slides-chapter-2.pdf

The Physical Layer
Chapter 2
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
• Theoretical Basis for Data Communications
• Guided Transmission Media
• Wireless Transmission
• Communication Satellites
• Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
• Public Switched Telephone Network
• Mobile Telephone System
• Cable Television
Revised: February 2018

The Physical Layer
Foundation on which other layers build
• Properties of wires, fiber, wireless
limit what the network can do
Key problem is to send (digital) bits
using only (analog) signals
• This is called modulation
Physical
Link
Network
Transport
Application

Physical Layer Issues
• Media: wires, fiber, satellites, radio
• Signal propagation: bandwidth, attenuation, noise
• Modulation: how bits are represented as voltage signals
• Fundamental limits: Nyquist, Shannon

Abstract Model of a Link
• Bit rate: bits/sec depends on the channel’s bandwidth
• Delay: how long does it take a bit to get to the end?
• Error rate: what is the probability of a bit flipping?
Sender Receiver
Channel: bit rate, delay, error rate

Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Bits have a physical size on the channel!
• Storage capacity of a channel is: bit rate x delay
• Example:
• 100 Mbps 5000-km fiber, delay = 50 msec
• In 50 msec we can pump out 5 million bits
• So the fiber can store 5 million bits in 5000 km
• 1 km holds 1000 bits so a bit is 1 meter long
• At 200 Mbps, a bit is 0.5 m long

Signal Propagation over a Wire
• The signal has a finite propagation speed (2/3 c)
• The signal is attenuated per km
• Frequencies above a cutoff are strongly reduced
• Noise is added to the signal

Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
Communication rates have fundamental limits
• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Maximum data rate of a channel

Sine wave
g(t) = A sin (2 π f t + ϕ)
• A is the amplitude = how strong the signal is
• f is the frequency (cycles/sec or Hz) = how fast it changes in time
Time
A
(Volts)
Period = 1/f
A
(Volts)
A

Fourier Analysis
A time-varying periodic signal can be represented as a
series of frequency components (harmonics):
a, b weights of harmonics
Signal over time
=

Bandwidth
• At the signal level, bandwidth is cutoff frequency (HZ)
• For data transmission it is bits/sec

Bandwidth-Limited Signals
Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal
8 harmonics
Lost!
Bandwidth
4 harmonics
Lost!
2 harmonics
Lost!

Maximum Data Rate of a Channel - Nyquist
Nyquist’s theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth (B)
and number of signal levels (V) on a noiseless channel:
Max. data rate = 2B log2V bits/sec
• Examples
− 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), binary signals = 6000 bps
− 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), 4-level signals = 12,000 bps
− 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), 16-level signals = 48,000 bps
• Nyquist is a property of mathematics that relate
bandwidth to symbols/sec and bits/sec

Maximum Data Rate of a Channel - Shannon
Max. data rate = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec
How fast signal
can change
How many levels
can be seen
Shannon's theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth
(B) and signal strength (S) relative to the noise (N):
• Signal to noise is signal power to noise power:
- Expressed as log10 signal power/noise power
- S/N of 10 is written as 10 dB

Example of Shannon’s limit
• DSL line of 1 MHz
• Suppose S/N = 50 dB (S = 100,000)
• Data rate = 106 log2 (100,001) bit/sec
• Data rate = 16.6 Mbps
• To go higher, you have to cheat:
- Fiber to the curb
- Bonding: Use two or more pairs
- Dynamic spectrum mgmt (basically, reduce noise)

Nyquist vs. Shannon
• Nyquist:
- For noiseless channel
- Depends on number signal levels per symbol
• Shannon
- For noisy channel
- Depends on S/N ratio, not bits/symbol

Guided Transmission (Wires & Fiber)
Media have different properties, hence performance
• Reality check
− Physical transport of storage media
• Wires:
− Twisted pairs
− Coaxial cable
− Power lines
• Fiber cables

Transporting Physical Media
• AST 1990: Never underestimate the bandwidth
of a station wagon full of tapes hurtling down
the highway.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
• Ultrium 7 tape = 6 TB, 400 cm2 (costs €100)
• Typical van has capacity of 7 x 106 cm2
• Van holds 17,500 tapes holding 105 x 1015 bytes
• One person can drive NYC to LA in 5 days = 4 x 105 s
• This is a bandwidth of 2 Tbps or 2000 Gbps

Amazon’s Snowmobile Service
• When I first wrote that, I meant it as a joke
• No longer. Enter Amazon’s Snowmobile service
• It is for companies to put their data in the cloud
• The Truck holds 100 PB (100,000 terabytes) on HDs

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs
Wires – Twisted Pair
Very common; used in LANs, telephone lines
• Twists reduce radiated signal (interference)
• UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair

Kinds of Wire
• STP = Shielded Twisted Pair
• UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair
- Cat 3: Home telephone lines
- Cat 5: Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
- Cat 5e: Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
- Cat 6: 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gps) up to 100 m
- Cat 6A: Better quality Cat 6
- Cat 7: Includes shielding (not in common use)

Connectors
RJ11 – 4 wires RJ45 – 8 wires
Modern buildings are wired for RJ45 but there are adaptors

Link Terminology
Simplex link
• Only one fixed direction at all times; not common
Half-duplex link
• Both directions, but not at the same time
• e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel
Full-duplex link
• Used for transmission in both directions at once
• e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction

Wires – Coaxial Cable (“Co-ax”)
Also common. Better shielding and more bandwidth for
longer distances and higher rates than twisted pair.

Wires – Power Lines
Household electrical wiring is another example of wires
• Convenient to use, but poor for sending data

Fiber Optics (1)
Three examples of a light ray from inside a
silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary
at different angles.

Fiber Cables (2)
Common for high rates and long distances
• Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home
• Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass
Light source
(LED, laser) Photodetector
Light trapped by
total internal reflection

Fiber Cables (3)
Fiber has enormous bandwidth (THz) and tiny signal
loss – hence high rates over long distances

Fiber Cables (3)
Single-mode
• Core so narrow (10um) light can’t
even bounce around
• Used with lasers for long distances,
e.g., 100km
Multi-mode
• Other main type of fiber
• Light can bounce (50um core)
• Used with LEDs for cheaper, shorter
distance links
Fibers in a cable

TAT-14 TransAtlantic Cable
• Fiber cable lies on the ocean floor (8000 m deep)
• Ring structure
• Two pairs of fibers used plus two pairs for backup
• Theoretical capacity is 3 Tbps
• Cables are not well protected and there is no backup

Comparison of the properties of wires and fiber:
Wire vs. Fiber
Property Wires Fiber
Distance Short (100s of m) Long (tens of km)
Bandwidth Moderate Very High
Cost Inexpensive Less cheap
Convenience Easy to use Less easy
Security Easy to tap Hard to tap

Wireless Transmission
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Light Transmission
• Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)
Different bands have different uses:
− Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight
− Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G;
Microwave
Networking focus

To manage interference, spectrum is carefully divided,
and its use regulated and licensed, e.g., sold at auction.
Source: NTIA Office of Spectrum Management, 2003
3 GHz 30 GHz
3 GHz
300 MHz
WiFi (ISM bands)
Part of the US frequency allocations

Fortunately, there are also unlicensed (“ISM”) bands:
− Free for use at low power; devices manage interference
− Widely used for networking; WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.
802.11
b/g/n
802.11a/g/n/ac

Radio Waves
• Radio waves have a frequency, f, in Hz
• They have a wavelength, λ in meters
• λf = c in vacuum
• Speed of radio/light = 1 foot/nsec
• For microwaves, megahertz x meters = 300
− 300 MHz waves are 1 meter long
− 1 GHz waves are 30 cm long
− 2.4 GHz waves are 12.5 cm long

Radio Transmission
In the HF band, radio waves bounce off
the ionosphere.
In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio
waves follow the curvature of the earth
Radio signals penetrate buildings well and propagate for
long distances with path loss

Microwave Transmission
Microwaves have much bandwidth and are widely used
indoors (WiFi) and outdoors (3G, satellites)
• Signal is attenuated/reflected by everyday objects
• Strength varies with mobility due multipath fading, etc.

Light Transmission
Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links
• Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
• Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors

Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber
Wireless:
+ Easy and inexpensive to deploy
+ Naturally supports mobility
+ Naturally supports broadcast
− Transmissions interfere and must be managed
− Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly
Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
− Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
− Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast

Communication Satellites
Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution
and anywhere/anytime communications
• Kinds of Satellites
• Geostationary (GEO) Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
• Satellites vs. Fiber

Kinds of Satellites
Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
• Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO),
and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)
Sats needed for
global coverage

Geostationary Satellites (1)
GEO satellites orbit 36,000 km above a fixed location
• VSAT (computers) can communicate with the help of a hub
• Up and down time is about 250 msec
• Big problem for voice
VSAT
GEO satellite

Geostationary Satellites (2)
The principal satellite bands

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
Systems such as Iridium use many low-latency satellites
for coverage and route communications via them
The 66 Iridium satellites form six
necklaces around the earth.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (2)
Relaying in space.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (3)
Relaying on the ground

Satellite vs. Fiber
Satellite:
+ Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after
satellites have been launched)
+ Can broadcast to large regions
− Limited bandwidth and interference to manage
Fiber:
+ Enormous bandwidth over long distances
− Installation can be more expensive/difficult
− Doesn’t work at sea or in remote areas

Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
Modulation schemes send bits as signals
Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users.
• Baseband Transmission
• Passband Transmission
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Code Division Multiple Access

Baseband Transmission
Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits
• NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=“1”, -1V=“0”)
• Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions
Four different line codes

Clock Recovery
To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions
• Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 um, 0? er, 0?
Data Code Data Code Data Code Data Code
0000 11110 0100 01010 1000 10010 1100 11010
0001 01001 0101 01011 1001 10011 1101 11011
0010 10100 0110 01110 1010 10110 1110 11100
0011 10101 0111 01111 1011 10111 1111 11101
Strategies:
Manchester coding, mixes clock signal in every symbol
4B/5B maps 4 data bits to 5 coded bits with 1s and 0s:
Scrambler XORs tx/rx data with pseudorandom bits

Passband Transmission (1)
Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier
signal sends bits in a (non-zero) frequency range
NRZ signal of bits
Amplitude shift keying
Frequency shift keying
Phase shift keying

BPSK
2 symbols
1 bit/symbol
QPSK
4 symbols
2 bits/symbol
QAM-16
16 symbols
4 bits/symbol
QAM-64
64 symbols
6 bits/symbol
QAM varies amplitude and phase
BPSK/QPSK varies only phase
Passband Transmission (2)
Constellation diagrams are a shorthand to capture the
amplitude and phase modulations of symbols:

Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) shares the
channel by placing users on different frequencies:
Overall FDM channel

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
• WiFi and Bluetooth change frequencies many times/sec
• Called “frequency hopping”
• Invented by sex-goddess Hedy Lamarr
• She patented it, but Navy wasn’t interested

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time division multiplexing shares a channel over time:
• Users take turns on a fixed schedule; this is not
packet switching or STDM (Statistical TDM)
• Widely used in telephone / cellular systems

Code Division Multiple Access (1)
(a) Chip sequences for four stations.
(b) Signals the sequences represent

Code Division Multiple Access (2)
(c) Six examples of transmissions.
(d) Recovery of station C’s

The Public Switched Telephone Network
• Structure of the telephone system
• Politics of telephones
• Local loop: modems, ADSL, and FttH
• Trunks and multiplexing
• Switching

Structure of the Telephone System (1)
(a) Fully interconnected network.
(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.

A hierarchical system for carrying voice calls made of:
• Local loops, mostly analog twisted pairs to houses
• Trunks, digital fiber optic links that carry many calls
• Switching offices, that move calls among trunks

Major Components
• Local loops analog twisted pairs to houses, businesses).
• Trunks (digital fiber optic links between switching offices).
• Switching offices (calls are moved from one trunk to
another)
• Core of phone system is optical & digital in Europe, US

The Politics of Telephones
There is a distinction for competition between serving a
local area (LECs) and connecting to a local area (at a POP)
to switch calls across areas (IXCs)
• Customers of a LEC can dial via any IXC they choose

Physics of Cat 3 Wiring
Bandwidth versus distance over Category 3
UTP for DSL.

Local loop (2): modems
Telephone modems send digital data over an 3.3 KHz
analog voice channel interface to the POTS
• Rates <56 kbps; early way to connect to the Internet

Local loop (1): Acoustic Couplers
• Until 1968 in U.S. and ca. 1984 in Europe, modems were
not allowed
• People could use acoustic couplers to connect terminals

Local loop (3): Digital Subscriber Lines
DSL broadband sends data over the local loop to the local
office using frequencies that are not used for POTS
• Telephone/computers
attach to the same old
phone line
• Rates vary with line
− ADSL2 up to 24 Mbps
− VDSL2 to 100 Mbps
• OFDM used to 1.1 MHz
− Most bandwidth down

Local loop (4): Fiber To The Home
FttH broadband relies on deployment of fiber optic
cables to provide high data rates customers
• One wavelength can be shared among many houses
• Fiber is passive (no amplifiers, etc.)

Pulse Code Modulation (1)
Calls are carried digitally on PSTN trunks using TDM
• A call is an 8-bit PCM sample each 125 µs (64 kbps)
• Traditional T1 carrier has 24 call channels each 125
µs (1.544 Mbps)
• Europe uses 8 bits for data: E1 at 2.048 Mbps

Pulse Code Modulation (2)
Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers

SONET/SDH (1)
• Different carriers had to interconnect
• For international calls, T3 and E3 had to be harmonized
• Need for standards above T4 and E4
• Better network management was needed

SONET/SDH (2)
SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) is the worldwide
standard for carrying digital signals on optical trunks
• Keeps 125 µs frame; base frame is 810 bytes (52Mbps)
• Payload “floats” within framing for flexibility

SONET/SDH (3)
Hierarchy at 3:1 per level is used for higher rates
• Each level also adds a small amount of framing
• Rates from 52 Mbps (STS-1) to 40 Gbps (STS-768)
SONET/SDH rate hierarchy

Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), another name
for FDM, is used to carry many signals on one fiber:

Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (1)
(a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

Timing of events in (a) circuit switching,
(b) packet switching

A comparison of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

QUEUEING DELAY
• Queueing delay for M/M/1 system: Q = 1/(1-ρ) * T
• Where ρ is the line utilization
• Examples:
- ρ = 0.01 means Q = 1.01T
- ρ = 0.5 means Q = 2T
- ρ = 0.8 means Q = 5T
Switch
Packet

Mobile Telephone System
• Generations of mobile telephone systems
• Cellular mobile telephone systems
• GSM, a 2G system
• UMTS, a 3G system
• 4G LTE
• 4G

Generations of mobile telephone systems
• 1G, analog voice
− AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) is example, deployed
from 1980s. Modulation based on FM (as in radio).
• 2G, analog voice and digital data
− GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is example,
deployed from 1990s. Modulation based on QPSK.
• 3G, digital voice and data
− UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is
example, deployed from 2000s. Modulation based on CDMA
• LTE, digital data including voice
− LTE (Long Term Evolution) is example, deployed from 2010s.
Modulation based on OFDM
• 4G based on CDMA and 802.16m (WiMax)

Cellular mobile phone systems
All based on notion of spatial regions called cells
− Each mobile uses a frequency in a cell; moves cause handoff
− Frequencies are reused across non-adjacent cells
− To support more mobiles, smaller cells can be used

2G GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications (1)
• Mobile is divided into handset and SIM card
(Subscriber Identity Module) with credentials
• Mobiles tell their HLR (Home Location Register) their
current whereabouts for incoming calls
• Cells keep track of visiting mobiles (in the Visitor LR)

2G GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications (2)
Air interface is based on FDM channels of 200 KHz
divided in an eight-slot TDM frame every 4.615 ms
• Mobile is assigned up- and down-stream slots to use
• Each slot is 148 bits long, gives rate of 27.4 kbps

2G GSM—The Global System for Mobile
Communications (3)
A portion of the GSM framing structure.

Goals for UMTS (3G)
Basic services desired
• High-quality voice transmission.
• Messaging (replacing email, fax, SMS, chat).
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, television).
• Internet access (Web surfing, incl. audio, video).

3G UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (1)
Architecture is an evolution of GSM; terminology differs
Not compatible with 2G GSM
Internet

3G UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (2)
Air interface based on CDMA over 5 MHz channels
• Rates over users <14.4 Mbps (HSPDA) per 5 MHz
• CDMA permits soft handoff (connected to both cells)
Soft
handoff

4G
• ITU defined spec in 2008, before the technology existed
• ITU can’t enforce what carriers do or call their services
• Pure IPv6 packet switching, no circuit switching
• No voice (except as VoIP)
• 1 Gbps for stationary user, 100 Mbps for moving user
• Uses carrier aggregation (multiple bands together)
• Uses OFDMA (Orthogonal Freq. Div. Mux Access)

OFDMA
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
Each channel is broadcast in parallel on different
frequency bands

Cable Television
• Internet over cable
• Spectrum allocation
• Cable modems
• ADSL vs. cable

Community Antenna Television
An early cable television system

Internet over Cable
Internet over cable reuses the cable television plant
• Data is sent on the shared cable tree from the head-
end, not on a dedicated line per subscriber (DSL)
ISP
(Internet)

Internet over Telephone System
The fixed telephone system.

Spectrum Allocation
Upstream and downstream data are allocated to
frequency channels not used for TV channels:

Cable Modems
Cable modems at customer premises implement the
physical layer of the DOCSIS standard
• QPSK/QAM is used in timeslots on frequencies that
are assigned for upstream/downstream data

Comparison of Cable and Telephone
Item Cable Internet Telephone Internet
Type of wiring Shared Dedicated
Interference from neighbors Possible Impossible
Wiring Coax CAT 3 twisted pair
Age of system Newer Very old
Max speed 400 Mbps 100 Mbps (copper)
Fiber possible? No Yes
Security Poor Good

End
Chapter 2

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