Intro-to-Philosophy-Module-2.pdf

LESSON 2:
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

LET’S PONDER
Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1. The sun is the center of the solar system.
2. Asia is the largest continent in the world.
3. God made the world is seven days.
4. Man has the right to life, liberty, and pursuit
of happiness.

LET’S PONDER
5. China’s continued presence in the Spratlys
is a violation of international law.
6. A person must always consider the
interests of his or her family before his or
her own happiness.

LET’S PONDER
7. Citizens have the right to take up arms and
overthrow an oppressive government.
8. The President has done very little to uphold
democracy and look after the interests of
the Filipino people.

1. The sun is the center of the solar system.
2. Asia is the largest continent in the world.
3. God made the world is seven days.
4. Man has the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.
5. China’s continued presence in the Spratlys is a violation of
international law.
6. A person must always consider the interests of his or her family
before his or her own happiness.
7. Citizens have the right to take up arms and overthrow an
oppressive government.
8. The President has done very little to uphold democracy and look
after the interests of the Filipino people.

At the end of the lesson, the students will be
able to:
1. Define the role of philosophy in determining
truth and knowledge;
2. Distinguish opinion from truth;
3. Analyze situations that show the difference
between opinion and truth;
4. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead
to wisdom and truth; and
5. Evaluate opinions.

In today’s society, we
encounter a lot of information
from various sources such as
the media and our interactions
with friends, family, and
members of the community.
Most of the information we
receive is helpful, but some
may mislead us or may even
be utterly false. These kinds of
information often have a
negative impact on our lives.
For instance, many people
have been misled by claims of
“miracle drugs” which were
eventually proven to have no
significant effects on health or
may have harmful effects for
some people. In addition,
“news” on the Internet and
social media sites often relies
on sensational headlines
which often twist and distort
the truth.

These often result in heated
online debates and feuds. In
some cases, innocent
individuals become targets
of harassment because of
false claims and
announcements from our
peers, family members,
figures of authority, the
government, and media.
How do we know if they are
telling the truth?
Philosophers often
grapple with the concept of
truth. Truth lies at the heart of
any inquiry. Knowledge must
be truthful to gain validity and
acceptance. However, the
concept of truth remains a
highly debated and much-
discussed topic among
philosophers. Philosophers
consider truth as a kind of
quality or value.

For example, when we
answer a “true or false test”,
we judge if the statements
we read are true or false.
This means that the
statements may have truth
or may not have truth.
Statements about the world
or reality are called
propositions and these
propositions may or may not
carry truth.
Propositions are usually
stated as short statements or
sentences.

Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify
knowledge, since it is through knowing that we are
able to determine what is true.
Knowledge is the clear awareness and
understanding of something. It is the product of
questions that allow for clear answers and provided
by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and
beliefs that we know to be true.

Let’s explore your knowledge
by completing the following
statements:
I know that…
I know why…
I know how…

These statements correspond to one important
aspect of knowledge – that is based on reality.
This simply means that what we know is what is
observable or evident in the real world.
For example, we say that “I know that fish live
in water” because fish do live in water.
Propositions or statements which are observed
to be real or truthful are considered facts.

There are statements, however, that are not evidently
or immediately known to be true.
For example, we can say that “I know that my school
is the best school in the city”. This statement,
however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply
not immediately evident. This statement is a claim,
and further examination is required to establish
whether it is true or false. You may know why reading
is a better activity than playing basketball, but the
truth of your statement will be contested by other
people.

Truthful statements, therefore, can be
considered as based on facts. Science
considers truth as something observable and
empirical. This means that any claim can be
proven by verification and experimentation.
Philosophy has various views which can help
us tackle the concepts of knowing the truth, and
arrive at a reasonable assessment if a
statement, idea, or event is believable.

How do we know if
something is true?

There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers
emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for
determining truth.
But what kind of belief is truthful?
How do we know that what we believe is true?

Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by
looking at the nature of knowledge and how we know what we
know. We assume that everything we know about this world is true.
But philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge
doubted everything that there is to know about themselves and the
world. In doing so, they were able to better understand the means
by which humans gain knowledge and determine the truth about
everything. It is said that there are instances when we have to
unlearn, something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers
questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of
knowing in order to understand themselves and the world much
better.

Let’s embark on our own investigation on the
nature of knowledge. Let’s start by stating the very
obvious things we know about ourselves.
I am alive.
A have a body.
I can breathe.

Do you believe that these statements apply to you?
But remember, as philosophers, we do not assume that
every statement is true. Doubt has a very important
purpose in philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to
help determine truth. This means that every statement,
claim, evidence, and experience is scrutinized and
analyzed. Nothing is taken as true, there is sufficient
reason and evidence to prove that it is indeed true. Let’s
assume, therefore, that the truthfulness of these
statements have yet to be determined.

Using doubt as our starting point, let’s revise the
statements to make them easier to scrutinize and
analyse. Let’s rewrite the statements as questions so
we can review and examine them further.
Am I alive?
Do I have a body?
Can I breathe?

Now, how will you figure out the answers to these
questions? The obvious answer would be to examine
yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that
you have a body, and you can breathe. Do you have
a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat, do you have
hands, arms, legs, and a head? Try to take a deep
breath, then exhale. Were you able to do it? If you
answered “yes” to all these questions, then you can
conclude with certainty that the previous statements
about yourself are true.

I am alive!
I have a body!
I can breathe!
This is one perspective on truth – that a belief is
true if it can be justified or proven through the use
of one’s senses.

Now, let’s tackle another statement and see how
philosophy can help us determine if it is true.
I am a Filipino.
Now let’s apply systematic doubt and revise the
statement for further examination.
Am I a Filipino?

Are our senses sufficient means to determine
the truth of the statement? If not, what other means
can we use to determine its truth?
We can use facts to guide us in our search for
truth. If you look up the word “Filipino” in a
dictionary, you come across the following
definitions:

Filipino (noun)
1. a native of the Philippines Islands
2. A citizen of the Republic of the Philippines
3. the Tagalog-based official language of the
Republic of the Philippines

Which of these definitions applies to you?
Definitions 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to
you, since they have refer to Filipinos as persons.
Based on the definitions outlined, you can say that
you and everyone in your community are Filipinos
because 1) you, your classmates, your teachers, your
family members, and other people in your
community were born in the Philippines and are
thus natives; and

2) you are all citizens of the Republic of the
Philippines, which means you were born of Filipino
parents and are recognized as citizens by the
government.
Definition 3 cannot be used in this case since it
refers to the Filipino language and not to Filipino as
persons.

This is another basis for determining truth: a belief
or statement is true if it is based on facts. We
applied this perspective when we looked up the
meaning of the word Filipino in the dictionary. We
assumed that what is stated in the definition is the
actual meaning of the word.

Are you now convinced that you can call yourself a
Filipino? If not, what additional proof should you
look for to prove, without a doubt, that you are a
Filipino? You can try doing the following:
1. Ask your parents and other relatives.
2. Look for official documents that prove you
are a Filipino.

Let us imagine, however, that in your search to
figure out if you are a Filipino, you find out the
following:
 All your parents and relatives agree that you are
Filipino.
 Your birth certificate proves that you were born in
the Philippines.

With these facts in mind, you can now be confident
in calling yourself a true Filipino. You can now
proudly say:

let us explore the following statements about
what you can do:
I can play basketball.
I can fry an egg.
I understand the lesson.

Let’s revise the statements so we can analyse
them further.
Can I play basketball?
Can I fry an egg?
Do I understand the lesson?

Looking back at the approaches we applied in the
previous statements, you realize that using your
senses and experiences, acquiring supporting
facts, or getting other people’s views are
insufficient to fully determine the truth of these
three statements. You will have to combine
various approaches in order to arrive at a correct
judgment.

It is true that in your mind you may have figured
out the answers to these questions. For this
exercise, however, let us exhaust all means to
determine the truth. For instance, how will you
really prove that you can play basketball? The
obvious answer would be to actually play it.
Imagine if one of your friends brags that he/she can
successfully shoot the ball from the half-court line.
You will not take your friend’s word for it and you
will be satisfied only when he/she actually shoots
the ball from the half-court line.

The same true with cooking. To prove that you
know how to fry an egg, you will have to go to the
kitchen and fry an egg. Some would argue that the
proof is not only in the act but also in the product.
This means that you should not only show that you
can fry an egg but that you can make delicious fried
eggs. Determining truth in this case requires a
person to prove a statement through an action. The
statements, therefore, are only true if they can be
applied in real life.

The final statement also requires proof through
action. The best means to determine whether you
have understood the lesson is to take a test and get
a good score. Philosophers also believe that claims
and beliefs should also be subjected to tests to
determine truth. Any claim, therefore, should be
subjected to tests to prove their validity.

All these approaches can help you determine
whether the statements are true or applicable in
your case. The inquiry would result in any of the
following realizations:
I can play basketball.
I cannot play basketball.

I can fry an egg.
I cannot fry an egg.
I understand the lesson.
I do not understand the lesson.

Discovering truths about oneself is merely the first
step toward exploring knowledge and truth. As we
encounter varied ideas and knowledge in our
everyday interactions, philosophy can help us
determine which information we encounter is
believable and acceptable, and which needs to be
examined more closely to determine its truth.

Apply systematic doubt in analysing
the following statements.
Describe how you will determine
their truthfulness.
1. Our classroom is tidy.
2. Our school is big.
3. I am a good student.
4. We live in a safe community.

How can philosophy
guide us in
distinguishing truth
from opinion?

Look at the following statements and determine which one
states fact or opinion.
1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to school.
2. Living near the school is better because we don’t have to
spend much for transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last piece of
pizza pie and did not share it with me.
5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect to his knees and
placed him in handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman arrested the
suspect is an example of the brutality that characterizes
our police force.

1.It takes me 30 minutes to walk
from my home to school.
3. My sister ate the last piece of
pizza pie.
5. The policeman firmly pushed
the suspect to his knees and
placed him in handcuffs.
2. Living near the school is better
because we don’t have to spend
much for transportation.
4. My sister is a selfish person
because she ate the last piece of
pizza pie and did not share it with
me.
6. The aggressive manner by
which the policeman arrested the
suspect is an example of the
brutality that characterizes our
police force.

A conclusion is a judgement based on certain facts.
The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not be
disputed but the conclusion itself could still be contested or
questioned. Meanwhile, beliefs are statements that express
convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. If a
person states “I believe that God put me on this earth to spread
His message of love”, we will find it difficult to prove his or her
statements as truthful if we rely merely on facts. To judge the
truthfulness of belief, we must also consider things such as
person’s experiences and views.

We should also be aware when statements go beyond the facts and
provide additional ideas and information. For instance, statement 4
provides details or explanation in order to support the idea “my
sister is selfish”. Explanations are statements that assume the claim
to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true. Statement
4 asks the readers to simply accept the fact that “the sister is selfish”.
Arguments, meanwhile, are a series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is
truthful. Arguments are made with the assumption that the truth
of the claim or opinion is still to be determined. You often
encounter arguments in a formal debate, where participants explain
two sides of a proposition, and judgment regarding the truthfulness
of the proposition is made after hearing the arguments of both
sides.

Logic is the branch of Philosophy that focuses on the analysis of
arguments. Arguments are given great importance since these
are used to convey ideas that influence the thinking, actions,
and behaviour of people. It can lead people to either right or
wrong decision and action. Thus we need to be careful when we
listen to arguments since not all arguments are truthful. In
addition, not all arguments have the same merit because some
are better presented and substantiated than others. It is also
possible that claims and arguments are given by persons who
have ill intentions and wish to twist or manipulate facts to suit
their own purposes. As we analyse what is presented to us, we
must always keep in mind the standards of critical thinking.

Arguments often take the form of statements that are either
claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they seem
reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on
faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies.
Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making
the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her
argument.

When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal
views of the person presenting it. Biases are not necessarily
errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which
affect the views of people. Bias cannot be avoided in any
discussion or debate. What is important is that the people
engaging in the discussion are aware of their personal biases and
have an open but critical attitude toward other views which
conflict with their own.

 Philosophy is concerned with determining truth since it lies at the
heart of any inquiry.
 The discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge
where philosophers explore the nature of knowledge and the ways of
knowing.
 Facts are statements that are observed to be real of truthful. Claims
are statements that require further examination to determine their
truthfulness.
 There are various philosophical views regarding truth. Philosophers
consider something as truthful if it corresponds with an observable
fact or reality.
 Something is also true if it can be justified through experience and
the use of one’s senses. Another view believes that truth is a product
of agreement or consensus. Another perspective considers a claim as
truthful if it can be tested and verified.

Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts
but also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain
situations. Opinions may advance a belief about certain things or
provide explanations.
Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to
convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.
Some arguments may contain fallacies. This means that they are
products of faulty reasoning. We must be aware of the various
kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity of arguments.
Opinions are often influenced by bias. This means that a person
having the opinion may have views and tendencies that affect the
way he or she sees reality. We must be aware of bias so that we
can objectively and critically examine points of view.

Have you experienced a
situation where what you
believed to be true turned out
to be untrue? How did this
experiences affect you?

Intro-to-Philosophy-Module-2.pdf

Intro-to-Philosophy-Module-2.pdf

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