
Lewin's early contributions linked action
research with organizational change
processes. The action researcher, in taking
action, is seeking to change something. Action
researchers are not interested in the status
quo, although change processes associated
with action research interventions may
generate insights into the research context
that are relevant to existing organizational
cultures, politics and practices. This means
that the nature of action research
interventions that can be embedded as part of
a course of study are restricted by a number of
factors:
. The time slot in which the dissertation
must be completed, and the match with
organizational timescales.
. The authority for change that is vested in
the student.
. The access that the student can obtain
and sustain.
. The intended learning outcomes, in
terms of skills and knowledge, of the
programme of study.
The action research cycle
The action research cycle as proposed by
Coghlan and Brannick (2001) and shown in
Figure 1, involves four main stages, with one
pre-stage. These stages are:
(1) Pre-stage: context and purpose ± this step
is focused on the establishment of the
context for the action research
intervention, with particular reference to
external factors and internal forces that
suggest change is necessary.
(2) Diagnosing is concerned with the
identification of the issues, and therefore,
the focus for action. In keeping with the
spirit of action research, diagnosis must
be a collaborative venture, so that the
process commences with a shared
understanding of the basis for subsequent
action.
(3) Planning action is the stage that is
concerned with planning the
intervention; like diagnosis, planning
should be collaborative.
(4) Taking action is the step during which
plans are implemented and interventions
enacted.
(5) Evaluating action is the step that offers
the opportunity to focus on the outcomes
of the intervention. Outcomes are
evaluated in terms of whether the desired
outcome has been achieved, but also in
order to assess whether:
Figure 1 The action research cycle
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4. . the original diagnosis was correct;
and
. the action taken was appropriate.
The review in this stage leads into the
diagnosis stage of the next cycle of action
research. A linked series of action
research cycles is described as a ``spiral''.
Meta learning
Action research projects have two cycles
operating in parallel. One is the cycle
described above and summarized in Figure 1,
as it relates to the project. The second cycle is
a reflection cycle, which is an action research
cycle about the action research cycle. The key
learning from action research derives from the
inquiry into the four main steps of the action
research process. This reflection cycle embeds
the learning processes of the action research
cycle. The reflection generates learning about
learning, or meta learning. This meta cycle
should be the focus of the dissertation or
project report. In the sense that the
dissertation records the research process, the
work for the dissertation is an inquiry into the
project, not the project itself. The
dissertation, therefore, needs to critique the
project in terms of the issues, strategies,
processes and underlying assumptions and
perspectives, and to demonstrate the process
of meta learning.
Meta learning is an art, and as such needs
practice and development. Coghlan's (1997)
model of the experiential learning cycle can be
a useful guide to the process of meta learning.
As shown in Figure 2, this process involves
experiencing, reflecting, interpreting and
taking action. These are the processes that
should form the core of an action learning
dissertation. Writing about these processes is
not easy, and, for some dissertations at
undergraduate level and Masters level,
students may choose a simpler route of
reporting on the stages in the action research
cycle, and then reflecting overall on each
cycle. They may be able to record outcomes
not just from one action research
intervention, but from a spiral of action
research interventions, and this may provide
insights into organizational behavior and
change management.
For those intrepid explorers who are
sufficiently ambitious to attempt to make full
use of the experiential learning cycle, the four
stages cover:
(1) Experiencing. Experiencing involves
engagement on a number of different
levels; these include cognitive processes
(thinking and understanding), feeling and
emotions, and body awareness. The
researcher learns by attending to
their experiences, and being aware of
what it is like to engage in diagnosis, plan
action, take action, and evaluate
action.
(2) Reflecting. Reflecting is inquiring into
experiences. It involves asking the what,
why and how questions such as: Why do I
feel like this? What doesn't make sense?
(3) Interpreting. Interpreting is when the
researcher tries to make sense of
experience. Theories, concepts, and
models proposed by previous researchers
and authors can assist in this process.
(4) Taking action. Finally, as a result of
reflecting and interpreting the researcher
takes action; this action will create
circumstances in which new experiences
can be savored.
These four steps make up the learning. The
researcher needs to develop skills at each
activity. In other words, they need to be able
to experience, stand back and ask questions,
be able to conceptualize answers to questions,
and be able to take risks, and experiment in
similar new situations.
This section has started to touch on some of
the complex theory associated with action
research. The next section discusses more
practical issues, and makes some
straightforward suggestions about taking
action research forward.
Figure 2 The experiential learning cycle
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5. Taking action research forward
This section discusses key processes that
assist the researcher to progress an action
research project: journal keeping, managing
role duality, managing politics and ethics.
Journal keeping
A journal is a note of observations and
experience. Just making notes in the journal
encourages reflection, and develops insights
into both cognitive and behavioral elements of
the situation. Keeping a journal regularly
imposes a discipline and a structure on the
research process and ensures that events and
responses to those events are captured when
they happen. Over a period of time, regular
journal keeping will enhance the researcher's
ability to identify key events and interpret
responses. Retrospective comparison of
journal entries helps the researcher to identify
patterns, and trends, and to anticipate
responses, events and experiences. Journals
are essentially chronological records, but it
can be difficult to know what to record. The
four stages of Kolb's (1984) learning cycle:
experience, reflection, conceptualization and
experimentation, or the four stages of the
experiential learning cycle can be useful as
prompts.
Managing role duality
An action researcher working inside an
organization has two roles: that of employee,
and that of researcher. There will always be
some tension between these two roles, and
this will need to be managed, but the extent of
this conflict will vary depending on the nature
of the action research, and the researcher's
organizational role. For example, a researcher
who normally has a role as a change agent or
consultant, may find that the two roles are
more congruent, than might a manager who
has a concern to maintain long term
relationships and the engage effectively with
the political dynamics in an organization. On
another level, an organizational role may
demand total involvement and active
commitment, whilst the research role typically
requires a more detached, analytical,
objective and neutral observer stance. Whilst
the ability to develop these two sides to your
engagement with any situation may be
extremely valuable, this is not easy, and the
researcher may at times feel that they are
drifting somewhere uncomfortably between
the two roles and not achieving either fully.
Both the role of researcher and that of
employee involve relationships with people.
These people may also sense the inherent role
ambiguity of the researcher. They might be
willing to provide a certain level of access to
data or their feelings about a situation to the
researcher as researcher, but would respond
differently to the researcher as manager or
colleague. In addition, the researcher's
employee role in the organization will
determine friendships, colleagues and
networks that are easy to access, and those
that may be more difficult. Access at one level
typically leads to lack of access at other levels.
For example, whilst a senior manager may
have good access down through the hierarchy
to many networks, and data repositories, their
position may exclude them from many
informal and grapevine networks. Unless
someone is giving them a special opportunity,
action researchers have to define their
intervention or other research from the
position that they are in the organization; it is
important to reflect on the impact that this
may have on the research, and indeed to
manage the effect that this might have on
perceptions and processes of the researcher
within the organization. Managed properly
this situation can open up opportunities for
new work roles; managed poorly intrusion can
be resented, feathers can be ruffled, and the
researcher's organizational reputation can be
damaged.
In discussing managing the roles of CEO
and researcher, one author implicitly reflects
on the challenges in managing time pressures.
It has been suggested that the following are
key to success with action research:
. Choosing a time when you are on top of
your job.
. Personal effective organization, including
time management, and an ability to create
periods of uninterrupted study.
. Excellent secretarial support.
. The ability to balance working through
others as a manager, and the solitary work
of a researcher.
. A strong management team.
Managing politics
Gaining access, networks, using data,
representing that data in a dissertation are all
intensely political acts. The researcher will be
making public statements, which reflect their
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6. analysis of the organization. They are also
likely to be recording the actions, words,
plans and attitudes of others in the
organization. This is against a backdrop in
which it is important to acknowledge that
organizations are intensely political. Whilst
the formal life of an organization is presented
in its formal documentation, the informal life
is an amalgamation of the experiences of its
members, and embraces its cultures, norms,
traditions, and power dynamics. As part of the
organization's culture the researcher has
insights into the organization that can inform
the research, but surfacing the informal life of
the organization through action research may
pose a number of threats to various members
of the organization, including the researcher.
Being politically astute and responsive
involves understanding and managing key
relationships. Greiner and Schein (1988)
identify a number of key relationships,
assuming that the researcher is working
within one group in the organization, in which
they have a sponsor who supports the action
research. The relationships that need to be
managed include:
. The relationship with the sponsor, who
provides permission and primary access
to undertake the research; they may be a
line manager who is supporting the
opportunity to study towards a degree or
higher degree. This person can be an
important advocate, and needs to be kept
informed and engaged.
. The relationship that the sponsor has
with other managers, which is likely to be
influenced by the culture of the
organization, may also be crucial in
providing access and opportunity.
. The relationship between managers
within an organization, perhaps across
departments will influence the
opportunities for working across
departments. Making contacts with
significant people in other departments,
or at other points in the hierarchy is often
important. Different subcultures in
different organizations may facilitate or
act as a barrier to research.
. The relationship between managers and
senior executives may be important,
because senior executives can undermine
or block the research.
. The relationship between managers and
senior managers and other organizational
members, including trade union groups,
may impact on the response to and
engagement with action research.
. The relationship between the manager as
action researcher and their direct
subordinates who may be party to the
change project that is at the heart of the
action research. Levels of openness will
depend upon the researcher's behavior,
quality of relationships and management
style.
. The relationship with customers and
clients, if they are part of the action
research processes.
. The relationship with peers, some of
whom may be friends. Peers need to be
informed and have a sufficient basis of
knowledge to feel confident that their
position in the organization is not being
compromised; if an action researcher is
reflecting on the actions and words of
peers, the peers and friends need to share
an understanding of the way in which
they are being used to inform the
research.
Not all of these relationships are equally
important for all action research, but this list
does serve to alert the action researcher to
potential political arenas in which the
research, either during its process, or at its
conclusion and dissemination, may have an
impact. Kakabadse (1984) suggests some
guidelines for managing the political
processes associated with action research:
. Identify the stakeholders, or those who
have an interest in the proposed project.
. Work on the comfort zones, in other
words work on those behaviours, values
and ideas which a person can accept,
tolerate or manage, and do not threaten
these.
. Network widely across the organization,
acknowledging, but not being restrained
by hierarchies.
. Make deals, around mutual support.
. Withhold and withdraw if necessary.
Although openness and transparency is
generally recommended there are times
when too much openness can fuel conflict
and tension. Similarly it is important to
know when to seek to resolve conflict and
when to stand back and allow others to
work things through.
. Have fall back strategies, if things do not
go as planned.
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7. Ethical issues
Ethics and politics of research are closely
intertwined. Ethics is about permissions, both
at individual level, and organizational and
group level. This may include:
. negotiating access with individuals, and
their managers;
. promising confidentiality of information,
identity and data;
. acknowledging and respecting the right
not to participate in the research;
. keeping stakeholders informed;
. seeking permission to use organizational
databases and documents;
. negotiating with those concerned about
the representation and publications of
their work and any other personal
information or views;
. maintaining the researcher's own
intellectual property rights.
Writing an action research dissertation
or work based project
It important to think about how action
research might be drawn together into a
dissertation or work based experience project
report early in the process. Action research
may generate a lot of data and it can be
difficult to decide what to put in and what to
leave out. There is the additional problem of
representing the project or context for the
action research as well as the reflection that
occurs on that research. Ultimately, the
dissertation needs to communicate:
. the new knowledge has been generated
for the academic community and the
organization;
. the learning has been achieved, by the
organization, but most importantly by the
researcher;
. how we know that this knowledge and
learning is ``valid'' or ``transferable''.
To interpret this into a structure, a typical
action research dissertation may include the
following:
Introduction
The introduction outlines the purpose and
rationale of the research.
Literature review
The literature review summarizes the
literature to which the action research project
is seeking to contribute; this may perhaps be
the literature of change management,
organizational development, team working or
knowledge management, depending on the
nature of the project.
Methodology
The methodology describes the reasons for
using action research and how action research
has been applied. With action research the
process may start with a great deal of
fuzziness about questions and methodology,
made all the more difficult by the fact that
each action research project is unique.
Fuzziness of both questions and methodology
should reduce as the project continues
through different spirals, but clarity may be
much enhanced retrospectively, or in other
words you may not really be able to articulate
what you are doing until it is finished.
Methodology needs to explain:
. the use of action research cycles;
. how data and insights have been drawn
from different sources/people to test
assumptions and develop interpretations.
Story and outcomes
This section tells the story of the action
research. It needs to be distinguished from the
next section, which provides an analysis of the
story, and includes reflection and links to the
literature. This section is hard to organize,
and Coghlan and Brannick (2001) describe
the writing process as an action research
project in itself. It is important not to
underestimate the significance of this part of
the action research process, and to allow
plenty of time for its completion. Probably
starting with a chronological account of
events, the task is to integrate perspectives
from different sources, and at the same time
to reference those sources. This may include
quotes from interviews, small extracts from
documents, details of structures of training
sessions, meeting agendas, and analysis of the
language used by participants. Again, because
all action research projects are different, there
is no recipe. The researcher is seeking to
generate as objective a story as possible, and
to demonstrate the authority on which the
story is based.
Discussion
Whilst sense making must be evident in the
previous chapter, this chapter must focus on
drawing out the understanding generated by
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8. the research project, both for the academic
community and for the organization. Links to
existing literature are expected, with concepts
and models used both to aid in interpretation,
and to identify the nature of the additional
insights or knowledge that is offered by the
project.
Researcher's learning
An important element of the action research
project is the learning achieved by the action
research. This is likely to include learning
about the action research process, learning
about the organization, learning about the
links between theory and practice, and
learning about themselves both as a
researcher and an employee. The nature of
action research may also develop important
management skills such as those appropriate
to consultancy, and networking across
different levels within the hierarchy of an
organization.
Conclusion
Action research has much to recommend it. It
promotes a habit of experiential learning that
couples theory and practice, and encourages a
research perspective to everyday experiences
in organizations. Nevertheless, when faced
with the ideas of conducting action research,
or more modestly reflecting upon the work
place, in order to maximize the benefits from
work based learning, the student often lacks
clear guidelines on the process. This article,
by drawing on the discipline of action
research, offers an approach that can inform
research design, reflection, and the writing of
a dissertation or project report. Each
experiential or work based learning
experience, or action research project is
unique, so there will be no simple recipe for a
successful action research project. In
addition, students should not be surprised if
they find these processes difficult, and if such
a project feels like a voyage into the unknown,
but they can be reassured, that the voyage will
have many interesting twists and turns, and
the more thoroughly they engage with the
voyage the richer will be the rewards.
In the spirit of action research, this article as
a contribution to perspectives on work based
learning, is intended to promote action and
reflection. Different models of action
research, and the application of the concept
with different levels of complexity will be
appropriate for students on programmes
operating at different levels and in different
modes. There is further work to do on the way
in which the concept of action research can be
applied in these different contexts. A further
area for reflection and investigation is the use
of action research as a structure for group
work based learning experiences. In such
contexts, it will be necessary to design
processes in which the stages of the action
research cycle are shared. In addition, meta
learning might be advanced at either
individual or group level, and reports may be
written jointly, or individually. An element of
the learning will relate to the group processes
and the way in which these are managed.
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138
Action research: an approach to student work based learning
Jennifer Rowley
Education + Training
Volume 45 . Number 3 . 2003 . 131-138